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The KARREN and KARREN formation of bare slopes
Abstract
The karren formation and karren features of bare slopes is studied. The occurrence of various karren features was
measured on slopes with different inclination. The occurrence of various karren features on slopes has been
presented according to slope inclination values. The slopes were put into slope categories and their karren
features were given. Thus, the karren formation of the bare slopes of various karst types and karst features
(glaciokarst, coastal karst, tropical karst, mediterranean karst, collapse dolines, gorges, caves etc.) can be described.
It can be stated that on limestone with the increase of the inclination of the bearing slope, the diversity
of karren features decreases and those of flow origin will be increasingly dominant. However, with the increase
of slope inclination, features of flow origin will be increasingly simpler. On limestone, on slopes with a smaller
dip and on slopes of less soluble rocks, the distribution of karren features of seepage origin increases. On glaciokarst,
where bare slopes are widespread and of various inclination, karren are diverse and the distribution of
various types is also considerable. In other karst areas, small-inclined slopes (coastal karst, tropical karst) or very
large-inclined slopes (tropical karst, collapse dolines) are predominant and thus, the distribution of some karren
features (e.g. rinnenkarren) is limited. The change of slope inclination may result in the change of karren formation.
On glaciokarst, bare and subsoil karren formation are separated from each other, on mediterranean and
tropical karst, they are less separated from each other and the latter prepares the former. On halite, the effect of
slope inclination on karren formation may be modified by intensive dissolution. The karren formations of halite
and tropical karst are partly similar which can be explained by intensive dissolution in both cases.
... The term Karren designates the dissolution patterns, which are created by the run-off flows on denuded rock walls [12,55,76]. We focus here on the patterns, which are caused by the flows of water driven by gravity along the bare slope and originated from rain and snow falls. ...
... The Karren patterns occur mainly by dissolution of limestone and dolomite, but they can also appear on gypsum and salt (Halite) [56]. In view of the wide variety of shapes and front, a specific terminology has been defined to classify the different types [76]. Among the most important examples, Rillenkarren are adjacent grooves or small channels directed along the main slope [76,77] (Figure 4(a-d)). ...
... In view of the wide variety of shapes and front, a specific terminology has been defined to classify the different types [76]. Among the most important examples, Rillenkarren are adjacent grooves or small channels directed along the main slope [76,77] (Figure 4(a-d)). In cross-section, their profiles are parabolic, separated by sharp ridge lines. ...
... Consequently, a series of cuestas developed on valley floors and on slopes with bedding planes and scarp fronts situated above each other (Figure 1). Uncovered bedding planes of large extension provide favorable conditions for undisturbed water flow and the development of karren features of flow origin (rinnenkarren, meanderkarren, rillenkarren, wandkarren) [8]. ...
... Consequently, a series of cuestas developed on valley floors and on slopes with bedding planes and scarp fronts situated above each other ( Figure 1). Uncovered bedding planes of large extension provide favorable conditions for undisturbed water flow and the development of karren features of flow origin (rinnenkarren, meanderkarren, rillenkarren, wandkarren) [8]. [9] (modified). 1. Beds, 2. direction of bed dipping, 3. glacier in plan view, 4. direction of glacier movement, 5. former bed unit, former fracture, 6. water percolation, 7. scarp front, 8. exposed bedding plane, 9. steep valley slope with cliffs, 10. gentler valley slope and valley floor with steps; a. valley developed in dip direction, a1. ...
... On bedding planes of lower inclination, rinnenkarren of type B and rinnenkarren systems develop ( Figure 3B) [8]. Mainly these latter transmit the water from the complete catchment area of the rinnenkarren system into the pits of the main channel. ...
The landscape evolution of the glacier valleys of glaciokarsts is described. Depending on the character of coveredness (quality and thickness of the cover), altitude and the presence of karst features, different ways of geomorphic evolution occur adjacently. Most widespread is the denudation of bare surfaces by karren formation. During this process, beds are denuded, which is primarily controlled by the dip direction of the beds. The denudation of beds may modify the original cross-section of valleys. On terrains covered with caprock, the cover is becoming thinner by erosion processes since the debris is transported into the karst depressions and then from here into the karst. On terrains covered with limestone debris, if the cover is purely limestone debris, denudation is cyclical. The thick cover becomes thinner by dissolution and subsequently, the bedrock is dissolved by karren formation if water with dissolution capacity arrives at the bedrock. Then, the debris that developed on the bedrock makes the cover thicker from below. Reaching an adequate thickness, the process is repeated by the dissolution of the cover debris. In cirques, the superficial deposit is transported into the karst, which is supplied from the slopes, increasing the upfilling of the feature.
