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Smarter choices - changing the way we travel
Abstract
Summary:
In recent years, there has been growing interest in a range of initiatives, which are now widely
described as 'soft' transport policy measures. These seek to give better information and opportunities,
aimed at helping people to choose to reduce their car use while enhancing the attractiveness of
alternatives. They are fairly new as part of mainstream transport policy, mostly relatively
uncontroversial, and often popular. They include:
. Workplace and school travel plans;
. Personalised travel planning, travel awareness campaigns, and public transport information and
marketing;
. Car clubs and car sharing schemes;
. Teleworking, teleconferencing and home shopping.
This report draws on earlier studies of the impact of soft measures, new evidence from the UK and
abroad, case study interviews relating to 24 specific initiatives, and the experience of commercial,
public and voluntary stakeholders involved in organising such schemes. Each of the soft factors is
analysed separately, followed by an assessment of their combined potential impact.
The assessment focuses on two different policy scenarios for the next ten years. The 'high intensity'
scenario identifies the potential provided by a significant expansion of activity to a much more
widespread implementation of present good practice, albeit to a realistic level which still recognises
the constraints of money and other resources, and variation in the suitability and effectiveness of soft
factors according to local circumstances. The 'low intensity' scenario is broadly defined as a
projection of the present (2003-4) levels of local and national activity on soft measures.
The main features of the high intensity scenario would be
. A reduction in peak period urban traffic of about 21% (off-peak 13%);
. A reduction of peak period non-urban traffic of about 14% (off-peak 7%);
. A nationwide reduction in all traffic of about 11%.
These projected changes in traffic levels are quite large (though consistent with other evidence on
behavioural change at the individual level), and would produce substantial reductions in congestion.
However, this would tend to attract more car use, by other people, which could offset the impact of
those who reduce their car use unless there are measures in place to prevent this. Therefore, those
experienced in the implementation of soft factors locally usually emphasise that success depends on
some or all of such supportive policies as re-allocation of road capacity and other measures to
improve public transport service levels, parking control, traffic calming, pedestrianisation, cycle
networks, congestion charging or other traffic restraint, other use of transport prices and fares, speed
regulation, or stronger legal enforcement levels. The report also records a number of suggestions
about local and national policy measures that could facilitate the expansion of soft measures.
The effects of the low intensity scenario, in which soft factors are not given increased policy priority
compared with present practice, are estimated to be considerably less than those of the high intensity
scenario, including a reduction in peak period urban traffic of about 5%, and a nationwide reduction
in all traffic of 2%-3%. These smaller figures also assume that sufficient other supporting policies are
used to prevent induced traffic from eroding the effects, notably at peak periods and in congested
conditions. Without these supportive measures, the effects could be lower, temporary, and perhaps
invisible.
Previous advice given by the Department for Transport in relation to multi-modal studies was that soft
factors might achieve a nationwide traffic reduction of about 5%. The policy assumptions
underpinning this advice were similar to those used in our low intensity scenario: our estimate is
slightly less, but the difference is probably within the range of error of such projections.
The public expenditure cost of achieving reduced car use by soft measures, on average, is estimated at
about 1.5 pence per car kilometre, i.e. £15 for removing each 1000 vehicle kilometres of traffic.
Current official practice calculates the benefit of reduced traffic congestion, on average, to be about
15p per car kilometre removed, and more than three times this level in congested urban conditions.
Thus every £1 spent on well-designed soft measures could bring about £10 of benefit in reduced
congestion alone, more in the most congested conditions, and with further potential gains from
environmental improvements and other effects, provided that the tendency of induced traffic to erode
such benefits is controlled. There are also opportunities for private business expenditure on some soft
measures, which can result in offsetting cost savings.
Much of the experience of implementing soft factors is recent, and the evidence is of variable quality.
