Article

Velocity- and power-load relationships in the half, parallel and full back squat

Taylor & Francis
Journal of Sports Sciences
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Abstract

This study aimed to compare the load-velocity and load-power relationships of three common variations of the squat exercise. 52 strength-trained males performed a progressive loading test up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the full (F-SQ), parallel (P-SQ) and half (H-SQ) squat, conducted in random order on separate days. Bar velocity and vertical force were measured by means of a linear velocity transducer time-synchronized with a force platform. The relative load that maximized power output (Pmax) was analyzed using three outcome measures: mean concentric (MP), mean propulsive (MPP) and peak power (PP), while also including or excluding body mass in force calculations. 1RM was significantly different between exercises. Load-velocity and load-power relationships were significantly different between the F-SQ, P-SQ and H-SQ variations. Close relationships (R² = 0.92–0.96) between load (%1RM) and bar velocity were found and they were specific for each squat variation, with faster velocities the greater the squat depth. Unlike the F-SQ and P-SQ, no sticking region was observed for the H-SQ when lifting high loads. The Pmax corresponded to a broad load range and was greatly influenced by how force output is calculated (including or excluding body mass) as well as the exact outcome variable used (MP, MPP, PP).

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... Zhang et al., 2022) when compared to traditional (percentage based) training. Moreover, there is a growing body of evidence, dating from 2010 (González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010), that examined the loadvelocity relationship in different exercises, such as the bench press (González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010), pull-up (Muñoz-López et al., 2017;Sánchez-Moreno et al., 2017), prone bench pull , shoulder press (Hernández-Belmonte et al., 2021), bent over row (Loturco et al., 2018), deadlift (Benavides-Ubric et al., 2020;Morán-Navarro et al., 2021), leg press (Conceição et al., 2016), hip thrust (de Hoyo et al., 2021) and squat (Conceição et al., 2016;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019;Sánchez-Medina et al., 2017). The majority of these studies have used a sample of male subjects, but, more recently, females have been studied as well, and data suggests that the load-velocity relationship is sex-specific, since females have different velocities for the same percentages of 1RM when compared to men (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2018;García-Ramos et al., 2021;Marques et al., 2021;Pareja-Blanco et al., 2020;Torrejón et al., 2019). ...
... This makes it possible to estimate the relative load an athlete is lifting using the velocity of a single repetition, for example, the last one of the incremental warm up sets. This agrees with many other studies that have tested this in different exercises (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2018;Benavides-Ubric et al., 2020;Conceição et al., 2016;de Hoyo et al., 2021;García-Ramos et al., 2021;González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010;Hernández-Belmonte et al., 2021;Loturco et al., 2018;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019;Morán-Navarro et al., 2021;Muñoz-López et al., 2017;Sánchez-Medina et al., 2014Sánchez-Moreno et al., 2017). However, our results also showed that there is a specificity component that influences the precision of the load-velocity profiles, since the sex-specific equation showed more precision (R 2 = 0.96 for males and 0.97 for females), even though these values were still not as good as the individual equation (R 2 = 0.99). ...
... The main strengths of this study were (I) the protocol, which was based on a solid line of research composed of previous studies (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2018;Benavides-Ubric et al., 2020;Conceição et al., 2016;González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019;Morán-Navarro et al., 2021;Muñoz-López et al., 2017;Sánchez-Medina et al., 2014Sánchez-Moreno et al., 2017) and (II) the statistical treatment, specifically the individual load-velocity and load-power profiles, which allowed the high correlations observed in the data. ...
Article
The purpose of this study was to analyse the load-velocity and load-power relationships of the decline bench press exercise (DBPE) and to compare sex-related differences. Twelve young healthy men and women performed a progressive loading test for the determination of 1RM strength and individual load-velocity and load-power relationship in the DBPE. A very close relationship between mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and %1RM was observed (R2 = 0.94). This relationship improved when plotting data separately by sex (R2 = 0.96–97). Individual load-velocity profiles gave an R2 = 0.99 ± 0.01. The relationship between mean propulsive power (MPP) and %1RM was R2 = 0.23. When separating data by sex, R2 = 0.64–73 were obtained. Individual load-power profiles gave an R2 of 0.93 ± 0.07. Significant sex-related differences were found for MPV, with males having faster velocities than females from 30% to 40% 1RM (p = 0.01) and for MPP, with males having greater MPP (W) than females from 30% to 95% 1RM (p < 0.001). The results of this study show that a strong correlation exists between relative load and MPV/MPP in the DBPE, allowing the possibility of using one to predict the other with great precision, especially when a sex-specific equation is used.
... Parallel squat: A parallel squat is performed to an internal knee angle between 60 and 70 • , where a straight horizontal line can be drawn between in the inguinal fold and the top of the knee musculature, just proximal to the patella [2,45,[67][68][69]. The parallel squat can be performed with either variant of the back squat or the front squat. ...
... Half squat: A half squat is generally performed to a depth in which an 80-100 • internal knee angle is achieved [2,40,66,67,[77][78][79]. Half squats can be performed using the back, front, or Smith machine squats [12]. ...
... Understanding the load-power relationship during squatting movements is essential for establishing an understanding of potential optimal load(s) for peak power production, as well as potential injury reduction [135]. As would be expected, the load-power relationship is different between front, back, and partial squats [67]. Although peak power during the concentric phase of back squats at various loads (20-90% of 1RM) have not been shown to be statistically different, the optimal load for peak power output appears to be at loads of about 40-60% of 1RM [96,136,137]. ...
Article
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Abstract: There is substantial evidence indicating that increased maximum strength as a result of training with squats, particularly full and parallel squats, is associated with superior athletic capabilities, such as sprinting, jumping and agility. Although full and parallel squats have been strongly associated with sport performance, there is also some evidence that the use of partial squats may provide angle specific adaptations that are likely advantageous for specific sporting activities. Partial squats may be particularly advantageous when trained in conjunction with full or parallel squats, as this practice results in a greater training effect. There is a paucity of evidence that squatting is associated with excessive injuries to the knees, lower back, or other structures. Evidence does indicate that squatting, including full squats, can be undertaken safely, provided an appropriate training methodology is applied. Indeed, based on scientific data, the cost/benefit ratio indicates that squats should be recommended and should be a central strength training exercise for the preparation of athletes in most sports, particularly those requiring strong and powerful whole body and lower body movements.
... However, it is crucial to acknowledge that each exercise has a distinct %1RM-velocity profile, and thus generalizing velocity zones across different exercises may not be valid. ▶ Fig. 2 illustrates the generalized %1RM-velocity relationship reported in previous studies for five specific exercises such as the squat [17], deadlift [18], bench press [19], bench pull [20], and pull-up [21]. Note that a fixed velocity value of 0.50 m · s − 1 would correspond to different relative loads for the squat ( ≈ 78 %1RM), deadlift ( ≈ 89 %1RM), bench press ( ≈ 77 %1RM), bench pull ( ≈ 97 %1RM), and pull-up ( ≈ 84 %1RM). ...
... e., averaged across the subjects) relationship between %1RM and lifting velocity. Generalized L-V relationships have been established for a variety of RT exercises, including the squat [17,22,23], deadlift [18,24,25], hip-thrust [26,27], leg press [23,28], leg extension [29], bench press [19,[30][31][32], bench pull [20,30,33], military press [34][35][36][37], and pull-up [21,38]. The ultimate goal of generalized L-V relationships is "to determine what is the %1RM that is being used as soon as the first repetition with a given load is performed with maximal voluntary velocity" [19]. ...
... However, it is not rare to observe discrepancies across studies examining the same %1RM-velocity relationship. For instance, the mean propulsive velocity associated with the 50 %1RM during the full squat exercise was reported as 1.14 m · s − 1 by Sánzhez-Medina et al. [22], 0.99 m · s − 1 by Conceição et al. [23], and 0.84 m · s − 1 by Martínez-Cava et al. [17]. In other words, a repetition performed at a mean propulsive velocity of 0.70 m · s − 1 would correspond to the 79 %1RM for Sánzhez-Medina et al. [22], 72 %1RM for Conceição et al. [23], and 64 %1RM for Martínez-Cava et al. [17]. ...
Article
Resistance training intensity is commonly quantified as the load lifted relative to an individual's maximal dynamic strength. This approach, known as percent-based training, necessitates evaluating the one-repetition maximum (1RM) for the core exercises incorporated in a resistance training program. However, a major limitation of rigid percent-based training lies in the demanding nature of directly testing the 1RM from technical, physical and psychological perspectives. A potential solution that has gained popularity in the last two decades to facilitate the implementation of percent-based training involves the estimation of the 1RM by recording the lifting velocity against submaximal loads. This review examines the three main methods for prescribing relative loads (%1RM) based on lifting velocity monitoring: (i) velocity zones, (ii) generalized load-velocity relationships, and (iii) individualized load-velocity relationships. The article concludes by discussing a number of factors that should be considered for simplifying the testing procedures while maintaining the accuracy of individualized L-V relationships to predict the 1RM and establish the resultant individualized %1RM-velocity relationship: (i) exercise selection, (ii) type of velocity variable, (iii) regression model, (iv) number of loads, (v) location of experimental points on the load-velocity relationship, (vi) minimal velocity threshold, (vii) provision of velocity feedback, and (viii) velocity monitoring device.
... To date, most of the evidence on the velocity-based method has been conducted using the Multipower modality (i.e., Smith machine) (11,14,28,32,34). This fact made it possible to develop the basis of this methodology in a controlled environment, allowing researchers to examine the possible influence of factors, such as the range of motion (21,22), grip width (29), or execution phases (6) on velocity parameters. However, whereas information on the velocity approach in Multipower is extensive, knowledge around this monitoring strategy in other common training modes like free-weight and machine-based modalities is scarce (9). ...
... The first familiarization session was used for body composition assessment using an 8-contact electrode segmental body composition analyzer (Tanita BC-418, Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan), as well as a health history questionnaire administration. Furthermore, because the range of motion has been proved to meaningfully influence the resulting velocity (21,22), this session was used for equalizing the concentric displacement each subject completed in both training modalities. For that, the adjustable parameters in the machines (e.g., saddle and backrest height or grip width) were individually fitted to match the concentric displacement previously determined in the free-weight modality using a linear velocity transducer. ...
... In both modalities, subjects started from an upright position, knees and hips fully extended and feet placed parallel (shoulder width) on the floor (SQ Free ) or a metallic platform (SQ Machine ). From this position, subjects were required to descend the load in a continuous movement until reaching the full squat position (22). When this point was reached and without pausing between the eccentric and concentric phases, they were required to lift the load until reaching the upright position described above. ...
Article
Hernández-Belmonte, A, Buendía-Romero, Á, Pallares, JG, and Martínez-Cava, A. Velocity-based method in free-weight and machine-based training modalities: the degree of freedom matters. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2023-This study aimed to analyze and compare the load-velocity relationships of free-weight and machine-based modalities of 4 resistance exercises. Moreover, we examined the influence of the subject's strength level on these load-velocity relationships. Fifty men completed a loading test in the free-weight and machine-based modalities of the bench press, full squat, shoulder press, and prone bench pull exercises. General and individual relationships between relative intensity (%1RM) and velocity variables were studied through the coefficient of determination (R2) and standard error of the estimate (SEE). Moreover, the velocity attained to each %1RM was compared between both modalities. Subjects were divided into stronger and weaker to study whether the subject's strength level influences the mean test (mean propulsive velocity [MPVTest]) and 1RM (MPV1RM) velocities. For both modalities, very close relationships (R2 ≥ 0.95) and reduced estimation errors were found when velocity was analyzed as a dependent (SEE ≤ 0.086 m·s-1) and independent (SEE ≤ 5.7% 1RM) variable concerning the %1RM. Fits were found to be higher (R2 ≥ 0.995) for individual load-velocity relationships. Concerning the between-modality comparison, the velocity attained at each intensity (from 30 to 100% 1RM) was significantly faster for the free-weight variant. Finally, nonsignificant differences were found when comparing MPVTest (differences ≤ 0.02 m·s-1) and MPV1RM (differences ≤ 0.01 m·s-1) between stronger and weaker subjects. These findings prove the accuracy and stability of the velocity-based method in the free-weight and machine-based variants but highlight the need to use the load-velocity relationship (preferably the individual one) specific to each training modality.
... However, indirect methods pursue relevant limitations as well [3]. The movement velocity measuring during resistance exercises gained popularity in the field of strength and conditioning to avoid these methods' limitations as almost perfect relationships were found between the magnitude of the load and the bar velocity in many resistance exercises [7][8][9][10][11]. In this regard, generalized regression equations have been proposed to determine relative load (%1RM) and the 1RM load [8,12]. ...
... The stance was approximately shoulder-width apart, parallel feet flat on the floor or externally rotated to a maximum of 15°. From this position, participants descended in a controlled motion until the inguinal crease reached (point B) the same horizontal plane as the superior border of the patella [10,22]. After a momentary pause (~1.5 s), they ascended back to the upright position while keeping an upright straight trunk posture [23]. ...
... One sample t-test showed quite similar (p > 0.05) anthropometric measures, absolute and relative strength of our sample compared with the trained male of Martínez-Cava et al. study [10] (Table II). When compared with the NCAA Division I baseball athletes of Spitz et al. study [30], there was statistical differences between untrained men of our study and the athletes of their study (Table II). ...
Article
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Objectives: The purposes of this investigation were: 1) to compare the load-velocity relationship estimated by the two-point method between untrained men and women during the parallel back squat exercise (BS) and 2) to compare the load-velocity profile found in our study with the load-velocity profiles reported in the scientific literature for trained individuals. Beyond, we aimed to compare the measured 1RM velocity with predicted 1RM velocity by the two-point method in the BS exercise in untrained individuals. Methods: Seventy-six untrained individuals (38 men (22.7 ± 4.4 years; 174.9 ± 6.8 cm; 76.1 ± 14.9 kg) and 38 women (24.7 ± 4.3 years; 159.1 ± 6.0 cm; 64.7 ± 13.3 kg) performed a one-repetition maximum test and a progressive two-load test with 20% 1RM and 70% 1RM to estimate their load-velocity relationships. Results: The main results revealed that 1) mean propulsive velocity and mean velocity attained at each relative load were different between men and women (p < 0.05). However, the measured 1RM velocity was not significantly different between them. Untrained men provided a steeper load-velocity relationship than women. We found that 2) untrained individuals of our study showed a different load-velocity profile than trained individuals from scientific literature studies. Furthermore, 3) the measured 1RM velocity was lower than the predicted 1RM velocity (p < 0.05). Conclusion: These results suggest that the load-velocity relationship is dependent on sex and training background, and the two-point method using 20% and 70% 1RM might not be reliable to estimate the load-velocity relationship in the BS exercise for untrained men and women.