... Karren are classified based on the coveredness of the bearing rock, the size, and flow conditions and on the development environment (karst type) [1][2][3][4] . Regarding the development environment, glaciokarsts, tropical karsts and coastal karsts have striking and diverse karren landscape. ...
... According to size, karren [5,6] may be microkarren (depth and width are some millimeters), mesokarren (depth and width may range from some centimeters to some decimeters or even to some meters) and megakarren (their size is several 10 m). Microkarren and mesokarren mostly include similar karren features which develop during dissolution [4] . Megakarren are mainly tropical remnant features such as stone forest, pinnacle karst, arête karst and tsingy [7][8][9][10] . ...
... Mesokarren and microkarren may develop during water flow, water percolation and to the effect of dripping water [3,4,11] . Karren formed by water flow and dripping water may develop on bare surfaces, karren of percolation origin may be formed on uncovered, but on covered terrains too. ...
Karren and mass movements are described. Mass movements taking place on karren terrains are studied in case of bare karren and covered karren. Mass movements occur at rinnenkarren, grikes, Schichtfugenkarren, and tropical karren. This study describes that karren features increase the chance of the development of certain mass movements. It is approached in a theoretical way that in the case of different preconditions (e.g., change of slope angle), what kind of mass movements are triggered by different karren features. The most common mass movement is triggered by karren which are debris creep, gelisolifluction, rock avalanche, collapses, creep and solifluction.
... Another characteristics may also play a role in the development of karren features, however not all types. Thus, mainly the development of features of flow origin (rillenkarren, rinnenkarren etc.) is affected by the expansion, inclination, and smoothness of the bearing slope through shaping water flow conditions (Veress, 2019). ...
... Then, the diversity of small features of some high mountain karsts (based on examples of Alpine karst areas) in case of belts with various altitude were compared ( Figure 2, based on Bögli, 1960Bögli, , 1961Bögli, , 1976Veress, 2004Veress, , 2019. To show their altitudinal distribution we considered the karren feature type occurring along various sections and their density (Veress et al., 2006). ...
... Small features can be microkarren and mesokarren. Here, we mention that features larger than these thus, megakarren were classified as medium and large features Grimes, 2012), to which tropical karren, stone forest, tsingy and arête karst belong Day & Waltham, 2009;Williams, 2009;Veress, 2019;Veress et al., 2008). Micro karren and meso karren occur on the features of mega karren (Table 1) in great densities ( Figure 1C). ...
... Another characteristics may also play a role in the development of karren features, however not all types. Thus, mainly the development of features of flow origin (rillenkarren, rinnenkarren etc.) is affected by the expansion, inclination, and smoothness of the bearing slope through shaping water flow conditions (Veress, 2019). ...
... Then, the diversity of small features of some high mountain karsts (based on examples of Alpine karst areas) in case of belts with various altitude were compared ( Figure 2, based on Bögli, 1960Bögli, , 1961Bögli, , 1976Veress, 2004Veress, , 2019. To show their altitudinal distribution we considered the karren feature type occurring along various sections and their density (Veress et al., 2006). ...
... Small features can be microkarren and mesokarren. Here, we mention that features larger than these thus, megakarren were classified as medium and large features Grimes, 2012), to which tropical karren, stone forest, tsingy and arête karst belong Day & Waltham, 2009;Williams, 2009;Veress, 2019;Veress et al., 2008). Micro karren and meso karren occur on the features of mega karren (Table 1) in great densities ( Figure 1C). ...
The diversity of small, medium, and large solution features of zonal karsts and high mountain karsts is described here. It was taken into consideration how diversity changes according to the distance from the Equator in case of small, medium and large features of various zonal karsts and how it varies based on the distance from altitude in case of the karren features (small features) of high mountain karsts. It can be established that the diversity of karst features decreases according to the distance from the Equator (independent of the size of the features), while in high mountains the diversity of karren features first increases with altitude and then it decreases. The decrease of the diversity of medium and large features moving away from the Equator can be explained by the decrease of dissolution intensity. The diversity change of karren features shows a relation with the diversity of the inclination of the bearing slope. Since on tropical karsts and in the medium elevated areas of high mountains (1600-2100 m) where bare slopes with large expansion and various slope inclination occur, the diversity of karren is great. On tropical karsts, slopes with diverse inclination were created by karstification and in high mountains by glacial erosion.