Therefore, there are inevitably uncertainties in the results. With this caveat, the main conclusion is
that, provided they are implemented within a supportive policy context, soft measures can be
sufficiently effective in facilitating choices to reduce car use, and offer sufficiently good value for
money, that they merit serious consideration for an expanded role in local and national transport
strategy.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the many contributions made by organisations and individuals consulted
as part of the research, and by the authors of previous studies and literature reviews which we have
cited. Specific acknowledgements are given at the end of each chapter.
We have made extensive use of our own previous work including research by Lynn Sloman funded by
the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 on the traffic impact of soft factors and local
transport schemes (in part previously published as 'Less Traffic Where People Live'); and by Sally
Cairns and Phil Goodwin as part of the research programme of TSU supported by the Economic and
Social Research Council, and particularly research on school and workplace travel plans funded by
the DfT (and managed by Transport 2000 Trust), on car dependence funded by the RAC Foundation,
on travel demand analysis funded by DfT and its predecessors, and on home shopping funded by
EUCAR. Case studies to accompany this report are available at: http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/archive/00001233/
... Three locations were chosen, but only one was visited because of insights gained in the piloting stages (see Section 3.2.3). This location, Churchill Square in Brighton, was chosen because trends had indicated that public transport use was growing on average 5% each year since 1993 by the Brighton and Hove Bus Company, often referred to as a uniquely successful provider of public transport services (Butcher et al., 2015, Cairns et al., 2004. Regarding the sample size, the intention was for the study to obtain a minimum of 30 participants per location in order for the planned analysis based on the normal distribution (i.e. ...
... People appear to be opting out of travel, and this may be evidence of a change in the way that people work. Some previous would-be commuters may have switched their behaviour to teleworking and teleconferencing through the increase and stability of technology to enable such a working lifestyle (Cairns et al., 2004). This is demonstrated by a decrease in the number of commuting trips by 18% (Department for Transport, 2014b). ...
... This is demonstrated by a decrease in the number of commuting trips by 18% (Department for Transport, 2014b). In addition, some would-be shopping travellers may have chosen home deliveries, exchanging their trips with the freight and logistics industry (Cairns et al., 2004). This has also been demonstrated by a decrease in the number of shopping trips by 24% (Department for Transport, 2014b). ...
Every day, UK towns and cities are full of different traveller types, each with a different level of exposure to the environment around them, which is made up of the local landscape and transport system operations. For example, the travellers that are most comfortable with the information around them and can respond accurately to it are those who travel regularly and are familiar with the environment. However, other travellers unfamiliar with these things will need a little more help in understanding it and the available information relating to it.
In some cases, service providers and key stakeholders turn to external information systems to resolve pressure points caused by a lack of local familiarity. These include journey planners used to help travellers gain an understanding of day-to-day operations within that landscape. These external systems focus on distributing the available travel information and not on the user’s primary travel information needs relating to their journey. Little research has addressed how travel information should be presented to travellers to inform effective action. In essence, giving an individual access to relevant information and advice means the production of accurate travel plans that correctly match the local landscape and transport operations in a clear and understandable way.
This thesis established a broad view of the different traveller type personas based on their level of familiarity and the stages of information use. That knowledge was captured in a Traveller Planning Types (TPT) framework conceptualised through a triangulation study comprised of a contextual review, focus groups and a literature review collated using thematic analysis. The TPT framework was confirmed as an appropriate framework using a Delphi study of these key stakeholders of external information provision systems. The TPT framework was then used to establish a new method of measuring pre-trip travel information needs for familiar or unfamiliar
journey planning situations using probing and process observation techniques using a screen monitoring system.
The results show that there is a statistically significant difference in how travellers feel when pre-planning a familiar or unfamiliar journey, especially with regards to translating that information into accurate travel plans and the confidence to conduct the pre-planned journey. The research has identified that pre-planning travel information has yet to meet the standards set by the fourth rule of citizenship. Specific strategic guidelines were developed to guide future development of such external information systems to take into account user’s travel information needs.