... Furthermore, it is essential to understand the differences between mechanical power variables when modeling the P max-load for training prescription purposes. For example, regarding this matter, previous research with young trained adults observed that the P max-load is exercise-specific and differs according to the mechanical power variable measured Sánchez-Medina et al., 2014;Soriano et al., 2015Soriano et al., , 2017Martínez-Cava et al., 2019). These differences indicate that it is essential to define beforehand what mechanical power variable will be measured and monitored during the training program (considering the features of the linear encoder) to avoid erroneous decisions regarding training prescription. ...
... We hypothesized that the P max-load in the leg press and chest press would be similar between older women and men (Strand et al., 2019). In addition, we hypothesized that the MP max-load and PP max-load would differ within and between resistance exercises Sánchez-Medina et al., 2014;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019). Finally, we hypothesized that the MP max and PP max in the chest press would explain the MBT performance variance, while the MP max and PP max in the leg press would explain the performance variability in functional field tests for the lower limbs, including standing up from a chair and short-distance walking. ...
... Compared to PP max-load, the MP max-load in the leg press and chest press increased to around 66% and 62% 1RM, respectively. Despite its novelty in older populations, these data also indicate that the P max-load differs between mechanical power variables in older adults, as observed in young adults Sánchez-Medina et al., 2014;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019). Although most studies with older adults analyzed the P max-load using the peak power variable (de Vos et al., 2005;Potiaumpai et al., 2016;Ni and Signorile, 2017;Strand et al., 2019), several authors observed higher reliability using mean values than peak values when conducting a progressive loading test in the leg press with this population (Alcazar et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
Identifying the relative loads (%1RM) that maximize power output (Pmax-load) in resistance exercises can help design interventions to optimize muscle power in older adults. Moreover, examining the maximal mean power (MPmax) and peak power (PPmax) values (Watts) would allow an understanding of their differences and associations with functionality markers in older adults. Therefore, this research aimed to 1) analyze the load-mean and peak power relationships in the leg press and chest press in older adults, 2) examine the differences between mean Pmax-load (MPmax-load) and peak Pmax-load (PPmax-load) within resistance exercises, 3) identify the differences between resistance exercises in MPmax-load and PPmax-load, and 4) explore the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the leg press and chest press with functional capacity indicators. Thirty-two older adults (79.3 ± 7.3 years) performed the following tests: medicine ball throw (MBT), five-repetition sit-to-stand (STS), 10-m walking (10 W), and a progressive loading test in the leg press and chest press. Quadratic regressions analyzed 1) the load-mean and peak power relationships and identified the MPmax-load, MPmax, PPmax-load, and PPmax in both exercises, 2) the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the chest press with MBT, and 3) the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the leg press with STSpower and 10Wvelocity. In the leg press, the MPmax-load was ∼66% 1RM, and the PPmax-load was ∼62% 1RM, both for women and men (p > 0.05). In the chest press, the MPmax-load was ∼62% 1RM, and the PPmax-load was ∼56% 1RM, both for women and men (p > 0.05). There were differences between MPmax-load and PPmax-load within exercises (p < 0.01) and differences between exercises in MPmax-load and PPmax-load (p < 0.01). The MPmax and PPmax in the chest press explained ∼48% and ∼52% of the MBT-1 kg and MBT-3 kg variance, respectively. In the leg press, the MPmax and PPmax explained ∼59% of STSpower variance; however, both variables could not explain the 10Wvelocity performance (r 2 ∼ 0.02). This study shows that the Pmax-load is similar between sexes, is resistance exercise-specific, and varies within exercises depending on the mechanical power variable used in older adults. Furthermore, this research demonstrates the influence of the MBT as an upper-limb power marker in older adults.
... For this reason, displaying 0.1 as the lowest value while performing a squat exercise could lead to an underestimation of the velocity at both submaximal and maximal loads. In addition, in the squat load-velocity profile, a variation of 0.1 m•s −1 corresponds to a load variation of approximately 10% of 1RM or more [21]. Therefore, displaying a scale with only 0.1 m•s −1 intervals can be misleading in the correct velocity estimation. ...
... The scale ( Figure 1) has a range of numerical values from 0.30 to 1.4 m•s −1 that are consistent with what reported in the literature as the minimum and maximal velocity threshold for the squat exercise [21,22]. Interval values are close to the second decimal point. ...
... First of all because the values shown by the devices are always approximated to the second decimal. Secondly, a variation of the mean velocity of 0.10 m•s −1 corresponds, in the squat, to a variation of load of about 10% 1RM [21,22]. Therefore, a scale with intervals of 0.1 (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, etc.) could actually be misleading in the correct perception of the load to be utilized. ...
Article
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Background: the aim of the study was to develop and validate a specific perception velocity scale for the Back Squat exercise to discriminate the velocity of each repetition during a set. Methods: 31 resistance trained participants completed 3 evaluation sessions, consisting of 3 blinded loads (light, medium, heavy). For each repetition, barbell mean velocity (Vr) was measured with a linear position transducer while perceived velocity (Vp) was reported using the Squat Perception of Velocity (PV) Scale. Results: Pearson correlation coefficients (r) showed very high values for each intensity in the 3 different days (range r = 0.73-0.83) and practically perfect correlation for all loads (range r = 0.97-0.98). The simple linear regression analysis between Vp and Vr revealed values ranging from R2 = 0.53 to R2 = 0.69 in the 3 intensities and values ranging from R2 = 0.95 to R2 = 0.97 considering all loads. The reliability (ICC2.1, SEM) of Vp was tested for light (0.85, 0.03), medium Please do not modify the format of the manuscript (type and size of font, margin size, paragraph spacing, etc.), only what is indicated with comments or highlighted, as it follows the standard style of MDPI. We would appreciate if you could mark all the modifications with the Track Changes tool and thoroughly address all the comments.(0.90, 0.03) and heavy loads (0.86, 0.03) and for all loads (0.99, 0.11). The delta score (ds = Vp - Vr) showed higher accuracy of the PV at heavy loads. Conclusions: these results show that the PV Squat Scale is a valid and reliable tool that can be used to accurately quantify exercise intensity.
... 8,15 Another important advantage of VBT is the possibility of monitoring intensity during RT sessions. In this regard, a strong relationship (R 2 = .94-.98) between the relative load (ie, percentage of 1RM: %1RM) and movement velocity has been reported for different upper and lower body exercises, such as BP, 8 prone bench pull, 16 pull-up, 17 and different squat variants 11,18,19 in machines and, more recently, free-weight-based training modalities. 20 As a result, general equations derived from group-based load-velocity relationships have been proposed for each exercise, which determine a fixed bar velocity value associated with a certain %1RM. ...
... 8,11,12,20 However, critical considerations regarding the use of these generalized equations should be highlighted. First, considerable individual differences were observed in the velocity attained at each %1RM (∼0.12 m·s −1 ) compared to velocities obtained from general equations, 15,16,18,21 which can cause mismatches in the relative load of approximately 10% 1RM across individuals. Second, it has been suggested that individual load-velocity relationships could provide more accurate predictions of %1RM from barbell velocity than general equations. ...
Article
Purpose : This study analyzed the influence of 2 velocity-based training-load prescription strategies (general vs individual load–velocity equations) on the relationship between the magnitude of velocity loss (VL) and the percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise. Methods : Thirty-five subjects completed 6 sessions consisting of performing the maximum number of repetitions to failure against their 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) in the Smith machine bench-press exercise using generalized and individualized equations to adjust the training load. Results : A close relationship and acceptable error were observed between percentage of repetitions completed and the percentage of VL reached for the 3 loading magnitudes and the 2 load-prescription strategies studied ( R 2 from .83 to .94; standard error of the estimate from 7% to 10%). A simple main effect was observed for load and VL thresholds but not for load-prescription strategies. No significant interaction effects were revealed. The 40% and 60% 1RM showed equivalence on data sets and the most regular variation, whereas the 80% 1-repetition maximum load showed no equivalence and more irregular variation. Conclusion : These results suggest that VL is a useful variable to predict percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise, regardless of the strategy selected to adjust the relative load. However, caution should be taken when using heavy loads.
... This equipment automatically calculates the kinematics of each repetition performed and provides %1RM, the mean propulsive velocity, and both are used for the calculation of the 1RM by software (González-Badillo & Serna, 2020). Only loads above 60% of 1RM were used for pre-evaluation, to increase the reliability of the measurement and in the post, evaluation was used the same load established in the post-evaluation (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019. The general warm-up consisted of performing 5 minutes of exercises with low-intensity (i.e., jumping jacks and split jacks), 2 sets of 20 repetitions each, followed by gentle stretching and joint mobilization, the specific warm-up was 2 sets of 5 repetitions with 20 and 30 kg for bench press and back squat, respectively. ...
... On bench press, subjects were not allowed to bounce the bar off their chests so as not to boost the bar velocity (Pallarés et al., 2014). The two exercises technique were described in (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019;Ribeiro et al., 2020), nevertheless, the back squat was performed only until 55º and 65º of tibiofemoral flexion in the sagittal plane. The range of motion was guaranteed by a bench placed behind the subject, and they were encouraged to only touch and not sit down. ...
Article
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The effects of combined training (CT) on sports performance are well established likewise, the potential of low-volume exercise on physical fitness. However, the efficacy of low-volume CT on measures of physical fitness requires more research. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyse the effects of low-volume CT performed during 6 weeks on muscle power, muscular strength, and maximal aerobic power (Wmax). Eighteen healthy, active young adults men (mean ± SD, 20.06 ± 1.66 years; 22.23 ± 2.76 kg/m 2) performed either a low-volume CT (EG, n=9), or maintained a normal life (CG, n=9). The CT was composed by a resistance training (RT), 2 sets of 3 exercises with 80 to 85% 1RM, followed by a high intensity-interval training (HIIT), 5 sets of 60'' with 95% Wmax. The measures of jump height, 1 maximal-repetition (1RM) in bench press and back squat, Wmax, and internal load were obtained before and after training for analysis. Furthermore, an ANOVA test of repeated measures and t-test paired samples were used with a p ≤ 0.05. The main results demonstrated that low-volume CT increased the jump height (p ≤ 0.05), 1RM on bench press and back squat (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively) and Wmax (p ≤ 0.01). In addition, the internal load had not significant differences between weeks (p > 0.05). For active young adults, the low-volume CT is effective and a time-efficient strategy to improve, jump height, 1RM in bench press and back squat, and Wmax without increasing the internal load. Resumen. Los efectos del entrenamiento combinado (EC) en el rendimiento deportivo están bien establecidos, así como el potencial del ejercicio de bajo volumen en la aptitud física. Sin embargo, la eficacia de la EC de bajo volumen en las medidas de aptitud física requiere más investigación. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de este estudio fue analizar los efectos de la EC de bajo volumen realizado durante 6 semanas sobre la potencia muscular, la fuerza muscular y la potencia aeróbica máxima (Wmax). Dieciocho hombres adultos jóvenes sanos y activos (promedio ± DE, 20,06 ± 1,66 años; 22,23 ± 2,76 kg/m 2) realizaron una EC de bajo volumen (GE, n=9) o mantu-vieron una vida normal (GC, n=9). El EC fue compuesto por un entrenamiento de fuerza (EF), 2 series de 3 ejercicios con 80 a 85% 1RM) seguido de un entrenamiento de intervalos de alta intensidad (HIIT), 5 series de 60'' con 95% Wmáximo). Las medidas de la altura de salto, 1 repetición máxima (1RM) en press de banca y sentadilla trasera, Wmax y carga interna se obtuvieron antes y después del entrenamiento para el análisis. Además, se utilizó una prueba ANOVA de medidas repetidas y muestras pareadas con un p ≤ 0,05. Los principales resultados demostraron que lo EC de bajo volumen aumentó la altura de salto (p ≤ 0,05), 1RM en press de banca y sentadilla trasera (p < 0,001 y p < 0,001, respectivamente) y Wmax (p ≤ 0,01), a pesar de que la carga interna no tuvo diferencias significativas entre semanas (p > 0,05). Para los adultos jóvenes activos, la TC de bajo volumen es efectiva y una estrategia tiempo eficiente para mejorar, la altura del salto, lo 1RM en press de banca y sentadilla, y la Wmax, sin aumentar la carga interna.
... This equipment automatically calculates the kinematics of each repetition performed and provides %1RM, the mean propulsive velocity, and both are used for the calculation of the 1RM by software (González-Badillo & Serna, 2020). Only loads above 60% of 1RM were used for pre-evaluation, to increase the reliability of the measurement and in the post, evaluation was used the same load established in the post-evaluation (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019. The general warm-up consisted of performing 5 minutes of exercises with low-intensity (i.e., jumping jacks and split jacks), 2 sets of 20 repetitions each, followed by gentle stretching and joint mobilization, the specific warm-up was 2 sets of 5 repetitions with 20 and 30 kg for bench press and back squat, respectively. ...
... On bench press, subjects were not allowed to bounce the bar off their chests so as not to boost the bar velocity (Pallarés et al., 2014). The two exercises technique were described in (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019;Ribeiro et al., 2020), nevertheless, the back squat was performed only until 55º and 65º of tibiofemoral flexion in the sagittal plane. The range of motion was guaranteed by a bench placed behind the subject, and they were encouraged to only touch and not sit down. ...