... Takisto typológia sa za desiatky rokov zmenila a takmer každý z horeuvedených autorov používal iné názvoslovie, prípadne pri odlišnostiach jednotlivých škráp zavádzal nové názvy. Našim cieľom okrem popisu významných výskytov škráp v Malých Karpatoch je zjednotiť ich typológiu a pritom sa opierať o aktuálne výsledky zahraničných, aj domácich autorov (BELLA et al. 2009;BELLA et al. 2010;VERESS 2018). ...
... Stenové jarčekovité žľaby (Wandkarren) sú strmé paralelné oválne žľaby na strmých až takmer zvislých skalných stupňoch a stenách. Wandkarren (VERESS 2009a(VERESS , 2018 sa vytvárajú na strmšie sklonených skalných povrchoch (cca 60°až 90°) ako Rinnenkarren (VERESS 2009b). Zistili sme, že tento útvar sa vyskytuje na takmer vertikálnej ploche. ...
Contribution to the typology and occurrence of karren in the Malé Karpaty Mts. Abstract: Karren are an important part of the surface karst landscape. These are smaller karst formations that arise directly on the surface of exposed carbonate rocks, but also in the subsurface zone, where the rocks are partially covered by a layer of soil substrate. The paper deals with a genetic classification of karren and morphological description of their genetic types. Seven sites of the Malé Karpaty Mts. were selected for the typology of karren, taking into account the occurrence of individual types of karren, their abundance and representativeness in relation to the entire territory. Our goal, in addition to the description of significant occurrences of karren in the Malé Karpaty Mts, is to unify their typology and at the same time rely on the current results of foreign and domestic authors. Karren are significantly represented in the territories of the Čachtice Karst, Dobrá Voda Karst, Plavecký Karst and Kuchyňa-Orešany Karst. A smaller representation of karren can be found on the territory of Smolenice Karst and Borinka Karst. Due to the small surface dimensions of the Cajla and Devín Karst, the occurrence of karren here is minimal. Twelve genetic types of deepened and projecting karren were observed.
... Therefore, the increase of diversity at large and medium features is caused by the increase of dissolution intensity [18]. The great diversity of small features in the tropical zone is enabled by bare slopes of various inclination since these types of slopes developed as a result of intensive karstification [18,49]. The degree of diversity also depends on altitude. ...
... With higher altitude, the degree of the diversity of large and medium features decreases, except karren features (small features) as a result of the decrease of dissolution intensity. At 1600-2100 m, the diversity of karren features increases because of bare slopes with diverse inclination [49]. The latter can be traced back to former glacial erosion. ...
This study includes a general description of the Earth’s karst types based on literary data and field observations. An improved classification of karst types distinguishes the main group, group, and subgroup; and, a division of karst types involves a main karst type, karst type, subtype, variety, and non-individual karst type. The relation between karst type and karst area is described. The role of various characteristics of karsts in the development of primary, secondary, and tertiary karst types is analyzed. Their structure is studied, which includes a geomorphic agent, process, feature, feature assemblage, karst system and the characteristics of the bearing karst area. Dominant, tributary, and accessory features are distinguished. The conditions of the stability and the development of types are studied, transformation ways are classified, and the effect of climate on types is described.
... Cave Karren (lapies) is the underground equivalent of the dissolutional rills, flutes, pans and pinnacles that are characteristic of the limestone and dolomite bare rock landscapes (Veress, 2019). Karren is the result of vadose water flow; similar forms developed in phreatic conditions are not classified as karren. ...
... As vadose water loses its aggressivity as acidity decreases, the flutes and runnels fade out. Most forms are similar in shape to those of surface karren and a range of flutes (rillenkarren, rundkarren), spitzkarren, pans (kamenitza) as well as pinnacles, occur (Veress, 2019) (Fig. 10). Biokarstic karren, where karst solutional landforms are influenced to a significant degree by biological processes are less obvious in caves. ...
The wide range of meso and micro morphological features found in caves is predominantly but not exclusively, due to the solubility of limestone in natural waters, but the specific shapes of these features are generally related to the interplay of the phreatic, epi-phreatic and vadose hydrological conditions present and the host rock and its characteristics. Meso-morphology or features of passage scale contains the micro-morphology that relates to the smaller features present on the walls, ceilings and floors of caves. All of these are characteristic of their forming processes, but some features are still poorly understood, and many similar forms are produced by different processes.
... Az A típusú rinnenkarrok sűrűsége nő a lejtőszöggel, a B típusúaké csökken. Minél kisebb a hordozó lejtő dőlése, annál nagyobb és összetettebb rinnenkarrok képződnek, ami arra vezethető vissza, hogy kis lejtőszögnél egyidejűleg kevés vályú képződik, és az elsőként kialakult vályúk a később kialakultakat magukhoz kapcsolják; ugyanakkor nagyobb lejtőszögnél egyidejűleg sok, de mellékvályú nélküli A típusú vályú képződik (Veress m. 2019, Veress m. et al. 2015. ...