... Une enquête récente de la FEVAD montre la place importante déjà prise par les relais-livraison en France ( Figure 2). Dans un rapport très complet (CAIRNS et al., 2005), les produits achetés en ligne ont été classés selon leur profil logistique. On distingue ainsi : 1. Les produits "postables". ...
... A partir d'études faites au début des années 2000, CAIRNS et al. (2005 ont évalué l'impact potentiel et effectif de ces différentes catégories de logistiques à domicile sur le secteur du transport. Les auteurs distinguaient les produits selon leur capacité à générer de nouvelles chaînes logistiques. ...
In recent years, there has been a strong development of pick up points in urban and suburban areas in many European countries (particularly in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Benelux). Pick up points are local collection and distribution depots, or boxes, from which consumers can pick up goods they have ordered via home retail services (by mail order or order made on the internet). Their development has paralleled the rapid growth of sales made on the internet since years 2002-2003. In the last 5 to 6 years, the development of drop boxes and relay points has been remarkable in many European countries. In this article, we propose the identification.
Avec le développement très rapide du commerce électronique ces dernières années, les consommateurs européens, notamment en France, en Allemagne, au Royaume-Uni et au Benelux, ont vu s’installer près de chez eux un nombre croissant de relais-livraison, en particulier en zones urbaines. Les relais-livraison sont des points de dépose et de collecte à partir desquels les clients de la vente à distance vont récupérer les colis commandés par internet ou par courrier. Ces relais remplacent la livraison à domicile, qui suppose une remise en main propre du colis par le livreur au destinataire. Dans cet article, nous recensons les expériences récentes de relais-livraison en Europe, en en étudiant les caractéristiques principales ainsi que les facteurs de réussite ou d’échec. Nous comparons en particulier l’émergence très récente des « consignes automatiques » au déploiement plus ancien (mais qui se fait aujourd’hui sous une forme modernisée) des « points-relais » hébergés dans les commerces de proximité. La présentation détaillée de quatre expériences (E-box, Kiala, Packstation et Cityssimo) nous permet de dresser des analyses plus précises sur le devenir de ces réseaux.
... This viewpoint finds many empirical confirmations. A number of different researches have focused on the potential of telecommuting to reduce vehicle kilometres and their impacts in order to reduce energy consumption and air pollution [27,78,81,109,181,[243][244][245][246][247][248][249][250][251][252][253][254][255][256], as well as travel time, which is a social benefit in itself. US studies state car mileage decreases between 48% and 77% on teleworking days, with a weekly decrease between 9% and 11% when traditional working days are included [27,244,245]. ...
... Moreover, scholars have often underlined that telecommuting tends to act mainly on rush hour, with amplified benefits: fewer peak hour commute trips generally result in a reduction in congestion, smoother flows, and fewer emissions for a travelled kilometre [81,181]. Hamer et al. [109] highlight that telecommuters reduce the number of daily trips by 17% and the distance travelled by 16% as an average, and also that in peak hours, these variations are greater (19% and 26% respectively), with a maximum of −34% for car users. ...
The paper explores the potentialities of telework, a topic with rich literature published since the 1970s, which has become topical again with its forced application related to the COVID-19 pandemic emergency. The paper carries out an analysis of the potential territorial impact—transport networks and geographies of living—of telework in the Italian national context. The analysis highlights the potential relevance of the application of telework in certain metropolitan areas that present urban poles where economic sectors with a high propensity for telework are centralised. This survey relates the large stock of tourist housing in the vicinity of large metropolitan areas to a potential demand arising from the change in housing preferences towards more pleasant contexts made possible by the application of telework. In conclusion, this work aims to contribute to the construction of a platform for the Italian context—lagging behind but with recent legislative measures on smart working—aimed at favouring the definition of research lines able to enhance the potential offered by the application of telework for environmental, social, and territorial sustainability objectives, and it also aims to outline possible territorial scenarios for the main metropolitan areas
... The aim of this chapter is to review literature on the implementation of travel plan initiatives in green building accreditation as well as an overview of the process in established systemsin line with research objective 2. Travel plans are mainly implemented in existing developments for which a TIA may have been carried out (Cairns et al. 2004). Travel plans usually aim to address the commuting habits of occupants as well as incorporate measures aimed at travel by external occupants to the development (Cairns et al. 2004). ...