Article
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The effects of combined training (CE) on athletic performance are well established, as is the potential of low-volume exercise on physical fitness. However, the efficacy of low-volume CT on measures of physical fitness requires further investigation. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the effects of 6-week low-volume CT on muscle power, muscle strength, and maximal aerobic power (Wmax). Eighteen healthy and active young adult men (mean ± SD, 20.06 ± 1.66 years; 22.23 ± 2.76 kg/m2) underwent low-volume CE (GE, n=9) or maintained a normal life (GC, n=9). The EC was composed of strength training (EF), 2 series of 3 exercises with 80 to 85% 1RM) followed by high intensity interval training (HIIT), 5 series of 60'' with 95% Wmax). Measurements of jump height, 1 repetition maximum (1RM) in bench press and back squat, Wmax, and internal load were obtained before and after training for analysis. In addition, an ANOVA test of repeated measures and paired samples with p ≤ 0.05 was used. The main results demonstrated that the low volume CT increased jump height (p ≤ 0.05), bench press and back squat 1RM (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively) and Wmax (p ≤ 0.01). , despite the fact that the internal load did not have significant differences between weeks (p > 0.05). For active young adults, low-volume CT is an effective and time-efficient strategy to improve jump height, bench press and squat 1RM, and Wmax without increasing internal load. Keywords: Exercise, Concurrent training, Physical fitness, Performance, Cardiorespiratory fitness, Untrained.
... The duration of each repetition was controlled by a metronome and fixed to 2 seconds of the eccentric phase and maximal velocity in the concentric phase of the movement. The participants started from an upright position, with the knees and hips fully extended, the stance (approximately shoulder-width apart) and feet position (flat on the floor in parallel or externally rotated to a maximum of 15°) were individually adjusted and carefully replicated on every lift (25). The barbell had to be in contact with the back and shoulders at all times (at the level of the acromion) (25). ...
... The participants started from an upright position, with the knees and hips fully extended, the stance (approximately shoulder-width apart) and feet position (flat on the floor in parallel or externally rotated to a maximum of 15°) were individually adjusted and carefully replicated on every lift (25). The barbell had to be in contact with the back and shoulders at all times (at the level of the acromion) (25). From this position, participants had to descend until they made contact with the bench and then perform the concentric phase of the movement in an explosive manner. ...
Article
Intensity, movement velocity, and volume are the principal factors to successfully use postactivation performance enhancement. Therefore, 15 resistance-trained volleyball players completed 3 different back squat configurations as a conditioning activity (CA) in randomized order: (a) 3 sets of 3 repetitions at 85% 1RM (HL); (b) a single set of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (VB); (c) and 2 sets of back squats at 60% 1RM until 10% mean velocity loss (2VB) on subsequent countermovement jump performance, Achilles tendon, and vastus lateralis stiffness with concomitant front thigh skin surface temperature assessment. The measurements were performed 5 minutes before the CA and at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 minutes. The jump height was significantly increased in the second minute and at peak, post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions (p = 0.049; ES = 0.23 and p < 0.001; ES = 0.37). Skin surface temperature was significantly increased for all post-CA time points compared with baseline in the 2VB condition (p from <0.001–0.023; ES = 0.39–1.04) and in the fourth minute and at peak post-CA in HL condition (p = 0.023; ES = 0.69 and p = 0.04; ES = 0.46), whereas for the VB condition, a significant decrease in peak post-CA was found (p = 0.004; ES = 20.54). Achilles tendon stiffness was significantly decreased for second, fourth, eighth, 10th, and peak post-CA in comparison to baseline for all conditions (p from p = 0.004–0.038; ES = 20.47 to 20.69). Vastus lateralis stiffness was significantly decreased for peak post-CA compared with baseline for all conditions (p = 0.017; ES = 20.42). We recommend using a single set of barbell squats with a 10% velocity loss as a mechanism of fatigue control to acutely improve jump height performance and avoid unnecessary increases in training volume.
... This equipment automatically calculates the kinematics of each repetition performed and provides %1RM, the mean propulsive velocity and both are used for the calculation of the 1RM by software [18]. Only loads above 60% of 1RM were used for pre-evaluation, to increase the reliability of the measurement and in the post, evaluation was used the same load established in the post-evaluation [17,19]. General warm-up consisted of performing 5 minutes of exercises with low intensity (i.e., jumping jacks and split jacks), 2 sets of 20 repetitions each, followed by a gentle stretching and joint mobilization, the speci c warm-up were 2 sets of 5 repetitions with 30 and 20 kg for bench press and back squat, respectively. ...
... In bench press subjects were not allowed to bounce the bar off their chests so as not to boost the bar velocity [20]. The exercises technique was described in [19], except for back squat that was performed only until 55º and 65º of tibiofemoral exion in sagittal plan. The range was guaranteed by a seat placed behind the subject, and they were encouraged to only touch and did not sit down. ...
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Background: The aim of this study was to analyse the effects of low-volume CT performed during 6 weeks on muscle power, muscular strength, maximal aerobic power (Wmax) and internal load in active young adults. Methods: Eighteen healthy, active young adults men (mean ± SD, 20.06 ± 1.66 years; 22.23 ± 2.76 kg⁻¹m²) performed either a low-volume CT (GE, n=9), or maintained a normal life (CG, n=9). The CT was composed of a resistance training (RT, 2 sets of 3 exercises with 80 to 85% 1RM) followed by a high intensity-interval training (HIIT, 5 sets of 60’’ with 95% Wmax). The measures of jump height, 1 maximal repetition (1RM) in bench press and back squat, Wmax and internal load were obtained before (pre) and after (post) training to analysis. Furthermore, an ANOVA test of repeated measures and t-test paired samples were used with a p ≤ 0.05. Results: Low-volume CT increased from pre to post on jump height (29.28 ± 3.81 to 32.02 ± 3.09cm, p ≤ 0.05), 1RM on bench press back squat (56.11 ± 11.35 to 67.67 ± 13.36kg, p < 0.001 and 63.11 ± 12.25 to 74.00 ± 12.02kg, p < 0.001, respectively) and Wmax (200 ± 30 to 220 ± 30.92W, p ≤ 0.01). The internal load had not significant differences between weeks (p > 0.05). Conclusions: In healthy, active young adults men the low-volume CT is effective to improve, jump height, 1RM in bench press and back squat, and Wmax without increase internal load.
... Data from absolute loads common to both Pre and Post tests are shown. Velocity data obtained from a linear velocity transducer sampling bar velocity at 1000 Hz find that the obtained 1RMs are reached at a faster mean velocity than that of each exercise's own 1RM velocity (V 1RM ) [42], which is comprised within a small velocity range: V 1RM ≤ 0.20 m s −1 for bench press [42,54], V 1RM ≤ 0.35 m s −1 for squat [52,55], V 1RM ≤ 0.50 m s −1 for prone bench pull [54,56], V 1RM ≤ 0.90 m s −1 for the power clean [57], etc. This lack of accuracy in the determination of 1RM results in a 1RM reference value which is lower than the real or true value. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, the best way that currently exists to solve these problems resides in the use and monitoring of movement velocity during RT for determining both the relative load used and the degree of effort undertaken [5,9,42,65]. In this regard, very close relationships between movement velocity and relative load (%1RM) have been found for exercises such as the bench press [42,[70][71][72][73][74][75], prone bench pull [54,76], squat [52,55,72], deadlift [58,77], pull-up [78,79], leg press [43] and hip thrust [80], which makes it possible to determine with considerable precision the %1RM that is being used as soon as the first repetition of a set is performed with maximal intended velocity [42]. This is based on the finding that each percentage of the 1RM has its own corresponding mean velocity, and the velocity values associated with each percentage of 1RM have been found to be very stable and reliable, regardless of the subjects' performance level or the change in strength performance after a training period [42,52,54,58,78]. ...
Article
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For more than a century, many concepts and several theories and principles pertaining to the goals, organization, methodology and evaluation of the effects of resistance training (RT) have been developed and discussed between coaches and scientists. This cumulative body of knowledge and practices has contributed substantially to the evolution of RT methodology. However, a detailed and rigorous examination of the existing literature reveals many inconsistencies that, unless resolved, could seriously hinder further progress in our field. The purpose of this review is to constructively expose, analyze and discuss a set of anomalies present in the current RT methodology, including: (a) the often inappropriate and misleading terminology used, (b) the need to clarify the aims of RT, (c) the very concept of maximal strength, (d) the control and monitoring of the resistance exercise dose, (e) the existing programming models and (f) the evaluation of training effects. A thorough and unbiased examination of these deficiencies could well lead to the adoption of a revised paradigm for RT. This new paradigm must guarantee a precise knowledge of the loads being applied, the effort they involve and their effects. To the best of our knowledge, currently this can only be achieved by monitoring repetition velocity during training. The main contribution of a velocity-based RT approach is that it provides the necessary information to know the actual training loads that induce a specific effect in each athlete. The correct adoption of this revised paradigm will provide coaches and strength and conditioning professionals with accurate and objective information concerning the applied load (relative load, level of effort and training effect). This knowledge is essential to make rational and informed decisions and to improve the training methodology itself.
... Pareja-Blanco et al. (30) found that small changes in velocity over the course of a set can signify practically significant fatigue-induced changes in neuromuscular and functional performance. Other research describing the load-velocity relationship for various resistance training exercises observed that changes ranging from 0.05 to 0.10 m/s in the bench press and full squat on a Smith machine could represent a 5% 1RM improvement (23,31). ...
... The initial load (20 kg) was gradually increased by 10 kg until the attained mean propulsive velocity (MPV, average of the bar velocity values in the segment of the concentric phase during which bar acceleration is greater than acceleration due to gravity (26)) was 0.63 m/s (~70% of 1RM). The highest lifted load was used to estimate the 1RM as detailed elsewhere (27). Three and two repetitions were performed with light (≥0.84 m/s) and medium (<0.84 m/s) loads, respectively, interspersed by 3 minute-rests. ...
Article
Purpose: This study compared the effects of off- and on-bike resistance training (RT) on endurance cycling performance as well as muscle strength, power and structure. Methods: Well-trained male cyclists were randomly assigned to incorporate two sessions/week of off- (full squats, n=12) or on-bike (all-out efforts performed against very high resistances and thus at very low cadences, n=12) RT during 10 weeks, with all RT-related variables [number of sessions, sets, and repetitions, duration of recovery periods, and relative loads (70% of one-repetition maximum)] matched between the two groups. A third, control group (n=13) did not receive any RT stimulus but all groups completed a cycling training regime of the same volume and intensity. Outcomes included maximum oxygen uptake (V ̇ O2max), off-bike muscle strength (full squat) and on-bike (‘pedaling’) muscle strength and peak power capacity (Wingate test), dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry-determined body composition (muscle/fat mass), and muscle structure (cross-sectional area, pennation angle). Results: No significant within/between-group effect was found for V ̇ O2max. Both the off- (mean Δ=2.6-5.8%) and on-bike (4.5-7.3%) RT groups increased squat and pedaling-specific strength parameters after the intervention compared to the control group (–5.8-–3.9%) (p<0.05) with no significant differences between them. The two RT groups also increased Wingate performance (4.1% and 4.3%, respectively, vs. –4.9% in the control group, p≤0.018), with similar results for muscle cross-sectional area (2.5% and 2.2%, vs. –2.3% in the control group, p≤0.008). No significant within/between-group effect was found for body composition. Conclusions: The new proposed on-bike RT could be an effective alternative to conventional off-bike RT training for improving overall and pedaling-specific muscle strength, power, and muscle mass.
... In the last decade, movement velocity has emerged as a solution to this problem because, by monitoring this variable, the relative load being used could be estimated in real time with considerable precision (8,11,12,24). This is because of the strong relationship found between execution movement velocity and percentage of 1RM in different exercises and populations (4,8,11,12,25). ...
Article
Herrera-Bermudo, JC, Puente-Alcaraz, C, Díaz-Sánchez, P, González-Badillo, JJ, and Rodríguez-Rosell, D. Influence of grip width on the load-velocity relationship and 1 repetition maximum value in the bench press exercise: a comparative and reliability analysis of mean velocity vs. mean propulsive velocity vs. peak velocity. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—This study aimed to analyze the reliability and compare the load (percentage of 1 repetition maximum [%1RM])-velocity relationship, bar displacement (DIS), the 1RM, and the velocity attained against the 1RM value (V1RM) in the bench press exercise using 3 different bar grip widths: narrow (120% of the biacromial distance [BD]), medium (160%), and wide (200%). A group of 54 healthy, physically active men randomly performed a total of 6 incremental tests (1 week apart) up to 1RM (2 with each bar grip width) on a Smith machine. The mean velocity (MV), mean propulsive velocity (MPV), peak velocity, and DIS were recorded for the subsequent analysis. The 3 velocity variables showed high relative (intraclass correlation coefficient: 0.90–0.97) and absolute (coefficient of variation: 2.21–9.38%) reliability in all grip widths against all relative loads. The 1RM value and the V1RM present high absolute and relative reliability in all grip widths. There are no significant differences in the value of 1RM and V1RM between grip widths. High relationships were observed between the relative load (%1RM) and velocity variables, with MPV showing the best fit. Significant greater values in MPV, MV, and DIS associated with each %1RM were observed for narrow and medium compared with wide grip width. In conclusion, our results suggest that the 3 velocity variables were highly reliable at the different grip widths used against all relative loads. In addition, there was a tendency to reach higher MV, MPV, and DIS values as the grip width decreased. Therefore, this factor should be considered for the assessment and design of training.
... Using the final velocity of the specific exercise (velocity attained at 1RM) allows strength and conditioning coaches to predict 1RM using the LV relationship (16,42). Previous studies have described the LV relationship in the main training exercises, predominantly bilateral, including squat (27), deadlift (30), bench-press (23), pull-up (37), or hip-thrust (9). However, the LV relationship in unilateral exercises has received much less attention, possibly because of its greater technical difficulty and higher instability (43). ...
Article
Rabal-Pelay, J, Gutiérrez, H, Bascuas, P-J, Pareja-Blanco, F, and Marco-Contreras, LA. Load-velocity relationship in the Bulgarian split-squat exercise. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—The objective of the current research was to analyze the load-velocity relationship in the Bulgarian split-squat (BSS) exercise and to compare these relationships between the dominant and nondominant legs. Twenty-one strength-trained men (age: 27.3 ± 7.3 years) performed a progressive loading test in the BSS exercise using a Smith machine for each leg. The protocol began with a load of 30 kg, incrementally adding 10 kg until the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) fell below 0.4 m·s ⁻¹ . At that point, 5 kg increments were employed, with a final addition of 2.5 kg for the last estimated attempt one-repetition maximum (1RM). A total of 324 lifts were analyzed. Subjects exhibited a relative strength ratio of 1.23 ± 0.10, a 1RM of 91.3 ± 14.2 kg, and a mean range of motion of 44.7 ± 3.7 cm. Polynomial regression analysis showed a robust relationship with an R ² value of 0.945 ( ρ ≤ 0.001) between the relative load (%1RM) and MPV. Despite the differences in 1RM between the dominant and nondominant legs, there were no significant differences in MPV at the %1RM between both legs. These findings suggest that training intensity can be prescribed via the MPV during the BSS exercise. Moreover, the load-velocity relationship is stable between limbs despite the potential differences in absolute strength levels.