This study deals with the karren formation of bare surfaces. The used methods are theoretical calculations, field mapping, laboratory experiments, and digital modelling. The denudation rate of karren surfaces on bare slopes and based on the data of measurements, the denudation rate of karren in different vegetation belts were given. Mostly, the development of rinnenkarren and meanderkarren was analysed. A function relation was determined between the density of rinnenkarren types and the slope angle. The effect of the main channel and tributary channels on each other was studied by computer modelling. The impact of the wind on the development of karren and the conditions for the development of tropical karren was also investigated.
... In landforms built of carbonate rocks, megakarren develop in tropical areas or in glaciokarst, with development linked to karstification and/or climatic changes, resulting in distinct origins of the same feature in different lithologies (Perica, 2004;Veress, 2019). It is possible to draw parallels between the development of forms and understanding the dissolution factors. ...
Abstract: Inselbergs are landforms shaped by a number of erosion processes. They can be characterized either by a predominance of dissolution features or fracturing and occasionally exhibit massive slopes. In this study we demonstrate the main structural mechanisms driving the formation of dissolution features, such as gnammas. In granitic rocks, mafic ellipsoidal enclaves can act as a starting point for differential erosion. The enclaves and their orientation control the early stages of dissolution features (ellipsoidal microcavities and gnammas). In the Pedra do Cruzeiro inselberg, located in Quixadá, northeastern Brazil, 99 enclaves were analyzed in a 230m SW-NE transect on the inselberg slope. The data show that the primary trend of enclave orientation (86E on average) coincides with the orientation of the majority (97%) of dissolution features in their first and second stages. In advanced erosion phases in which megakarren are developed, they are not solely controlled by preexisting structural patterns, attesting to the superimposition of the surface runoff of the inselberg over the structure (e.g., magmatic foliation and mafic enclave orientation).
Resumo: Inselbergs são formas de relevo modeladas por diferentes processos erosivos. Por vezes, predominam feições de dissolução, por vezes, de fraturamento e, em alguns casos, exibem escarpas maciças. Neste trabalho, serão demonstrados os principais mecanismos estruturais que levam à formação de feições de dissolução, tais como gnammas. Em rochas graníticas, enclaves elipsoidais máficos podem servir como ponto de partida para erosão diferencial. Os enclaves e sua orientação, condicionam os primeiros estágios (microcavidades elipsoidais e gnammas) da formação de feições de dissolução. No inselberg Pedra do Cruzeiro, em Quixadá, Nordeste do Brasil, foram analisados 99 enclaves, a partir de um transecto de 230 m a NE-SW na escarpa do inselberg. Os dados mostraram que a direção preferencial dos enclaves (86E em média) coincide com a orientação da maioria (97%) das feições de dissolução em seu primeiro e segundo estágios. Já nas fases avançadas de erosão, em que megakarrens são formados, estes não seguem unicamente padrões estruturais pré-definidos, mostrando a superimposição do escoamento na superfície do inselberg sobre a estrutura (foliação ígnea e orientação dos enclaves máficos). Palavras-chave: Inselberg; Karren; Gnamma; Enclaves máficos.
... Cucchi (2009) described kamenitza with widths of 6-7 m and depth up to 1.5 m. Although Kamenitza are normally described up to a few meters in diameter, giant kamenitza have been described up to several 10's of meters in diameter (Veress, 2019). Solution pans have been identified on LiDAR data in multiple locations in the Mirador region. ...
Report of geological team for the the 2019 field season, Mirador Project, Guatemala.
... Doline, 12. Calcrete, 13. Caves Figure 2 Depressions of the coastal karst of Florida [24] Features and phenomena of coastal karsts are karren of diverse origin) [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18], notches, pinnacles, benches [17], caves of various genetics [6,[19][20][21][22], vadose shafts which may also get under water are the blue holes [23], and various dolines [24,25], such as cave failure [6] collapse dolines [21], which are especially widespread on the Yucatan Peninsula [10] in depressions permanent lakes, fluctuating lakes and intermittent lakes [24,25], calcareous sinter forms [26], cave lakes [8], karst springs [2], and lakes below sea level [22]. Below sea level brackish water cavities and below water level karst springs [2,25] are common. ...