... The aim of this chapter is to review literature on the implementation of travel plan initiatives in green building accreditation as well as an overview of the process in established systemsin line with research objective 2. Travel plans are mainly implemented in existing developments for which a TIA may have been carried out (Cairns et al. 2004). Travel plans usually aim to address the commuting habits of occupants as well as incorporate measures aimed at travel by external occupants to the development (Cairns et al. 2004). This chapter draws upon potential application of travel plans to new developments as well as application to existing developments. ...
With rapid development as a result of continuous demand, congestion on the transport network is intensifying. A major challenge for land use and transportation planning is to reduce the need to travel, to improve accessibility and to achieve the use of more sustainable modes of transport that do not have adverse environmental impacts, as well as to reduce energy consumption while maintaining economic vitality (Botha, 2005). As a result of such a challenge and a limited ability to build more road networks, it is necessary to consider the scope of appropriate measures necessary to mitigate the impact of development on the road network. Therefore land use application processes for rezoning or redevelopment schemes require that transport impact assessments be carried out to consider the impact of the development proposals on the entire transport network. However, an overview of the effectiveness and extent to which transport impact assessments contribute to sustainable travel requires exploring.
Travel demand management measures like green travel plans need be employed. These aim to maximise alternative transport options (trains, buses mini-bus taxis, walking, cycling) among development occupants through site-specific initiatives and facilities that encourage alternative transport use. This would require proper revision of existing policies at provincial level, training of personnel to help achieve required measures and land use planning and approvals to help achieve this goal. Further still, there is limited understanding on the governing strategy of travel plans and the extent to which they are implemented in new of existing developments (De Gruyter, 2017).
This thesis dwells on the extent of application of travel plans in green building accreditation and transport impact assessments in Cape Town and the potential for integrating these processes to enhance the practice of sustainable travel.
... This could be in terms of various classical or core government services, such as applications and transactions, healthcare and assisted living, urban and community planning, or education. For instance, for public service production and delivery, the use of virtual worlds for meetings dates to the early 2000s, while teleworking was seen as early as the mid-1990s but with limited impact assessments [24] [25]. The early virtual world platform Second Life was used during the 2008 speech of US Representative Ed Markey at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bali, Indonesia, while he was physically in Washington [26]. ...
As an immersive virtual experience, the Metaverse is enabled by multiple technologies and concepts, such as extended reality, blockchain, artificial intelligence, the internet of things, and digital twins, among others. This reflection paper discusses the concept of the Metaverse and the role of the government and the public sector in maximising the potential of conceptual metaverse technology for public service delivery. First, the aim is to reflect on the regulatory role, which must address the existing and emerging issues of the suit of technologies enabling the Metaverse. Second, the role of the public sector and the government as potential users of the Metaverse is addressed. Lastly, various policy and program implications highlight the Metaverse's opportunity for innovation and transformation of public sector decision-making, service production, and delivery while stressing the importance of carefully considering whether Metaverse is the most appropriate technology to address specific public sector needs.