... In contrast, the MV showed a CV>10% only in heavy relative loads (>85% 1RM), with the worst value being observed at 100%1RM (Table 2). It has been argued that the ability to control movement is limited when heavy loads are being used, since changes in the movement pattern are produced by muscular tonic control (Gołaś et al., 2017 Previous studies have analyzed the load-velocity relationship in young men during the half squat exercise (the range of motion during this exercise was the same as the box squat exercise in our study, i.e., 90º knee flexion) using LA (Conceição et al., 2016;Loturco et al., 2016;Pérez-Castilla et al., 2020) and PA (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019). Nevertheless, these previous studies did not provide T A B L E 2 Mean velocity (m·s −1 ) associated with each percentage of relative load obtained for the individual load-velocity relationship by linear and polynomial fit. ...
Article
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The aims of this study were to assess (i) the load–velocity relationship during the box squat exercise in women survivors of breast cancer, (ii) which velocity variable (mean velocity [MV], mean propulsive velocity [MPV], or peak velocity [PV]) shows stronger relationship with the relative load (%1RM), and (iii) which regression model (linear [LA] or polynomic [PA]) provides a greater fit for predicting the velocities associated with each %1RM. Nineteen women survivors of breast cancer (age: 53.2 ± 6.9 years, weight: 70.9 ± 13.1 kg, and height: 163.5 ± 7.4 cm) completed an incremental load test up to one‐repetition maximum in the box squat exercise. The MV, MPV, and the PV were measured during the concentric phase of each repetition with a linear velocity transducer. These measurements were analyzed by regression models using LA and PA. Strong correlations of MV with %1RM (R² = 0.903/0.904; the standard error of the estimate (SEE) = 0.05 m.s⁻¹ by LA/PA) and MPV (R² = 0.900; SEE = 0.06 m.s⁻¹ by LA and PA) were observed. In contrast, PV showed a weaker association with %1RM (R² = 0.704; SEE = 0.15 m.s⁻¹ by LA and PA). The MV and MPV of 1RM was 0.22 ± 0.04 m·s⁻¹, whereas the PV at 1RM was 0.63 ± 0.18 m.s⁻¹. These findings suggest that the use of MV to prescribe relative loads during resistance training, as well as LA and PA regression models, accurately predicted velocities for each %1RM. Assessing and prescribing resistance exercises during breast cancer rehabilitation can be facilitated through the monitoring of movement velocity.
... Partial ROM exercises have a long history in resistance training and have been the subject of numerous research studies (8,25,26,30). Partial ROM bench press has been shown to decrease the concentric velocity of the movement (8,25); however, research also shows an inverse relationship with maximal loads and ROM, where less ROM can produce more force and tolerate heavier maximal loads (7,8,25). Indeed, similar (27) and greater strength gains have been reported with partial ROM compared to full ROM (30). ...
Article
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The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the ballistic push-up (BPU) is responsive to post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) after a bench press conditioning exercise using velocity-based repetition control. Additionally, we aimed to evaluate the effects of range of motion (ROM) conditions on subsequent BPU performance. In a randomized crossover design, 18 males performed two conditions (full ROM and self-selected partial ROM) of bench press at 80% of their 1RM until mean concentric velocity dropped 10%. Each participant performed two pre- and six post-test BPUs to assess the PAPE effect. Paired sample t-tests assessed bench press performance measures. Multiple two-way repeated measures ANOVAs assessed differences in flight time, impulse, and peak power for the pre- and post-test BPUs. No significant differences existed between ROM conditions for total repetitions, volume load, or peak velocity. Compared to partial ROM, full ROM showed greater displacement (0.42 ± 0.05 vs. 0.34 ± 0.05 m), work (331.99 ± 67.72 vs. 270.92 ± 61.42 J), and mean velocity (0.46 ± 0.09 vs. 0.44 ± 0.08 m/s). Neither bench press ROM condition enhanced the BPU and were detrimental in some cases. Several time points showed partial ROM (flight time: 2 min post, impulse: 12 min post, peak power: 12 min post) significantly greater than full ROM, possibly indicating less fatigue accumulation. The BPU may require a different stimulus or may not be practical for PAPE effects in college-aged males. Partial ROM can be an alternative that achieves similar peak velocities while requiring less overall work.
... Data were normalized by dividing the absolute power values by the athletes' BM (i.e., relative power = W . kg −1 ). The HS-1RM, which served as the variable for the JS loads in each group, was estimated based on the peak velocity values obtained at the 100% BM load using the formula previously described by Martínez-Cava et al. (2019). ...
Article
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We examined the effectiveness of two different jump-squat (JS) loading ranges on the physical performance of rugby players. Twenty-eight elite male rugby players were divided into two JS training groups: a light-load JS group (“LJS”; JS at 40% of the one-repetition maximum [1RM] in the half-squat (HS) exercise) and a heavy-load JS group (“HJS”; JS at 80% HS-1RM). Players completed the distinct training programs over four weeks, three times per week, during the initial phase of the competitive period. Pre- and post-training tests were conducted in the following sequence: vertical jumps, a 30-m speed test, peak power in the JS and the HS, and maximum isometric force in the HS. Additionally, the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was assessed at the end of all training sessions throughout the intervention. A two-way ANOVA with repeated measures, followed by the Tukey’s post-hoc test, was employed to analyze differences between groups. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. Effect sizes were used to assess the magnitude of differences between pre- and post-training data. Except for the RPE values (which were lower in the LJS group), no significant changes were detected for any other variable. In summary, using either a light- (40% HS-1RM) or a heavy-load (80% HS-1RM) JS during the initial phase of the competitive period is equally effective in maintaining physical performance levels attained during the preceding training period (pre-season), with the significant advantage of the light-load protocol resulting in lower levels of the RPE. This finding may have important implications for resistance training programming, especially in disciplines where acute and chronic fatigue is always a problematic issue.
... In both experimental sessions, four sets at 40%, 55%, 70%, and 85% 1RM using elastic bands to load the bar were performed in random order, as previously suggested [23,27]. Moderate (40-55% 1RM) and heavy (70-85% 1RM) loads were used to perform the parallel squat since the higher mean power is expected to be in this range of the 1RM continuum [32]. Moreover, a difference as small as 15% 1RM was employed to know if RISE is more sensitive than what had been previously studied [12]. ...
Article
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The aim was to evaluate the concurrent validity and reliability of the Resistance Intensity Scale for Exercise [RISE], which uses verbal descriptors, to quantify the intensity in velocity-based training with elastic bands. Eighteen trained volunteers performed parallel squats at maximum speed at 40%, 55%, 70%, and 85%1RM in four sessions, two for familiarization and two for reliability. Each set was stopped at a 10% intra-set velocity loss. Participants reported the perceived effort (easy-low-moderate-hard-maximal) at the first and last repetition. The concurrent validation was conducted with external load (i.e., mean propulsive velocity, weight, repetitions, and maximum power) and internal load parameters (i.e., heart rate). Participants' relative strength was calculated to assess its influence on the dependent variable. Acceptable concurrent validity and reliability (ICC>0.77, CV<21%) were observed, with the perceived effort being appropriate to differentiate between intensities and not being influenced by the participants’ relative strength (p = 0.88). A categorical linear regression showed significant (p < 0.001) associations between the RISE scores and the weight, repetitions, and mean propulsive velocity (r = 0.43–0.63). The findings certify the usefulness of the perceived exertion for quantifying the intensity during velocity-based training with elastic bands. The perceived exertion of the first and last repetition favors a proper dosage of the training load.
... These studies have generated generalized estimation equations for estimation of %1RM based on a given movement velocity in that lift. These studies had R 2 values ranging from 0.819 to 0.960, depending on the squat variation, (full, parallel, or half) examined (6,21,23,27,33,34). Two of those studies also formulated generalized equations for Smith Machine bench press with R 2 values ranging from 0.899 to 0.976 (21,33). ...
Article
LeMense, AT, Malone, GT, Kinderman, MA, Fedewa, MV, and Winchester, LJ. Validity of using the load-velocity relationship to estimate 1 repetition maximum in the back squat exercise: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): 612–619, 2024—The one repetition maximum (1RM) test is commonly used to assess muscular strength. However, 1RM testing can be time consuming, physically taxing, and may be difficult to perform in athletics team settings with practice and competition schedules. Alternatively, 1RM can be estimated from bar or movement velocity at submaximal loads using the minimum velocity threshold (MVT) method based on the load-velocity relationship. Despite its potential utility, this method's validity has yielded inconsistent results. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the validity of estimated 1RM from bar velocity in the back squat exercise. A systematic search of 3 electronic databases was conducted using combinations of the following keywords: “velocity-based training,” “load-velocity profiling,” “mean velocity,” “mean propulsive velocity,” “peak velocity,” “maximal strength,” “1RM,” “estimation,” “prediction,” “back squat,” and “regression.” The search identified 372 unique articles, with 4 studies included in the final analysis. Significance was defined as a p level less than 0.05. A total of 27 effects from 71 subjects between the ages of 17–25 years were analyzed; 85.2% of effects were obtained from male subjects. Measured 1RMs ranged from 86.5 to 153.1 kg, whereas estimated 1RMs ranged from 88.6 to 171.6 kg. Using a 3-level random effects model, 1RM back squat was overestimated when derived from bar velocity using the MVT method (effect sizes [ES] = 0.5304, 95% CI: 0.1878–0.8730, p = 0.0038). The MVT method is not a viable option for estimating 1RM in the free weight back squat. Strength and conditioning professionals should exercise caution when estimating 1RM from the load-velocity relationship.
... The second and third testing sessions focused on measuring the LVP with progressive loading, based on either a percentage of baseline 1RM (relative-load protocol, LVP rel ) or a percentage of the individual body mass (absolute-load LVP protocol, LVP abs ). Each lift started at a fully extended position, and the subjects were instructed to descend at a natural speed (controlled manner) until their hips touched a line placed at a height that ensured a parallel squat position-inguinal crease in projection with the top of the knee (22). From this point, and without pausing, the concentric phase was performed as fast as possible until full extension was attained at the level of the hip and knee joint. ...
Article
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Gomes, M, Fitas, A, Santos, P, Pezarat-Correia, P, and Mendonca, GV. Validation of a single session protocol to determine the load-velocity profile and one-repetition maximum for the back squat exercise. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2024—We investigated whether a single session of absolute incremental loading is valid to obtain the individual load-velocity profile (LVP) and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) for the free-weight parallel back squat. Twenty strength-trained male subjects completed 3 testing sessions, including a baseline 1RM session and 2 LVP sessions (LVP rel based on incremental relative loads and LVP abs based on absolute load increments until 1RM). The 1RM load was compared between the baseline and LVP abs . The load at zero velocity (load-axis intercept [L 0 ]), maximal velocity capacity (velocity-axis intercept [V 0 ]), slope, and area under the load-velocity relationship line (A line ) were compared between the LVP rel and LVP abs using equivalence testing through 2 one-sided t -tests. Measurement accuracy was calculated using the absolute percent error. The 1RM measured at baseline and LVP abs was equivalent and presented a low absolute percent error (1.2%). The following LVP parameters were equivalent between LVP rel and LVP abs : 1RM, L 0 , and A line because the mean difference between sessions was close to zero and the Bland-Altman limits of agreement (1RM:5.3 kg; L 0 :6.8 kg; A line : 9.5 kg·m ⁻¹ ·s ⁻¹ ) were contained within the a priori defined ± equivalent margins (5% for 1RM and L 0 and 10% for A line ). The aforementioned variables presented a low absolute percent error. However, slope and V 0 were not equivalent between sessions. In conclusion, a single session of absolute incremental loading is a valid approach to obtain the L 0 and A line of the individual LVP and 1RM, and can be used to efficiently track the magnitude of neuromuscular adaptations throughout the training cycles for the free-weight back squat.
... Olympic equipment from (Eleiko International, Halmstad, Sweden) was used in the study (barbell: 2.8 cm diameter; 1.92 m length). During the squat exercise, technical criteria were applied in accordance with Martínez-Cava et al. [29] and according to the rules of the International Powerlifting Federation [30]. During the familiarization session, including the 1RM test, the participants did not listen to music. ...
Article
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The study aimed to evaluate the impact of listening to preferred music during active/passive rest on power output and heart rate in barbell squats (BS) and bench presses (BP). Fifteen participants (13 males and 2 females), moderately resistance trained, were engaged in four randomized experimental sessions with varying rest intervals (active/passive) and music presence (listening or not). Each session involved three sets of three repetitions of BS and BP at a 50% one-repetition maximum. ANOVA showed a significant main effect of the set for BP relative mean and peak power output (p < 0.001; both). The post hoc comparisons indicated a significantly higher BP relative mean and peak power output in set_2 (p < 0.001; effect size [ES] = 0.12 and p < 0.001; ES = 0.10) and set_3 (p < 0.001; ES = 0.11 and p = 0.001; ES = 0.16) in comparison to set_1. Moreover, a main effect of the set indicating a decrease in BS relative peak power output across sets was observed (p = 0.024) with no significant differences between sets. A significantly higher mean heart rate during active rest in comparison to passive rest was observed (p = 0.032; ES = 0.69). The results revealed no significant effect of listening to music on relative power output and heart rate during BS and BP.
... R. van den Tillaar et al. [53] found that this region observed in two-thirds of the participants in 6-RM squat exercise. Martínez-Cava et al. [54] found that sticking region was not occurred in the half squat even with heavy loads. Perhaps before testing this phenomenon with external loads, the tendency of participants to such situation may be compared by performing a pre-test examination with the BSQ. ...