This study deals with the karstification of coastal covered karsts with the aim of looking for a relationship between sea level changes and feature development taking place on the covered parts of carbonate karsts. This relation is manifested by the fluctuation of karst water level that is controlled by the sea level. Through further studies, shore shiftings occurring during the time of various paleokarst feature assemblages can be established. The development of suffosion dolines and dropout dolines at subsurface water level is analysed. The pattern of coast zones with dolines is studied in three cases thus, on regressive coast at non-fluctuating water level (1), on transgressive coast at non-fluctuating water level (2), and at oscillating sea level at oscillating karstwater level (3). In the first case, a solution doline zone (and/or karren zone), a mixed or compound zone (with suffosion dolines and dropout dolines) and a suffosion doline zone develops landward. In the second case a suffosion doline zone develops (this may turn into a mixed zone) and during further subsidence, a filled doline zone develops which may expand at the expense of the suffosion doline zone (mixed doline zone). In the third case, close to the shore, in the glacial a dropout doline zone and a suffosion doline zone are separated. In the interglacial, a solution doline zone develops at the uncovered surface, at the outer, seaward part of the dropout doline zone dolines with lakes are formed, the development of suffosion dolines continues in the suffosion zone.
... However, we have only a very limited understanding of the mechanisms that drive the distributions of animal taxa in solution dolines (see Nagy and Sólymos, 2002;Vilisics et al., 2011;Kemencei et al., 2014;Bátori et al., 2019;Bátori et al., 2020a). As karst lands cover about 20% of the Earth's terrestrial surface and solution dolines are the most prominent geomorphological features in many karst landscapes (White et al., 1995;Veress, 2019), assessment of their animal species composition, functional characteristics, and refugial capacity is particularly important from a conservation point of view (cf. Lewis et al., 2020). ...
Species can survive periods of unfavorable conditions in small areas that are protected from climate-related disturbances, such as increasing temperature and severe drought. These areas are known as “microrefugia” and are increasingly recognized by conservationists. Although some studies suggest that the in situ survival of invertebrate species may be mediated by topographically complex environments, there is little information about the main environmental factors that drive species distributions within such areas. Here, we investigate the spatial patterns and species trait composition (moisture preference, body size, dispersal capacity, and feeding habit) of five groups of ground-dwelling arthropods—spiders, woodlice, ants, ground beetles, and rove beetles—in topographic depressions (i.e., “solution dolines” or “solution sinkholes”) and on the surrounding plateau within a forested karst landscape and analyze the microhabitat conditions that affect these arthropod assemblages. We found that dolines have the capacity to maintain characteristic arthropod assemblages—including species that may be particularly vulnerable to climate change (e.g., species associated with moist habitats)—and thus, they may contribute to the landscape-scale biodiversity of karst landscapes. We also found that doline bottoms have the potential to maintain permanently moist conditions not only in spring and autumn but also during drier periods of the year. This ability of dolines may indicate the presence of potential hydrologic microrefugia. Furthermore, dolines displayed specific sets of species traits (e.g., more small-bodied spiders, more carnivorous ground beetles, and more rove beetles with high dispersal capacity occurred in dolines than on the plateau), highlighting that they may facilitate the persistence of some species and traits that are purged from the surrounding landscape. Future studies may reveal the long-term ecological consequences of different climatic and anthropogenic factors on the distribution and functional traits of arthropod taxa within microrefugia and on the refugial capacity of these safe havens under a warming climate.
... They can be studied with very high resolution DEMs (of the order of centimetres) obtained by photogrammetric reconstruction from aerial photographs taken from unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) or modern LiDAR systems on board UAVs. Examples of quantitative applications are small features of karren in karst areas, rain pits (Veress, 2019), kamenitzas and other forms of pitkarren (Veress, 2010). ...