... It is also worth mentioning that currently a CDP system is only suitable for handling small packages. It is not suitable to store large items and groceries due to the space limits of the average CDP and special requirements of groceries (Cairns, 2004). Hence, the problems of collecting large and heavy items from CDP would not be raised frequently. ...
p>Home shopping and delivery services offer customers the opportunity to purchase goods and receive deliveries to their home rather than having to travel to high-street stores. Given the promising future of home shopping and delivery market, many efforts have been devoted to solving the problems currently encountered by service providers and customers which include unsecured deliveries, first-time delivery failures, demands for faster delivery, and product returns. Of major concern in this research are the implications of home delivery failures when there is nobody in to receive the package at the delivery address. Collection/delivery point (CDP) systems are one of the emerging solutions to mitigate failed home deliveries, in which CDPs are used as alternative addresses to receive the packages. Particularly focused on the small package home shopping market, this research has identified and modelled the existing home delivery and CDP methods. The carrier and customers travelling distance incurred in each delivery method was compared. It was then possible to quantify whether the CDP method is an economic solution to improve home delivery operations and the environment. A six-step research method was then developed to achieve those research objectives. Firstly, the existing and emerging home delivery methods were identified from the literature. The second stage consisted of conducting two home delivery surveys in Winchester and West Sussex, respectively. The surveys were'used to identify the home shopping and delivery characteristics of customers. In the third research step, the</p
... Finally, product differentiation is important when assessing online shopping since the type of good significantly impacts the trip. Although this has been identified for some time (Dixon and Marston, 2002;Cairns et al., 2004), research on online shopping for different types of products is a relatively new area. Dias et al. (2020) suggest that online shopping for different products was not frequent until recently, compelling researchers to consider all products as a "bundle" in a model. ...
E-shopping is growing globally, and the COVID-19 pandemic further accentuated this tendency. In this paper, online shopping adoption is analysed in Lisbon immediately before the pandemic outbreak. By focusing on an urban area, the impact of variables such as internet access or access to delivery services is controlled, thus enhancing the remaining components of the online purchase. The results show that online shopping is spatially dependent in an intraurban environment as a reflex of residential location preferences of different socioeconomic groups. Moreover, as internet access and delivery services become widespread, residential location preferences may come to explain e-shopping adoption both in urban and non-urban environments. The e-shopping geography of Lisbon suggests that age and affluence are determinants in explaining e-shopping adoption, with a marked distinction between central areas and more peripheral ones, some of which include extensive social housing projects. Hence, if retailers move online, shopping opportunities may become scarce for some consumers due to their socioeconomic status and consequent residential preferences. Nevertheless, strategic partnerships between retailers and the public sector may be devised to improve shopping opportunities. Physical stores can be encouraged to locate in areas where consumers are less prone to shop online. E-shopping adoption may also be encouraged by the public sector by promoting digital literacy, especially considering that the share of the older population is growing in Portugal as in most European countries.
While carpooling mode-share has been declining since the 80s, the growing digital sharing-economy has resulted in many initiatives of nonprofit self-organized ridesharing (SORS), that contribute to local sustainability. However, despite its promising potential, thus far, the diffusion and scaling of SORS have been insignificant and there is still insufficient knowledge on its attributes, evolution dynamics, diffusion processes, and influencing factors. Based on the assumption that better understanding of the complex phenomenon can improve its widespread dissemination, this study provides innovative perspectives on SORS by methodically exploring a social network-based case study through the lens of a recently developed conceptual framework. Online data were gathered and analyze through netnography and descriptive statistics, and supplemented by interviews, documents analysis, and field observations. The systematic examination highlighted the key mechanisms underlying the initiative and provided insights into the transition of its users from individuals into a community of purpose. Through collaborative learning, norms are shaped in the virtual arena, and more sustainable behavior emerges. Furthermore, through this exploration, we demonstrated the utility of the applied framework and broadened its constructs. Study findings can support successful replication efforts, and hence, promote more sustainable transportation habits.