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This study was aimed to analyze in detail how the fatigue effects to kinematic parameters of body weight squat exercise (BSQ) by dividing a squat cycle into four different regions. Twenty-one male athletes participated in this study. Participants were divided into two groups according to their lower limb muscle ratio (LLMR). The BSQ was performed until participants were unable to continue the exercise due to the fatigue. Linear and angular kinematics were obtained by motion analysis software which has high validity and reliability. There was no significant but had large effect size interaction between fatigue conditions and LLMR groups in terms of knee ROM in the extension phase and hip angular velocity in braking phase of the flexion (0.08 > p >0.05, 0.18 > ηρ2 > 0.16). Fatigue condition did not have a significant effect on the duration in the acceleration and braking phases of BSQ (p > 0.05). There were many significant main effects on kinematics in the different regions due to the fatigue (0.01 < p <0.05, 0.44 > ηρ2 > 0.14). In the fatigue condition, there was a polynomial relationship between velocity of shoulder and hip joints (R²flex = 0.82, R²ext = 0.72) rather than linear (R²flex = 0.64, R²ext = 0.53) and coefficient correlations also decreased (rflex = 0.88 to 0.80, rext = 0.92 to 0.73). The sticking region was observed in the non-fatigue condition and disappeared when fatigue occurred. These results suggest that LLMR may be taken into consideration in the squat exercises, joint tracking may vary for velocity-based squat training and pre-test for sticking region observation may be apply with the BSQ.
... However, when it came to deadlift, the use of lifting straps resulted in a moderate overestimation of 1RM compared to performing the exercise without lifting straps, with ES ranging from 0.36 to 0.40 for lifting straps and 0.11 to 0.12 for no lifting straps. Regarding the impact of different exercise variants on the prediction of 1RM using LVR, some researchers believed that the same LVR can be extrapolated to different exercise variants [14,58], while others held different opinions [59][60][61]. Whether these findings can be extrapolated from multiple-point LVR to two-point LVR needs further investigation, and RT practitioners need to take these factors into account when applying two-point LVR to predict 1RM for different motor variants. It was worth noting that the use of lifting straps appears to be an exception, as one study [52] reported lower accuracy in predicting 1RM when lifting straps were employed. ...
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This systematic review aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of the two-point method in predicting 1RM compared to the direct method, as well as analyze the factors influencing its accuracy. A comprehensive search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases was conducted. Out of the 88 initially identified studies, 16 were selected for full review, and their outcome measures were analyzed. The findings of this review indicated that the two-point method slightly overestimated 1RM (effect size = 0.203 [95%CI: 0.132, 0.275]; P < 0.001); It showed that test-retest reliability was excellent as long as the test loads were chosen reasonably (Large difference between two test loads). However, the reliability of the two-point method needs to be further verified because only three studies have tested its reliability. Factors such as exercise selection, velocity measurement device, and selection of test loads were found to influence the accuracy of predicting 1RM using the two-point method. Additionally, the choice of velocity variable, 1RM determination method, velocity feedback, and state of fatigue were identified as potential influence factors. These results provide valuable insights for practitioners in resistance training and offer directions for future research on the two-point method.
... Other exclusion criteria included (1) Previous surgery to any lower extremity or of the spine/neck; (2) Chronic pain of any lower extremity or the back/neck within the last three months; (3) A musculoskeletal or neurological disease that affects normal gait or standing function; (4) Sub-normal vision that is not correctable; (5) Any cardiovascular issues that make squat exercises difficult; (6) Inability to regularly squat to the maximum squat depth of 70 degrees (angle between the thigh and vertical). The squat depth of 70 degrees is short of a parallel squat (90 degrees) or full squat [44]. ...
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This study examined the effects of different modes of augmented visual feedback of joint kinematics on the emerging joint moment patterns during the two-legged squat maneuver. Training with augmented visual feedback supports improved kinematic performance of maneuvers related to sports or daily activities. Despite being representative of intrinsic motor actions, joint moments are not traditionally evaluated with kinematic feedback training. Furthermore, stabilizing joint moment patterns with physical training is beneficial to rehabilitating joint-level function (e.g., targeted strengthening and conditioning of muscles articulating that joint). Participants were presented with different modes of augmented visual feedback to track a target squat-motion trajectory. The feedback modes varied along features of complexity (i.e., number of segment trajectories shown) and body representation (i.e., trajectories shown as sinusoids versus dynamic stick-figure avatars). Our results indicated that mean values and variability (trial-to-trial standard deviations) of joint moments are significantly (p < 0.05) altered depending on the visual feedback features being applied, the specific joint (ankle, knee, hip), and the squat movement phase (early, middle, or late time window). This study should incentivize more optimal delivery of visual guidance during rehabilitative training with computerized interfaces (e.g., virtual reality).
... Velocity-based training (VBT) can be used to accurately determine the intensity of training [3]. VBT uses the velocity of the bar to determine the relative load, and there are many studies that calculated the velocity of the bar for each percentage of 1RM in different exercises: prone bench pull [4], pullup [5,6], leg press [7], hip thrust [8], and a number of variations of the squat and bench press exercise [9,10], finding differences between exercise in the velocity associated to each percentage of 1RM (e.g., 70% 1RM in the squat: 0.73 ± 0.05 m/s vs. 70% 1RM in the bench press: 0.58 ± 0.08) ( Table 1). In this sense, differences in the range of motion between exercises could affect the rate of force development, activation and synchronization of motor units [11]. ...
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The purpose of this paper was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies examining the differences in the mean propulsive velocities between men and women in the different exercises studied (squat, bench press, inclined bench press and military press). Quality Assessment and Validity Tool for Correlational Studies was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. Six studies of good and excellent methodological quality were included. Our meta-analysis compared men and women at the three most significant loads of the force-velocity profile (30, 70 and 90% of 1RM). A total of six studies were included in the systematic review, with a total sample of 249 participants (136 men and 113 women). The results of the main meta-analysis indicated that the mean propulsive velocity is lower in women than men in 30% of 1RM (ES = 1.30 ± 0.30; CI: 0.99-1.60; p < 0.001) and 70% of 1RM (ES = 0.92 ± 0.29; CI: 0.63, 1.21; p < 0.001). In contrast, for the 90% of the 1RM (ES = 0.27 ± 0.27; CI: 0.00, 0.55), we did not find significant differences (p = 0.05). Our results support the notion that prescription of the training load through the same velocity could cause women to receive different stimuli than men.
... Interset rest ranged from 3 minutes for the light and medium loads to 5 minutes for heavy loads. 20,22 Experimental Protocols (Sessions [2][3][4][5] During the squat protocols, after the standardized warm-up, subjects performed 3 squats against the 50% of the absolute load associated with the individual 60% 1RM assessed during session 1. Since daily changes in the actual 1RM may affect the proposed load (in kilograms), 20 relative loads (60% 1RM) were checked during the warmup by monitoring movement velocity. ...
Article
Purpose: This study aimed to (1) evaluate the acute effects of different interrepetition rest full-squat protocols on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, velocity loss (VL), and skin temperature (Tsk) and (2) determine whether the VL, the changes in Tsk, or the individual strength level is associated with the change in CMJ height. Methods: Sixteen resistance-trained men randomly performed 3 squat protocols at maximal intended velocity with 60% of the 1-repetition maximum (sets × repetitions [interrepetition rest]): traditional (2 × 6 [0 s]), cluster 2 (2 × 6 [30 s every 2 repetitions]), and cluster 1 (1 × 12; [36 s every repetition]), plus a control session. CMJ height was assessed before and 2, 4, and 8 minutes after the protocols. Results: There was a significant main effect of protocol for the VL (F = 20.54, P < .001) and loss in mean power (F = 12.85, P < .001; traditional > cluster 2 > cluster 1). However, we found a comparable reduction of CMJ height after 8 minutes: traditional (-3.4% [4.2%]), cluster 2 (-5.3% [4.9%]), cluster 1 (-5.4% [2.9%]), and control (-4.2% [3.6%]). Overall, mean Tsk acutely decreased after all the protocols. Higher individual strength level (but not VL or the changes in Tsk) was associated with lower CMJ-height loss (P < .05). Conclusions: Although different interrepetition rest full-squat protocols may alter the loss in velocity and power, they result in a similar decrease in Tsk and CMJ height, which could be more influenced by individual strength level than VL or changes in Tsk.
... However, mean propulsive velocity (MPV) (i.e., the average velocity from the start of the concentric phase until the acceleration is less than gravity [30,31] has also been proposed as an alternative [32]. Interestingly, several studies have found a nearly perfect association between MPV and percentage of 1 Repetition Maximum (%1RM) in different exercises, including squat, half squat [33] and leg press [34]. Most of the studies mentioned above analyzed the load-velocity profile in men, which could be considered as a limitation, since previous studies have shown that men show higher velocity values at different %1RMs than women in the bench press, squat, inclined bench press and seated military press exercises [30,35,36]. ...
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Injuries are common in team sports and can impact both team and individual performance. In particular, hamstring strain injuries are some of the most common injuries. Furthermore, hamstring injury ratios, in number of injuries and total absence days, have doubled in the last 21 seasons in professional soccer. Weakness in hip extensor strength has been identified as a risk factor in elite-level sprinters. In addition, strength imbalances of the hamstring muscle group seem to be a common cause of hamstring strain injuries. In this regard, velocity-based training has been proposed to analyze deficits in the force-velocity profile. Previous studies have shown differences between men and women, since there are biomechanical and neuromuscular differences in the lower limbs between sexes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the load-velocity profile between males and females during two of the most important hip extension exercises: the hip thrust and the deadlift. Sixteen men and sixteen women were measured in an incremental loading test following standard procedures for the hip thrust and deadlift exercises. Pearson's correlation (r) was used to measure the strength of the correlation between movement velocity and load (%1RM). The differences in the load-velocity relationship between the men and the women were assessed using a 2 (sex) × 15 (load) repeated-measures ANOVA. The main findings revealed that: (I) the load-velocity relationship was always strong and linear in both exercises (R 2 range: 0.88-0.94), (II) men showed higher velocities for light loads (30-50%1RM; effect size: 0.9-0.96) than women for the deadlift, but no significant differences were found for the hip thrust. Based on the results of this study, the load-velocity equations seem to be sex-specific. Therefore, we suggest that using sex-specific equations to analyze deficits in the force-velocity profile would be more effective to control intensity in the deadlift exercise.
... Furthermore, muscular and functional performance improves with small incremental changes in velocity relative to some reference loads in well-trained athletes [7,[17][18][19]. Thus, it is essential to measure movement velocity with an accurate and reliable monitoring system. ...
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Recent advances in training monitoring are centered on the statistical indicators of the concentric phase of the movement. However, those studies lack consideration of the integrity of the movement. Moreover, training performance evaluation needs valid data on the movement. Thus, this study presents a full-waveform resistance training monitoring system (FRTMS) as a whole-movement-process monitoring solution to acquire and analyze the full-waveform data of resistance training. The FRTMS includes a portable data acquisition device and a data processing and visuali-zation software platform. The data acquisition device monitors the barbell's movement data. The software platform guides users through the acquisition of training parameters and provides feedback on the training result variables. To validate the FRTMS, we compared the simultaneous measurements of 30-90% 1RM of Smith squat lifts performed by 21 subjects with the FRTMS to similar measurements obtained with a previously validated three-dimensional motion capture system. Results showed that the FRTMS produced practically identical velocity outcomes, with a high Pear-son's correlation coefficient, intraclass correlation coefficient, and coefficient of multiple correlations and a low root mean square error. We also studied the applications of the FRTMS in practical training by comparing the training results of a six-week experimental intervention with velocity-based training (VBT) and percentage-based training (PBT). The current findings suggest that the proposed monitoring system can provide reliable data for refining future training monitoring and analysis.
... From a practical standpoint, it is consensual that the load-velocity relationship can be used to estimate relative load (%1RM) based on movement velocity (42). Generalized equations have even been developed to predict relative load from the velocity recorded during a single repetition performed at the maximal intended velocity in different resistant exercises, such as the full, parallel and half squat, 45°i nclined leg press, prone bench pull, prone pull-up, bench press, deadlift, and shoulder press (3,6,12,17,20,26,(36)(37)(38). These equations assume that a specific velocity is equivalent to the same %1RM for all individuals (15). ...
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Mendonca, GV, Fitas, A, Santos, P, Gomes, M, and Pezarat-Correia, P. Predictive equations to estimate relative load based on movement velocity in males and females: accuracy of estimation for the Smith machine concentric back squat. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2022-We sought to determine the validity of using the Smith machine bar velocity to estimate relative load during the concentric back squat performed by adult male and female subjects. Thirty-two subjects (16 men: 23.3 ± 3.8 and 16 women: 26.1 ± 2.7 years) were included. The load-velocity relationship was extracted for all subjects individually. Mean concentric velocity (MCV), combined with sex, was used to develop equations predictive of relative load (% one repetition maximum [1RM]). Prediction accuracy was determined with the mean absolute percent error and Bland-Altman plots. Relative strength was similar between the sexes. However, male subjects exhibited faster concentric MCV at 1RM (p < 0.05). Mean concentric velocity and the sex-by-MCV interaction were both significant predictors of %1RM (p < 0.0001), explaining 89% of its variance. The absolute error was similar between the sexes (men: 9.4 ± 10.0; women: 8.4 ± 10.5, p > 0.05). The mean difference between actual and predicted %1RM in Bland-Altman analysis was nearly zero in both sexes and showed no heteroscedasticity. The limits of agreement in both men and women were of approximately ±15%. Taken together, it can be concluded that sex should be taken into consideration when aiming at accurate prescription of relative load based on movement velocity. Moreover, predicting relative load from MCV and sex provides an error of approximately 10% in assessments of relative load in groups of persons. Finally, when used for individual estimations, these equations may implicate a considerable deviation from the actual relative load, and this may limit their applicability to training conditions in which extreme accuracy is required (i.e., more advanced lifters and athletes).
... Of note, these authors reported significantly higher jump height at Post4 and Post8 min using the loads that maximize power during squat jumps. Conversely, despite using the load reported by Martínez-Cava et al. 37 (~65% 1RM) to maximize mechanical power output in the squat exercise, no significant improvements in CMJ height were observed in the present study at any time point. ...
... This paper holds that the concrete embodiment of core strength is core stability, and introduces it into the field of sports. 5 This topic uses the theoretical knowledge related to core strength training, combined with practical research and comparative analysis, and suggests that athletes use core strength training in gymnastics training in order to improve the effect of gymnastics teaching and training. ...