In Geoparks and other natural protected areas, a geodiversity inventory is essential for the identification, characterization, quantification, and management of geo-heritage. The protection and preservation of geo-sites is essential for the sustainable development of geo-tourism. In this sense, geomorphological diversity is a significant component of a geo-diversity inventory. In evaluating geomorphological diversity, one of the most ubiquitous key landforms that configurate the landscape are closed depressions. Closed depressions occur extensively across scales, lithologies, climates and a variety of origin processes. The unprecedented availability of digital elevation models with high spatial resolution has expanded the possibilities for the mapping and morphometric analysis of closed depressions in geodiversity studies. Until recently, the identification of closed depressions was based on topographical maps, aerial photographs and field work, all of which have inherent limitations such as the observable spatial resolution, difficulty in accessing some areas, coverage of large areas and the quantification of mapped depressions. The digital format of elevation models now provides the basis for a numerical approach to accurately identify and delineate closed depressions using the simple methodology of pit removal (i.e., pit filling) together with a map algebra operation. The result is a raster map of terrain depressions in which each pixel shows the depth of the depression with respect to the lowest altitude of its rim. Morphometric analyses of these raster maps of closed depressions are then straightforward. Closed depressions are scale-invariant, and their sizes range from millimetres or centimetres for a solution pan to hundreds of kilometres for a tectonic basin. Closed depressions are ubiquitous in all terrains and are not confined to karst terrains in which closed depressions are the most distinctive feature at the metric scale. This paper demonstrates the use of a digital elevation model for automatically mapping closed depressions. The resulting map of closed depressions can be directly integrated into a geomorphological map to evaluate geomorphological diversity. In addition, this paper reviews the rich realm of closed depressions that have been found in all types of lithologies, at all scales and for a wide range of genetic processes: dissolution, subsidence, collapse, meteorite impact, explosive volcanism, suffusion, ice melting, erosion, weathering, landslides and tectonic processes. The detailed identification, delineation and bathymetry of closed terrain depressions can be used in the management of geodiversity and in evaluating geo-heritage and geo-sites and will contribute to the sustainable development of geo-tourim.
... These active processes, and the presence of buried caves and limestone pinnacles (Jennings 1960), indicate that the karst should be classified as kIV Complex Karst (Waltham & Fookes 2003). The irregular nature of the buried karst topography suggests that the karst formed subaerially under wet and possibly warm conditions (Simms 2004;Veress 2019), because development of sharp topographic relief, cave entrances and angular karren forms on limestone bedrock surfaces is inhibited by burial under thick Pleistocene clay-rich cover (Stokes et al. 2013). ...
Recent catastrophic sinkhole collapse caused by regional water table lowering induced by quarrying has led to the partial exhumation and reactivation of a buried karst cave system in the floor of the Railton Valley in the lowlands of northern Tasmania, Australia, and widespread sinkhole development. Extensive silty sediments exposed in sinkholes, OSL dated to approximately 237 ka, are interpreted to be lacustrine deposits derived from rapidly deposited glacial outwash. The silty sediments have mineralogy consistent with derivation from a source in the upper Mersey catchment rather than locally and are interpreted to be the product of rapid melting of the Mersey Valley glacier during the MIS 8/7e transition. Thick Last Glacial alluvial fan and Holocene flood-plain deposits mantle the lacustrine sediments. Exposures of glacial erratics and weathered till in streambeds provide further evidence that the valley was impacted by earlier Pleistocene glaciations.
... Direkt yağmur ve kar suyu, kanalize olan su, yüzeysel akan su ve örtü birimlerinden sızan suyun etkisi (Doğan, 2015) gibi hidrolik hareketler lapya gelişmesi için temel dinamiği oluşturur. Karstlaşmanın küçük ölçekli şekilleri olan lapyalar (Veress, 2019) çeşitli boyut ve şekillerde karstlaşabilen litolojiler (kireçtaşı, dolomit, mermer, jips, kaya tuzu, dolomitik kireçtaşı vs.) üzerinde gelişirler (Goldie, 2006). Bunun yanı sıra lapyalar granit, gnays, konglomera gibi diğer kayaç türlerinde de gelişim gösterebilmektedirler (Osborne vd., 2013;Ege, 2015). ...