Combined with concerns about climate change, air pollution and human health, the COVID-19 pandemic has renewed the use of and policy interest in active transport (AT) modes, namely cycling and walking. However, we note a high degree of uncertainty and lack of assessments addressing the economic benefits of AT policies; particularly when they are used as a mix of policies at the local level. This study aims to address this knowledge gap. We use the city of Oxford as a case study and apply the WHO Health Economic Assessment Tool and different baselines to assess four policy packages promoting a mode shift to AT for the 2030–2050 period. In total, 312 policy scenarios were produced and analysed. Results show that a policy mix that maximises economic benefits entails bike-sharing, cycle parking, training and education, low traffic neighbourhoods, e-bike grants, a workplace parking levy and increased use of a ‘cycle-to-work’ Scheme. Considering the health impacts from increased physical activity and avoided CO2 emissions, benefits are estimated in the range of: 62–256 prevented premature deaths; 18–50 million tonnes of avoided CO2e emissions; resulting in a total gross benefit of €3.45–11.28 billion. These impacts remain high and robust when key input parameters are tested via a sensitivity analysis. We conclude that investing in AT policy measures represents a multi-faceted low-carbon opportunity that should not be missed by policymakers.
The effects on the transport system are dependent not only on the costs of communicating but also on the value of information. In general, the substitution of travel by telecommunications is expected to be minor. -from Journal summary
This paper discusses estimates of the extent of teleworking in Denmark and reports on a study aimed at identifying the determinants
of the decision to practice teleworking. The study is based on a panel dataset obtained through a major commercial opinion
poll and market research agency using a web-based survey. There are 2,680 respondents from the panel. The data set is used
i) to identify the probable determinants of the choice to become a teleworker and the determinants of intensity of teleworking,
ii) to make a first estimate of the consequences of teleworking for travel activity and iii) to make a first estimate of the
long-term effects of teleworking on choice of place and type of residence and place of work. It appears that factors related
to the place and organisation of work are the most important in explaining both propensity to telework and its intensity.
The demand of individuals for travel increases steadily. As a consequence, traffic increases as well, especially by car. Due to the negative side-effects of traffic on the environment, e.g. air quality, a change in travel behaviour is required. Innovative concepts are called for. Recently emerging information technologies offer chances to replace to a certain extent physical by virtual travel and therefore reduce traffic induced emissions.
The research project presented here examines an option that was developed for work-related travel: telecommuting. The objective of this project is to analyse the effect telecommuting has on travel behaviour of telecommuters and their household members, the households’ expenditures in money and time and traffic-induced emissions.
To determine the effects of telecommuting, a pre- and post-treatment survey was carried out using detailed travel diaries and questionnaires. Analysis of the survey leads to the following results: telecommuting changes the distribution of trips over the day. Peak hour traffic is avoided, and the total number of trips and distance travelled decrease. Expenditures in time and money change accordingly. The amount of traffic-induced emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants decreases.
The impacts of home-based telecommuting on travel behavior and personal vehicle emissions for participants in the State of California Telecommuting Pilot Project are analyzed using the most advanced emissions modeling tools currently available. A comparison of participants' telecommuting day travel behavior with their before-telecommuting behavior shows a 27% reduction in the number of personal vehicle trips, a 77% decrease in vehicle-miles traveled (VMT), and 39% (and 4%) decreases in the number of cold (and hot) engine starts. These decreases in travel translate into emissions reductions of: 48% for total organic gases (TOG), 64% for carbon monoxide (CO), 69% for nitrogen oxide (NOx), and 78% for particulate matter (PM). Although the authors developed the methodology to investigate the emissions impacts of telecommuting, the analysis technique can be applied to any demand management or other transportation strategy where all of the necessary model inputs are available. An analysis of the number of personal vehicle trips and VMT partitioned into commute-related and non-commute-related purposes revealed that non-commute personal vehicle trips increased by 0.5 trips per person-day on average, whereas the non-commute VMT decreased by 5.3 miles. This important finding supports (for one indicator, the number of trips) the hypothesis that non-commute travel generation is a potential negative impact of telecommuting. This finding demonstrates the need to monitor these changes as telecommuting moves into the mainstream. In this study, however, the small increase in non-commute trips has a negligible impact compared to the overall travel and emissions savings.