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Introduction Artistic gymnastics is a traditional Chinese sport that enhances physical fitness, generates entertainment, and has a great visual impact. Its main objective is to develop human physical potential and improve motor coordination and body balance. The integration of strength training increases the athlete’s ability and can also contribute to teaching artistic gymnastics. Objective Study the effect of strength training on teaching artistic gymnastics based on strength training. Methods 40 male students who specialized in artistic gymnastics were selected as experimental subjects and divided into a control group and an experimental group (20 in each group). Both groups received training for 16 weeks, with the experimental group receiving two additional hours of resistance strength training daily. Results After the experiment, there were significant differences in parallel bar skills between the experimental group and the control group, and significant differences in horizontal bar mastery, but there were no significant differences in jumping technology. Conclusion The research shows that strength training can effectively assist in teaching artistic gymnastics, allowing greater performance in learning complex movements. Level of Evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment outcomes. Resistance Training; Gymnastics; Teaching
... The power-load relationship in the parallel squat has traditionally been described by a parabolic shape [37]. Specifically, the maximal power production in squats is achieved with moderate loads (i.e., from >30% to <70% of 1RM) [38]. ...
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The objective was to compare the mean propulsive velocity (MPV), maximum power (PMAX), heart rate, and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) during the parallel squat using elastic bands (EB) or weight plates (WP) to load the bar. The effect of relative strength on the dependent variables was analysed. Additionally, the potential of the RPE to predict external load parameters was assessed. Eighteen trained volunteers squatted at 40%, 55%, 70%, and 85% of their one-repetition maximum with EB and WP (a total of eight sets) in random order. Dependent variables were measured at the first and last repetition (i.e., 10% velocity loss). Two identical sessions were conducted to assess the reliability of measurements. Compared to WP, EB allowed a significantly greater number of repetitions, MPV, and PMAX, and significantly lower RPE. The RPE of the first repetition was a significant predictor of the external load of the set. The RPE showed good repeatability and was not influenced by the relative strength of athletes. In conclusion, compared to WP, the use of EB allows for greater external load with reduced internal load responses in a wide spectrum of load-based intensities. The potential implications of these novel findings are discussed in the manuscript.
... The duration of each repetition was fixed to 2 seconds of the eccentric phase and maximal velocity in the concentric phase (45). The subjects were instructed to start from an upright position, with the knees and hips fully extended, the stance approximately shoulder-width apart with both feet positioned flat on the floor in parallel or externally rotated to a maximum of 15°(this was carefully replicated on every lift) (24). From this position, subjects had to descend until they contact the bench and then perform the concentric phase of the movement in an explosive manner (30,35). ...
Article
The effectiveness of high-load and plyometric exercises as conditioning activity (CA) is not well described in the level of performance enhancement and muscle-tendon properties. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of high-loaded back squats and body mass tuck jumps among amateur soccer players on the height of countermovement jump performed without (CMJ) and with arm swing (CMJa) and to verify the usefulness of the myotonometry in assessing the level of CA-induced fatigue. Therefore, 16 male amateur soccer players (resistance training experience: 2 6 1 year, relative 1 repetition maximum back squat strength: 1.41 6 0.12 kg·body mass 21) performed 3 experimental sessions to compare the acute effects of 3 sets of 3 repetitions at 85% one repetition maximum of half back squats (HL), 3 sets of 5 repetitions of tuck jump exercises (PLY), and no CA (CTRL) on CMJ and CMJa height. Moreover, the gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon tone and stiffness were examined. Measurements were performed 5 minutes before CA and in the third, sixth, and ninth minutes after CA. The CMJ height significantly increased from pre-CA to post-CA in the CTRL (p 5 0.005; effect size [ES] 5 0.36; D 5 +3.4%) and PLY (p 5 0.001; ES 5 0.83; D 5 +8.8%) conditions. Moreover, post-CA jump height was significantly higher in PLY than in the HL condition (p 5 0.024; ES 5 0.6; D 5 +5.9%). No significant differences were found for CMJa height, tone, and stiffness of gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon AU2. The low-volume plyometric CA (i.e., 3 sets of 5 repetitions) is recommended instead of high-loaded CA ($85% one repetition maximum) for amateur athletes. In addition, it has been established that the performance improvement was independent of changes in the mechanical properties of the gastrocnemius medialis and Achilles tendon. Furthermore, it seems that the complexity of the post-CA task may affect the magnitude of the postactivation performance enhancement.
... At the beginning, at the exercises (e.g., percentage of the 1 repetition maximum) (González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010). Therefore, velocity-and power-load relationship in half squat has been studied, including the optimal load for reaching maximal power (Martínez-Cava et al., 2019). Further, vertical jumps as countermovement jump (CMJ) require brief contraction times and high RFD (Lago-Rodríguez et al., 2021), and are associated with sprint performance (Stanton, Wintour & Kean, 2017), and success in other sport modalities. ...
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Background: Patellar tendinopathy (PT) is an injury with a high prevalence in athletes that causes pain, loss of strength and sport performance levels. Purpose: to analyse the effects of 8 weeks of a conservative physical rehabilitation program that combine eccentric exercise (EE), stretching, extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), and manual therapy on tendon tissue, perceived pain, and muscle power and strength in athletes diagnosed with PT. Material and methods: Eight athletes diagnosed with PT, performed 8 weeks of EE, stretching, and ESWT. At the beginning (PRE), at 4-weeks (INT), and at the end of the 8-week intervention (POST), participants performed a countermovement jump test (CMJ), and a gradual back squat (BS) test to determine peak power (PP), mean velocity in PP (PPMV), and load lifted (PPKG). Furthermore, a maximum test of 5-repetition (5-RM) was evaluated in leg extension exercise, perceived pain using the Victorian Institute of Sport Assessment-Patella scale (VISA-P), and thickness in the injured and uninjured knee. Results: It was reported a lower tendon thickness POST vs. PRE in the injured knee (p=0.045), and lower values compared to the uninjured knee at PRE (p=0.004), and INT (p=0.025), but not POST (p=0.123). The CMJ and 5-RM tests showed statistical differences POST vs. PRE, and INT (p<0.05). Regarding BS, differences were reported in PPKG POST vs PRE (p=0.033), and INT (p = 0.007), while in PP differences were found in POST vs PRE (p=0.037). Conclusions: 8 weeks of EE, stretching, ESWT, and manual therapy induce positive effects on tendon tissue healing, lower limbs muscle power and strength performance in athletes with PT.
... The very strong relationship between submaximal loads and bar velocity (R 2 > .94; standard error of the estimation = 5.43% 1RM) found here suggests that bar velocity can accurately estimate the 1RM in the HBD exercise, which is consistent with previous studies including other resistance exercises such as bench press (González-Badillo & Sánchez-Medina, 2010; Loturco et al., 2017), back squat (Conceição et al., 2016;Martínez-Cava et al., 2019), prone row Loturco et al., 2021), and conventional deadlift (Benavides-Ubric et al., 2020;Morán-Navarro et al., 2021). Nevertheless, the individual load-velocity relationship provided an even better adjustment than the general equation (R 2 > .97). ...
Article
In this study, we examined the load-velocity relationship in the hexagonal bar deadlift exercise in women. Twenty-seven resistance-trained women were recruited. Participants performed a progressive load test up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM) load for determining the individual load-velocity relationship in the hexagonal bar deadlift exercise. Bar velocity was measured in every repetition through a linear encoder. A very strong and negative relationship was found between the %1RM and bar velocity for the linear (R 2 = .94; standard error of the estimation = 5.43% 1RM) and second-order polynomial (R 2 = .95) regression models. The individual load-velocity relationship provided even better adjustments (R 2 = .98; coefficient of variation = 1.77%) than the general equation. High agreement level and low bias were found between actual and predicted 1RM for the general load-velocity relationship (intraclass correlation coefficient = .97 and 95% confidence interval [0.90, 0.99]; bias = −2.59 kg). In conclusion, bar velocity can be used to predict 1RM with high accuracy during hexagonal bar deadlift exercise in resistance-trained women.
... Because bilateral vertical CMJ is a valid indicator of dynamic peakpower (30) and peak-power is the result of force (load) multiplied by velocity, the use of the parallel squat in this study may explain how both HRT and MRT improved vertical CMJ and SJ performance. Greater squatting depths are associated with lower absolute loads than seen in a half-squat, which in turn can increase movement velocity toward the end of the movement (20). ...
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The aims of this study were to investigate the impact of high-intensity, low-volume (HRT) vs. moderate-intensity, high-volume resistance training (MRT) vs. soccer training only (CON) on changes in strength, power, and speed, and to compare delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) between groups in male academy soccer players (ASP). Twenty-two ASP (age: 18±1 years) were assigned to either HRT (n=8), MRT (n=7) or CON (n=7). HRT completed 2 sets of 4 repetitions parallel back squat (PBS) repetitions at 90% 1RM, while MRT performed 3 sets of 8 repetitions PBS repetitions at 80% 1RM, both once a week for six-weeks in-season, alongside regular soccer training. All groups completed the following pre- and post-training assessments: 3RM PBS; bilateral vertical and horizontal countermovement jumps (CMJ); squat jump (SJ); 30m sprint. DOMS was assessed via visual analogue scale throughout training. HRT and MRT experienced similar increases compared to CON in absolute PBS 3RM (p<0.001), SJ height (p=0.001), CMJ height (p=0.008) following training. There was a greater increase in PBS 3RM relative to body mass following HRT than MRT and CON (p=0.001) and horizontal CMJ distance improved in HRT but not in MRT or CON (p=0.011). There was no change in 10m, 20m or 30m sprint performance in any group. HRT volume was 58±15% lower than that of MRT (p<0.001) and DOMS measured throughout training did not differ between groups (p=0.487). These findings suggest that one HRT session a week may be an efficient method for improving strength and power in ASP in-season with minimal DOMS.
... the reliable and valid assessment of back squat mechanics provides useful information for S&c coaches and physical therapists regarding an individual's functional capacities or risk of injury. For instance, variation in squat depth is known to influence the development of kinetic and kinematic outcomes (martinez-Cava, moran-navarro, Sanchez-medina, gonzalez-Badillo, Pallares, 2019;rhea et al., 2016). While abnormal lower extremity kinematics during a deep squat may infer movement limitations stemming from mobility issues (Kim, Kwon, Park, jeon, Weon, 2015;List, gulay, Stoop, Lorenzetti, 2013;Macrum, Bell, Boling, Lewek, Padua, 2012). ...
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This study examined the test re-test, intrarater and interrater reliability of joint kinematics from the coach's Eye smartphone application. Twenty-two males completed a 1-repetition maximum (1-rM) assessment followed by 2 identical sessions using 5 incremental loads (20, 40, 60, 80, 90% 1-rM). Peak flexion angles at the hip, knee, and ankle joints were assessed using 1 experienced practitioner and 1 inexperienced practitioner. the acceptable reliability thresholds were defined as intraclass correlation coefficient (Icc) r > 0.70 and coefficient of variation cv ≤ 10%. the test re-test reliability of peak hip and knee flexion were reliable across 20-90% 1-rM (r > 0.64; cv < 4.2%), whereas peak ankle flexion was not reliable at any loaded condition (r > 0.70; cv < 20.4%). no significant differences were detected between trials (p > 0.11). the intrarater reliability was near perfect (r > 0.90) except for peak ankle flexion (r > 0.85). the interrater reliability was nearly perfect (r > 0.91) except for hip flexion at 80% 1-rM and ankle flexion at 20% (r > 0.77). concludingly, the coach's Eye application can produce repeatable assessments of joint kinematics using either a single examiner or 2 examiners, regardless of experience level. the coach's Eye can accurately monitor squat depth.
Article
Purpose : Performing back squats with elastic bands has been widely used in resistance training. Although research demonstrated greater training effects obtained from adding elastic bands to the back squat, little is known regarding the optimal elastic resistance and how it affects neuromuscular performance. This study aimed to compare the force, velocity, power, and muscle activity during back squats with different contributions of elastic resistance. Methods : Thirteen basketball players performed 3 repetitions of the back squat at 85% of 1-repetition maximum across 4 conditions: (1) total load from free weight and (2) 20%, (3) 30%, and (4) 40% of the total load from elastic band and the remaining load from free weight. The eccentric and concentric phases of the back squat were divided into upper, middle, and bottom phases. Results : In the eccentric phase, mean velocity progressively increased with increasing elastic resistance, and muscle activity of the vastus medialis and rectus femoris significantly increased with the largest elastic resistance in the upper phase ( P ≤ .036). In the concentric phase, mean power ( P ≤ .021) and rate of force development ( P ≤ .002) significantly increased with increasing elastic resistance. Furthermore, muscle activity of the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis significantly improved with the largest elastic resistance in the upper phases ( P ≤ .021). Conclusion : Velocity, power, rate of force development, and selective muscle activity increased as the elastic resistance increased in different phases during the back-squat exercise.
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In the final part of this three-article collection on the training strategies of Brazilian Olympic sprint and jump coaches, we provide a detailed description of the resistance training methods and exercises most commonly employed by these speed experts. Always with the objective of maximizing the sprint and jump capabilities of their athletes, these experienced coaches primarily utilize variable, eccentric, concentric, machine-based, isometric, complex, and isoinertial resistance training methods in their daily practices. Squats (in their different forms), Olympic weightlifting, ballistics, hip thrusts, lunges, calf raises, core exercises, leg curls, stiff-leg deadlifts, and leg extension are the most commonly prescribed exercises in their training programs, during both the preparatory and competitive periods. Therefore, the current manuscript comprehensively describes and examines these methods, with the additional aim of extrapolating their application to other sports, especially those where sprint speed is a key performance factor.
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This study examined the force-velocity profile differences between men and women in three variations of row exercises. Twenty-eight participants (14 men and 14 women) underwent maximum dynamic strength assessments in the free prone bench row (PBR), bent-over barbell row (BBOR), and Smith machine bent-over row (SMBOR) in a randomized order. Subjects performed a progressive loading test from 30 to 100% of 1-RM (repetition maximum), and the mean propulsive velocity was measured in all attempts. Linear regression analyses were conducted to establish the relationships between the different measures of bar velocity and % 1-RM. The ANOVAs applied to the mean velocity achieved in each % 1-RM tested revealed significantly higher velocity values for loads < 65% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to BBOR (p < 0.05) and higher velocities for loads < 90% 1-RM in SMBOR compared to PBR (p < 0.05) for both sexes. Furthermore, men provided significantly higher velocity values than women (PBR 55-100% 1-RM; BBOR and SMBOR < 85% 1-RM; p < 0.05) and significant differences were found between exercises and sex for 30-40% 1-RM. These results confirm that men have higher velocities at different relative loads (i.e., % 1-RM) compared to women during upper-body rowing exercises.