Z Yüzey karstına ait mikro jeomorfik şekiller olan lapyalara yönelik bu çalışmada çalışma alanı, Van ili Çatak ilçesinde yer almaktadır. Çatak Deresi alt havzalarından olan Sözveren Deresi havzasında Serber Tepe yamaçlarında gelişen kaya düşmeleri ve lapya gelişiminin morfojenetik ilişkisinin ve lapya çeşitliliğinin belirtilmesi bu çalışmanın temel amacı olmuştur. Çalışma alanında kaya düşmelerinden dolayı yamaç aşağı yuvarlanan Jura-Kretase yaşlı kireçtaşı blokların kendilerini örten ve atmosferle temasını engelleyen toprak örtüsünden kurtulmasıyla düşen bloklar üzerinde yüzey karstlaşması başlamış ve serbest lapya türleri gelişmiştir. Araştırma alanında karstlaşmaya uygun kireçtaşları bloklarının atmosferle direkt temas kurmasıyla çözünme dalgacıkları, oluklu lapya, kanalcıklı lapya, çatlaklı lapya, duvar lapyası gibi serbest lapya türleri; tava lapya (kamenitsa) ve korrozyon çentikleri gibi yarı serbest lapya türleri görülen başlıca lapya türleridir. Bunun yanı sıra çalışma alanında örtülü karsta ait delikli lapya örnekleri de görülmektedir. Delikli lapyaların gelişmesi büyük oranda kaya düşmelerinden önce kayacın toprak örtüsü altında karstlaşmasına bağlı olduğu için bunların gelişmesi güncel olarak kesintiye uğramıştır dolayısıyla fosil şekillerdir (paleokarst). Tüm bu bulgular serbest lapya gelişiminde örtü tabakasının (toprak, bitki vs.) sıyrılması için erozyonal süreçlerin yanı sıra kaya düşmeleriyle de blokların örtü tabakalarından sıyrılabileceğini, dolayısıyla karstlaşma ile kütle hareketlerinden olan kaya düşmesi arasında ilişkinin olduğunu göstermektedir. ABSTRACT This study has been prepared for the surface karst karren and the study area is located in Çatak district of Van province. Serber Tepe is located in the Sözveren stream basin, which is connected to the Çatak Basin. The main purpose of the study is to explain the relationship between rock falls and the development of karren on Serber Hill. Serber Hill consists largely of Jura-Kretase aged limestones. This limestone blocks are rolled down with rock fall in the study area. The rolling limestone blocks got in contact with the atmosphere as they got rid of the ground cover. As a result, the development of karren on limestone blocks has begun. In the field of work; dissolution ripples, rinnenkarren, wall karren, fissür karren (free karren), kamenitsa, corosion notch (half free karren) are the karren shapes seen. But the formation of perforated karrens is old, that is, they are fossil. Because their formation developed under the soil cover before the rock fall. All these data indicate that there is a relationship between the development of the karren and rock falls. Therefore, the idea that only erosional processes are effective in free karren development is not correct.
... The Shilin Geopark is famous for its fabulous stone forest landforms, which cover approximately 400 km 2 and are underlain by Permian carbonate substrates that are mainly limestone [30]. The karren are small-scale features on the upland surface due to dissolution on the exposed limestone, and karren habitats are karren that contain soil and organisms (e.g., plants, animals, and microbes) [16,31]. Based on the formation mechanism, the size of the karren, and the proportion of soil distributed in, between or on various karren, karren habitats are divided into five typical types, including the grike (GR), deep solution pit (DSP), solution corridor (SC), solution rock debris (SRD), and solution well (SW) [16,32]. ...
Karst rocky desertification (KRD) is one of the biggest challenges in the karst ecological restoration of Southwest China, and a thorough understanding of the plant community characteristics in various karren habitats provides a basis for mitigating KRD and restoring the degraded ecosystem. To improve our knowledge of the detailed characteristics and impact mechanisms of karren habitats on the species distribution and species diversity patterns of woody and herbaceous plants to benefit sustainable management and planting design for revegetation establishment in the karst region, a field investigation was carried out in the natural restoration vegetation of Shilin Geopark. The results indicated that karren habitats apparently determine the species diversity and composition. At the arbor layer, the habitat with the highest α diversity was solution corridor (SC), and at the shrub layer, grikes (GR) were the karren habitats with the most diverse communities. At the herb layer, solution rock debris (SRD) showed the highest richness of herbaceous species. The karren habitat features and topographic factors significantly influence plant α diversity and distribution. Soil area (SA) and canopy density (CD) were the dominant factors influencing plant diversity at the arbor, shrub and herb layers, soil thickness (ST) was significantly effective at the arbor and herb layers. Karren habitat height (KHH), litter thickness (LT), and slope gradient (SG) were significantly influential at the herb layer. The impacts of the karren habitat width (KHW), slope aspect (SAS), and SG on woody species distribution were significant. Knowledge obtained from this study will be helpful guidance for future sustainable restored vegetation design and management with high biodiversity and regional characteristics in the karst area of Southwest China and other fragile karst ecosystems in the world.
... In depressions and on intermountain plains, there are expanded concealed karst terrains with many subsidence dolines. Karren such as subsoil karren is widespread, but karren of bare surfaces is also common, for instance rinnenkarren and kamenitzas on the top and on the steep slopes of inselbergs (Veress, 2019). Its large-sized karren constitutes a separate karst type (see below). ...
Eighty-one karst types and their main characteristics are described in this study, including the conditions of their development, the main characteristics of their karstification and their characteristic features. The classification includes the karst types of the Earth, a concise description of each karst type and the possibilities of belonging to several types of various karst areas. The classification of types is hierarchical in terms of groups, subgroups, types and subtypes. Karst can be classified according to their momentary state (the group of static karst types) and to their development (group of dynamic karst types). The group of static karst types has the azonal and zonal subgroups. zonal karst types may be situated under any climate. These karst types are categorized according to their geological characteristics (age of karstification, constituting rock, extent of coveredness, structure), their elevation, expansion, the morphology of their surface, hydrology and to the effects occurring on the karst. Taking the above mentioned factors into consideration, the author distinguishes various types and describes their characteristics. Zonal karst types are also described (tundra karst, temperate karst, subtropical karst, tropical karst), karst types that can be distinguished based on their geomorphic evolution are identified and their characteristics are presented.