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Abstract: The aim of the current study was to investigate the impact of the kinematic variables of squatting and anthropometric measurements on jump height, ball throwing angle and ball speed in jump serve amongst Jordanian volleyball players. The researcher used the descriptive method. Eight male volleyball players took part in this study. The researcher used an iPhone camera (30\sec) to record the players' performance. Marks were placed on the joints of the players in order to observe the kinematics of their jump serve. Kinovea © software was then used to analyze the jump serve and bodyweight squat. After data analysis (by means of multiple linear regression, one-way ANOVA, and standard deviation), it was concluded that body-mass, height, and BMI affect the jump height, and that squat depth does affect the throwing angle in the jump serve. It was also found that flexion time of the legs and arms do not affect ball speed during the serve. Therefore, it is recommended that volleyball training should focus more on strengthening the lower limbs. Keywords: Squat, Kinematics' Variables, Anthropometric Measurements, Volleyball Jump Serve.
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The aim of the current study was to investigate the impact of the kinematic variables of squatting and anthropometric measurements on jump height, ball throwing angle and ball speed in jump serve amongst Jordanian volleyball players. The researcher used the descriptive method. Eight male volleyball players took part in this study. The researcher used an iPhone camera (30\sec) to record the players' performance. Marks were placed on the joints of the players in order to observe the kinematics of their jump serve. Kinovea © software was then used to analyze the jump serve and bodyweight squat. After data analysis (by means of multiple linear regression, one-way ANOVA, and standard deviation), it was concluded that body mass, height, and BMI affect jump height. That squat depth does affect the throwing angle in the jump serve. It was also found that the flexion time of the legs and arms do not affect ball speed during the serve. Therefore, it is recommended that volleyball training should focus more on strengthening the lower limbs.
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The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between the dynamic strength index (DSI) and the lower-body Force-velocity (F-v) profile. Eighty-six (n = 58 females) resistance-trained individuals were recruited to perform both the DSI and F-v profile testing protocols to evaluate this relationship, as well as relationships between the components that comprise each test. Spearman correlations were calculated between DSI, F-v profile slope, countermovement jump (CMJ) peak force (PF), isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP) PF, and CMJ peak velocity (PV) across a series of loading conditions from an unloaded CMJ to an additional 100% bodyweight (BW) CMJ condition. No significant correlations (rs = 0.01; p > 0.05) were found between the DSI value and the F-v profile slope. Significant correlations were found between the DSI and CMJ/IMTP PF (rs range = -0.63 to 0.22; p < 0.05) and between CMJ/IMTP PF and measures of CMJ PV (rs range = 0.45 to 0.73; p < 0.05) across the loading conditions. Results suggest that the DSI is not correlated to the F-v profile slope. Two different means of evaluating muscular force in athletes are not correlated; we suggest that athletes require specific evaluations for specific performance characteristics when assessing muscular force.
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BACKGROUND: Although squat depth determines the weight that can be lifted while squatting, it is unclear whether the One-repetition maximum (1RM) at one squat depth can be used to estimate the 1RM at another squat depth. OBJECTIVE: To determine the correlations between 1RM weights at different back squat depths (BSQs) in frequently trained male collegiate athletes. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 26 male collegiate athletes. Body composition, lower extremity length, and 1RM of BSQ were measured. 1RM of BSQ was measured at three positions (quarter, half and parallel positions), defined as 45 degrees of knee flexion (quarter, Q-SQ), 90 degrees of knee flexion (half, H-SQ), and femur parallel to the ground (parallel, P-SQ), respectively. All testing was conducted by a certified strength and conditioning specialist. Pearson’s correlation analysis and Spearman’s rank correlation were used to examine the correlation between 1RM at each squat depth. RESULTS: There was a significant correlation between 1RM in the H-SQ and P-SQ positions (p< 0.001, r= 0.725, R2= 0.526, y= 1.0728x+ 24.641), but no significant correlation between 1RM of Q-SQ and P-SQ, and 1RM of Q-SQ and H-SQ. There were significant correlations between the 1RM of Q-SQ and height (p= 0.001, r= 0.594), and with the length of the lower extremities (p= 0.002, r= 0.586). CONCLUSIONS: Mutual estimation of the 1RM of H-SQ or P-SQ from the 1RM of the other squat position is possible. Estimation of the 1RM of Q-SQ from the 1RM of H-SQ or P-SQ is, however, difficult, and must be measured separately. Future studies should be conducted with larger sample sizes, in athletes of various sports, and in females.
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The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of physical exercise, respiratory muscle training and the self-management WHO recommendations leaflet on the recovery of physical fitness, quality of life and symptom status in people with post COVID-19 conditions. Eighty non-hospitalized adults with a post-COVID-19 condition were randomly assigned to one of four 8-week parallel intervention groups: multicomponent exercise program based on concurrent training- CT (n= 20; 3 resistance and endurance supervised sessions per week at low-moderate intensity); b) inspiratory muscle training- RM (n= 17; 2 standardized daily sessions); c) a combination of both of the above- CTRM (n= 23); d) control group- CON (n= 20; following the WHO guidelines for post-COVID-19 related illness rehabilitation). No significant differences between groups were detected at baseline. While no significant differences between interventions were detected in the VO 2max , significant individual improvements were identified in the CT (7.5%; ES=0.38) and CTRM (7.8%; ES=0.28) groups. Lower body muscle strength significantly improved in the CT and CTRM (14.5-32.6%; ES=0.27-1.13) groups compared to RM and CON (-0.3-11.3%; ES=0.19-0.00). The CT and CTRM groups improved significantly for dyspnea and fatigue, as did the health status. In addition, significant differences between interventions were described in fatigue and depression scales favouring CT and CTRM interventions. An individualized and supervised concurrent training with or without respiratory muscle training was safer and more effective than self-care recommendations and inspiratory muscle training alone, to regain cardiovascular and muscular fitness, improve symptom severity and health status in outpatients with post-COVID-19 conditions.
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Objective: Acute effects of variable resistance training (VRT) and constant resistance training (CRT) on neuromuscular performance are still equivocal. We aimed to determine the differences between VRT and CRT in terms of force, velocity, and power outcomes. Methods: We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus electronic databases for articles until June 2021. Crossover design studies comparing force, velocity, and power outcomes while performing VRT and CRT were included. Two reviewers independently applied the modified version of the Cochrane Collaboration's tool to assess the risk of bias. A three-level random effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were used to compute standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals. Results: We included 16 studies with 207 participants in the quantitative synthesis. Based on the pooled results, VRT generated greater mean velocity (SMD = 0.675; moderate Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) quality evidence) and mean power (SMD = 1.022; low) than CRT. Subgroup analyses revealed that VRT considerably increased the mean velocity (SMD = 0.903; moderate) and mean power (SMD = 1.456; moderate) in the equated loading scheme and the mean velocity (SMD = 0.712; low) in the CRT higher loading scheme. However, VRT marginally significantly reduced peak velocity (SMD = -0.481; low) in the VRT higher loading scheme. Based on the meta-regression analysis, it was found that mean power (p = 0.014-0.043) was positively moderated by the contribution of variable resistance and peak velocity (p = 0.018) and peak power (p = 0.001-0.004) and RFD (p = 0.003) were positively moderated by variable resistance equipment, favoring elastic bands. Conclusions: VRT provides practitioners with the means of emphasizing specific force, velocity, and power outcomes. Different strategies should be considered in context of an individual's needs. Systematic review registration: PROSPERO CRD42021259205.
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Background: In this study, we examined the Sex difference of the effect of rest intervals on lifting velocity during resistance exercise. Methods: Twenty-two trained subjects (11 men and 11 women) were included. Each protocol consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions at 70% of 1- repetition maximum (1RM) with rest intervals of 90 s (R90), 150 s (R150), and 240 s (R240) in a crossover design. The exercise did parallel squats with free weights. The measurement items are lifting velocity (mean velocity) in each repetition and blood lactate concentration after exercise. Results: There was a significant interaction between changes in the average velocity of 10 repetition in each set (AV10rep) and sex in each protocol, indicating that AV10rep during squat exercise has decreased in men but not in women in each protocol (p=0.002-0.03). Conclusions: Our results suggested that short rest intervals will not recover lifting velocity between short rest intervals until the next set at men, while women will be able to recover even with short rest intervals.
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Purpose: To describe the acute and delayed time course of recovery following resistance training (RT) protocols differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) out of the maximum possible number (P). Methods: Ten resistance-trained men undertook three RT protocols [S × R(P)]: (1) 3 × 5(10), (2) 6 × 5(10), and (3) 3 × 10(10) in the bench press (BP) and full squat (SQ) exercises. Selected mechanical and biochemical variables were assessed at seven time points (from - 12 h to + 72 h post-exercise). Countermovement jump height (CMJ) and movement velocity against the load that elicited a 1 m s(-1) mean propulsive velocity (V1) and 75% 1RM in the BP and SQ were used as mechanical indicators of neuromuscular performance. Results: Training to muscle failure in each set [3 × 10(10)], even when compared to completing the same total exercise volume [6 × 5(10)], resulted in a significantly higher acute decline of CMJ and velocity against the V1 and 75% 1RM loads in both BP and SQ. In contrast, recovery from the 3 × 5(10) and 6 × 5(10) protocols was significantly faster between 24 and 48 h post-exercise compared to 3 × 10(10). Markers of acute (ammonia, growth hormone) and delayed (creatine kinase) fatigue showed a markedly different course of recovery between protocols, suggesting that training to failure slows down recovery up to 24-48 h post-exercise. Conclusions: RT leading to failure considerably increases the time needed for the recovery of neuromuscular function and metabolic and hormonal homeostasis. Avoiding failure would allow athletes to be in a better neuromuscular condition to undertake a new training session or competition in a shorter period of time.
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The use of bar velocity to estimate relative load in the back squat exercise was examined. Eighty strength-trained men performed a progressive loading test to determine their one-repetition maximum (1RM) and load-velocity relationship. Mean (MV), mean propulsive (MPV) and peak (PV) velocity measures of the concentric phase were analyzed. Both MV and MPV showed a very close relationship to %1RM (R2 = 0.96), whereas a weaker association (R2 = 0.79) and larger SEE (0.14 vs. 0.06 m•s-1) was found for PV. Prediction equations to estimate load from velocity were obtained. When dividing the sample into three groups of different relative strength (1RM/body mass), no differences were found between groups for the MPV attained against each %1RM. MV attained with the 1RM was 0.32 ± 0.03 m•s-1. The propulsive phase accounted for 82% of concentric duration at 40% 1RM, and progressively increased until reaching 100% at 1RM. Provided that repetitions are performed at maximal intended velocity, a good estimation of load (%1RM) can be obtained from mean velocity as soon as the first repetition is completed. This finding provides an alternative to the often demanding, time-consuming and interfering 1RM or nRM tests and allows to implement a velocity-based resistance training approach.
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Purpose: to analyze the relationship between movement velocity and relative load (%1RM) in the pull-up exercise (PU), and to determine the pattern of repetition velocity loss during a single set to failure in pulling one's own body mass. Methods: Fifty-two men (age = 26.5 ± 3.9 years, body mass = 74.3 ± 7.2 kg) performed a first evaluation (T1) consisting of an one-repetition maximum test (1RM), and a test of maximum number of repetitions to failure pulling one's own body mass (MNR) in the PU exercise. Thirty-nine subjects performed both tests on a second occasion (T2) following 12 weeks' training. Results: We observed a strong relationship between mean propulsive velocity (MPV) and %1RM (r = -.96). Mean velocity attained with 1RM load (V1RM) was 0.20 ± 0.05 m·s(-1) and it influenced the MPV attained with each %1RM. Although 1RM increased by 3.4% from T1 to T2, the relationship between MPV and %1RM, and V1RM remained stable. We also confirmed stability in the V1RM regardless of individual relative strength. We found a strong relationship between percentage of velocity loss and percentage of performed repetitions (R(2) = .88), which remained stable despite a 15% increase in MNR. Conclusions: Monitoring repetition velocity allows estimation of the %1RM used as soon as the first repetition with a given load is performed, and the number of repetitions remaining in reserve when a given percentage of velocity loss is achieved during a PU exercise set.
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Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of training at different ranges of motion during the squat exercise on joint-angle specific strength adaptations. Methods Twenty eight men were randomly assigned to one of three training groups, differing only in the depth of squats (quarter squat, half squat, and full squat) performed in 16-week training intervention. Strength measures were conducted in the back squat pre-, mid-, and post-training at all three depths. Vertical jump and 40-yard sprint time were also measured. Results Individuals in the quarter and full squat training groups improved significantly more at the specific depth at which they trained when compared to the other two groups ( p < 0.05). Jump height and sprint speed improved in all groups ( p < 0.05); however, the quarter squat had the greatest transfer to both outcomes. Conclusions Consistently including quarter squats in workouts aimed at maximizing speed and jumping power can result in greater improvements.
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For the development of speed strength in professional sports, “specific” strength training in the half or the quarter squat have been recommended. Due to the better lever ratios, higher loads have to be used to induce the necessary training stimuli compared to the deep squat. Therefore, intradiscal pressure and compressive forces on vertebral bodies increase. Calculated compressive forces for the L3/L4 vertebral segment were revealed to be 6–10-fold bodyweight when the half or the quarter squat was performed with 0.8–1.6-fold bodyweight. After 10 weeks of training, physical education students have even been able to lift 3.89-fold bodyweight in the one repetition maximum (1-RM) of the quarter squat. The presented dependence of squatting depth, load and their influence on the spinal column have not been discussed before. A search for relevant scientific literature was conducted using PubMed. Concerns about increased risk of injuries in the deep squat have been disproven by plenty of cross-sectional studies with professional athletes. On the contrary, the comparably supramaximal weight loads in the half and the quarter squat should be regarded as increasing injury risks caused by the higher shear and compressive forces in the vertebral column. Therefore, we come to the conclusion that the half and the quarter squat should not further be recommended.
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Strength training-induced increases in speed-strength seem indisputable. For trainers and athletes the most efficient exercise selection in the phase of preparation is of interest. Therefore, this study determined how the selection of training exercise influences the development of speed-strength and maximal strength during an 8-week training intervention. 78 students participated in this study (39 in the training group and 39 as controls). Both groups were divided into two subgroups. The first training group (squat training group [SQ]) completed an 8-week strength training protocol using the parallel squat. The 2nd training group (leg-press training group [LP]) used the same training protocol using the leg-press (45[degrees]-leg-press). The control group was divided in two subgroups as controls for the SQ or the LP. A two-factorial analyses of variance was performed using a repeated measures model for all group comparisons and comparisons between pre- and post-test results. The SQ exhibited a statistically significant (p<0.05) increase in jump performance in Squat jump (SJ, 12.4%) and Countermovement jump (CMJ, 12.0%). Whereas, the changes in the LP did not reach statistical significance and amounted to improvements in SJ of 3.5% and CMJ 0.5%. The differences between groups were statistically significant (p<0.05). There are also indications that the squat exercise is more effective to increase Drop Jump performance. Therefore, the squat exercise increased the performance in SJ, CMJ and RSI more effectively compared to the leg-press in a short-term intervention. Consequently, if the strength training aims at improving jump performance the squat should be preferred because of the better transfer effects.
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In the context of resistance training the so-called "sticking point" is commonly understood as the position in a lift in which a disproportionately large increase in the difficulty to continue the lift is experienced. If the lift is taken to the point of momentary muscular failure, the sticking point is usually where the failure occurs. Hence the sticking point is associated with an increased chance of exercise form deterioration or breakdown. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to the occurrence of sticking points as well as different training strategies that can be used to overcome them is important to strength practitioners (trainees and coaches alike) and instrumental for the avoidance of injury and continued progress. In this article we survey and consolidate the body of existing research on the topic: we discuss different definitions of the sticking point adopted in the literature and propose a more precise definition, describe different muscular and biomechanical aspects that give rise to sticking points, and review the effectiveness of different training modalities used to address them.
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The aim of this study was to investigate the existence of the sticking region in two legged free weight squats. Fifteen resistance‐training males (age 24 ± 4 years, body mass 82 ± 11 kg, body height 179 ± 6 cm) with 6 ± 3 years of resistance‐training experience performed 6‐RM in free weight squats. The last repetition was analyzed for the existence of a sticking region. Only in 10 out of 15 participants a sticking region was observed. The observed sticking region was much shorter than in the bench press. Furthermore, rectus femoris decreased the EMG activity in contrast to increased EMG activity in biceps femoris around the sticking and surrounding region. No significant change in EMG activity was found for the lateral and medial vastus muscles. It is suggested that a combination of these muscle activity changes could be one of the causes of the existence of the sticking region in free weight squats.
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Background: Although lower-body strength is correlated with sprint performance, whether increases in lower-body strength transfer positively to sprint performance remain unclear. Objectives: This meta-analysis determined whether increases in lower-body strength (measured with the free-weight back squat exercise) transfer positively to sprint performance, and identified the effects of various subject characteristics and resistance-training variables on the magnitude of sprint improvement. Methods: A computerized search was conducted in ADONIS, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, EBSCOhost, Google Scholar, MEDLINE and PubMed databases, and references of original studies and reviews were searched for further relevant studies. The analysis comprised 510 subjects and 85 effect sizes (ESs), nested with 26 experimental and 11 control groups and 15 studies. Results: There is a transfer between increases in lower-body strength and sprint performance as indicated by a very large significant correlation (r = -0.77; p = 0.0001) between squat strength ES and sprint ES. Additionally, the magnitude of sprint improvement is affected by the level of practice (p = 0.03) and body mass (r = 0.35; p = 0.011) of the subject, the frequency of resistance-training sessions per week (r = 0.50; p = 0.001) and the rest interval between sets of resistance-training exercises (r = -0.47; p ≤ 0.001). Conversely, the magnitude of sprint improvement is not affected by the athlete's age (p = 0.86) and height (p = 0.08), the resistance-training methods used through the training intervention, (p = 0.06), average load intensity [% of 1 repetition maximum (RM)] used during the resistance-training sessions (p = 0.34), training program duration (p = 0.16), number of exercises per session (p = 0.16), number of sets per exercise (p = 0.06) and number of repetitions per set (p = 0.48). Conclusions: Increases in lower-body strength transfer positively to sprint performance. The magnitude of sprint improvement is affected by numerous subject characteristics and resistance-training variables, but the large difference in number of ESs available should be taken into consideration. Overall, the reported improvement in sprint performance (sprint ES = -0.87, mean sprint improvement = 3.11 %) resulting from resistance training is of practical relevance for coaches and athletes in sport activities requiring high levels of speed.
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The purpose was to investigate the effect of 25 weeks heavy strength training in young elite cyclists. Nine cyclists performed endurance training and heavy strength training (ES) while seven cyclists performed endurance training only (E). ES, but not E, resulted in increases in isometric half squat performance, lean lower body mass, peak power output during Wingate test, peak aerobic power output (Wmax), power output at 4 mmol L−1 [la−], mean power output during 40-min all-out trial, and earlier occurrence of peak torque during the pedal stroke (P < 0.05). ES achieved superior improvements in Wmax and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial compared with E (P < 0.05). The improvement in 40-min all-out performance was associated with the change toward achieving peak torque earlier in the pedal stroke (r = 0.66, P < 0.01). Neither of the groups displayed alterations in VO2max or cycling economy. In conclusion, heavy strength training leads to improved cycling performance in elite cyclists as evidenced by a superior effect size of ES training vs E training on relative improvements in power output at 4 mmol L−1 [la−], peak power output during 30-s Wingate test, Wmax, and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial.
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Here we report on the effect of combining endurance training with heavy or explosive strength training on endurance performance in endurance-trained runners and cyclists. Running economy is improved by performing combined endurance training with either heavy or explosive strength training. However, heavy strength training is recommended for improving cycling economy. Equivocal findings exist regarding the effects on power output or velocity at the lactate threshold. Concurrent endurance and heavy strength training can increase running speed and power output at VO2max (Vmax and Wmax , respectively) or time to exhaustion at Vmax and Wmax . Combining endurance training with either explosive or heavy strength training can improve running performance, while there is most compelling evidence of an additive effect on cycling performance when heavy strength training is used. It is suggested that the improved endurance performance may relate to delayed activation of less efficient type II fibers, improved neuromuscular efficiency, conversion of fast-twitch type IIX fibers into more fatigue-resistant type IIA fibers, or improved musculo-tendinous stiffness.
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Manipulating joint range of motion during squat training may have differential effects on adaptations to strength training with implications for sports and rehabilitation. Consequently, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of squat training with a short vs. a long range of motion. Male students (n = 17) were randomly assigned to 12 weeks of progressive squat training (repetition matched, repetition maximum sets) performed as either a) deep squat (0-120° of knee flexion); n = 8 (DS) or (b) shallow squat (0-60 of knee flexion); n = 9 (SS). Strength (1 RM and isometric strength), jump performance, muscle architecture and cross-sectional area (CSA) of the thigh muscles, as well as CSA and collagen synthesis in the patellar tendon, were assessed before and after the intervention. The DS group increased 1 RM in both the SS and DS with ~20 ± 3 %, while the SS group achieved a 36 ± 4 % increase in the SS, and 9 ± 2 % in the DS (P < 0.05). However, the main finding was that DS training resulted in superior increases in front thigh muscle CSA (4-7 %) compared to SS training, whereas no differences were observed in patellar tendon CSA. In parallel with the larger increase in front thigh muscle CSA, a superior increase in isometric knee extension strength at 75° (6 ± 2 %) and 105° (8 ± 1 %) knee flexion, and squat-jump performance (15 ± 3 %) were observed in the DS group compared to the SS group. Training deep squats elicited favourable adaptations on knee extensor muscle size and function compared to training shallow squats.
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There is a growing body of evidence documenting loads applied to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) for weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing exercises. ACL loading has been quantified by inverse dynamics techniques that measure anterior shear force at the tibiofemoral joint (net force primarily restrained by the ACL), ACL strain (defined as change in ACL length with respect to original length and expressed as a percentage) measured directly in vivo, and ACL tensile force estimated through mathematical modeling and computer optimization techniques. A review of the biomechanical literature indicates the following: ACL loading is generally greater with non-weight-bearing compared to weight-bearing exercises; with both types of exercises, the ACL is loaded to a greater extent between 10° to 50° of knee flexion (generally peaking between 10° and 30°) compared to 50° to 100° of knee flexion; and loads on the ACL change according to exercise technique (such as trunk position). Squatting with excessive forward movement of the knees beyond the toes and with the heels off the ground tends to increase ACL loading. Squatting and lunging with a forward trunk tilt tend to decrease ACL loading, likely due to increased hamstrings activity. During seated knee extension, ACL force decreases when the resistance pad is positioned more proximal on the anterior aspect of the lower leg, away from the ankle. The evidence reviewed as part of this manuscript provides objective data by which to rank exercises based on loading applied to the ACL. The biggest challenge in exercise selection post-ACL reconstruction is the limited knowledge of the optimal amount of stress that should be applied to the ACL graft as it goes through its initial incorporation and eventual maturation process. Clinicians may utilize this review as a guide to exercise selection and rehabilitation progression for patients post-ACL reconstruction.
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The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of supplemental heavy strength training on muscle thickness and determinants of performance in well-trained Nordic Combined athletes. Seventeen well-trained Nordic Combined athletes were assigned to either usual training supplemented with heavy strength training (STR; n = 8) or to usual training without heavy strength training (CON; n = 9). The strength training performed by STR consisted of one lower-body exercise and two upper-body exercises [3-5 repetition maximum (RM) sets of 3-8 repetitions], which were performed twice a week for 12 weeks. Architectural changes in m. vastus lateralis, 1RM in squat and seated pull-down, squat jump (SJ) height, maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)), work economy during submaximal treadmill skate rollerskiing, and performance in a 7.5-km rollerski time trial were measured before and after the intervention. STR increased 1RM in squat and seated pull-down, muscle thickness, and SJ performance more than CON (p < 0.05). There was no difference between groups in change in work economy. The two groups showed no changes in total body mass, VO(2max), or time-trial performance. In conclusion, 12 weeks of supplemental strength training improved determinants of performance in Nordic Combined by improving the athletes' strength and vertical jump ability without increasing total body mass or compromising the development of VO(2max).
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The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between relative net vertical impulse and jump height in a countermovement jump and static jump performed to varying squat depths. Ten college-aged males with 2 years of jumping experience participated in this investigation (age: 23.3 ± 1.5 years; height: 176.7 ± 4.5 cm; body mass: 84.4 ± 10.1 kg). Subjects performed a series of static jumps and countermovement jumps in a randomized fashion to a depth of 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.60, and 0.75 m and a self-selected depth (static jump depth = 0.38 ± 0.08 m, countermovement jump depth = 0.49 ± 0.06 m). During the concentric phase of each jump, peak force, peak velocity, peak power, jump height, and net vertical impulse were recorded and analyzed. Net vertical impulse was divided by body mass to produce relative net vertical impulse. Increasing squat depth corresponded to a decrease in peak force and an increase in jump height and relative net vertical impulse for both static jump and countermovement jump. Across all depths, relative net vertical impulse was statistically significantly correlated to jump height in the static jump (r = .9337, p < .0001, power = 1.000) and countermovement jump (r = .925, p < .0001, power = 1.000). Across all depths, peak force was negatively correlated to jump height in the static jump (r = -0.3947, p = .0018, power = 0.8831) and countermovement jump (r = -0.4080, p = .0012, power = 0.9050). These results indicate that relative net vertical impulse can be used to assess vertical jump performance, regardless of initial squat depth, and that peak force may not be the best measure to assess vertical jump performance.
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The purpose of the current investigation was to determine the relationship between relative net vertical impulse (net vertical impulse (VI)) and jump height in the jump squat (JS) going to different squat depths and utilizing various loads. Ten males with two years of jumping experience participated in this investigation (Age: 21.8 ± 1.9 y; Height: 176.9 ± 5.2 cm; Body Mass: 79.0 ± 7.1 kg, 1RM: 131.8 ± 29.5 kg, 1RM/BM: 1.66 ± 0.27). Subjects performed a series of static jumps (SJS) and countermovement jumps (CMJJS) with various loads (Body Mass, 20% of 1RM, 40% of 1RM) in a randomized fashion to a depth of 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.60, and 0.75 m and a self-selected depth. During the concentric phase of each JS, peak force (PF), peak power (PP), jump height (JH) and relative VI were recorded and analyzed. Increasing squat depth corresponded to a decrease in PF and an increase in JH, relative VI for both SJS and CMJJS during all loads. Across all squat depths and loading conditions relative VI was statistically significantly correlated to JH in the SJS (r = .8956, P < .0001, power = 1.000) and CMJJS (r = .6007, P < .0001, power = 1.000). Across all squat depths and loading conditions PF was statistically nonsignificantly correlated to JH in the SJS (r = -0.1010, P = .2095, power = 0.2401) and CMJJS (r = -0.0594, P = .4527, power = 0.1131). Across all squat depths and loading conditions peak power (PP) was significantly correlated with JH during both the SJS (r = .6605, P < .0001, power = 1.000) and the CMJJS (r = .6631, P < .0001, power = 1.000). PP was statistically significantly higher at BM in comparison with 20% of 1RM and 40% of 1RM in the SJS and CMJJS across all squat depths. Results indicate that relative VI and PP can be used to predict JS performance, regardless of squat depth and loading condition. However, relative VI may be the best predictor of JS performance with PF being the worst predictor of JS performance.
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The squat is one of the most frequently used exercises in the field of strength and conditioning. Considering the complexity of the exercise and the many variables related to performance, understanding squat biomechanics is of great importance for both achieving optimal muscular development as well as reducing the prospect of a training-related injury. Therefore, the purpose of this article is 2-fold: first, to examine kinematics and kinetics of the dynamic squat with respect to the ankle, knee, hip and spinal joints and, second, to provide recommendations based on these biomechanical factors for optimizing exercise performance.