The relationship between the epikarst and feature development was studied on glaciokarsts with the use of the resistivity of the profiles of VES measurements and the characteristics of suffosion dolines. It can be established the averages of bedrock resistivity are mostly large both by profiles and areas, but the largest resistivity differences are also large by profiles and areas too. Taking into consideration resistivity values on glaciokarsts, below a thinner superficial deposit, both recent epikarst and paleoepikarst occur, while below a thicker superficial deposit, only paleoepikarst can be found. Large resistivity values refer to the low degree of the cavity fill of the paleoepikarst, to the deep position of the piezometric level, while large resistivity differences indicate the heterogeneous character of the cavity formation and the different degree of denudation of the epikarst. Low resistivity values refer to the immaturity of recent epikarst, while in the case of paleoepikarst, they indicate that the cavities are filled. Subsidence dolines have a small diameter because the degree of cavity formation is low in the epikarst. Doline density decreases by resistivity increase. The weak and uneven degree of cavity formation can be explained by the partial denudation of the epikarst (which may have continued its development below the ice) that developed preceding the glacials.
Tropical karren were classified, among them, the development of giant grikes and within these the development of tropical karren of Bemaraha type was interpreted. For this reason, the landscape of tropical karren (the distribution of certain types of grikes on tropical karren), their elevation relative to the base level of erosion and the karstwater table, their distance from sea shores and in the area of some, the temporal distribution of precipitation were studied. Tropical karren may be karren with or without grikes. At tropical karren with grikes, the Bemaraha type (the karstwater table is close to the surface) and Ankarana type (the karstwater table is deeper relative to the surface) are distinguished. It can be established that large, complex grikes that are specific of Bemaraha type occur on karsts whose relative height is low relative to their base level of erosion. As a result of this fact and the fluctuation of karstwater table, the karstwater table is close to the surface and mostly these karsts are close to shores. Due to the above-mentioned characteristics, the wet part of the epikarst is absent on these karsts or it is partially developed (if it has already been inactive, or transformed or secondarily developing). According to its environment, tropical karren of Bemaraha type may be of marine environment (its karstwater is affected by the sea level) and of terrestrial environment (its karstwater is not affected by the sea). In the development of the karst areas of tropical karren of Bemaraha type, three stages were distinguished (the stage preceding coalescence, the coalescence stage, and the denudation stage).
Milí študenti,
do rúk sa Vám dostávajú učebné texty zamerané na dokumentáciu a výskum povrchových krasových javov, ktorými sú najmä ponory, závrty, vyvieračky, či škrapy. Existuje mnoho literatúry viažucej sa na kras – jeho povrchové, aj podpovrchové krasové formy. Dosiaľ však na Slovensku chýbali učebné texty, ktoré by sa venovali okrem opisu jednotlivých povrchových krasových foriem s presahom na dokumentáciu v teréne, či následné spracovanie dosiahnutých výsledkov. Texty sú písané formou opisu jednotlivých povrchových krasových javov a následnej príkladovej štúdie s praktickým využitím, s možnosťou ďalšieho vedeckého bádania. Tieto príkladové štúdie sú odrazom praktických poznatkov autora a jeho kolegov, ktorí realizovali výskum v oblasti Malých Karpát.
The goal of this study is to interpret the cross-sectional increases of rinnenkarren systems with the use of analytical model and CFD simulation. In rinnenkarren, water accumulation from the catchment was approximated using an analytical method based on field data. The length of eddies appearing at tributary junctions was studied by CFD in model channels. The results of the analytical and numerical models were compared against morphometrical parameters of rinnenkarren surveyed in the Totes Gebirge (Austria). It is found that there is a relationship between catchment size and channel development. Along small catchments, channel development is random. However, channel development along large catchments is controlled by water concentration. Decrease in the slope angle of the catchment results in an increase in the volume of water entering the channel and development of tributary channels. When water inflow is not concentrated in a single place, several smaller tributary channels emerge. When it is concentrated, only one large-sized and long tributary develops. At the junctions of large tributaries significant vorticity was identified in the CFD models. In addition to the previous model studies, the similarity between the lengths of the simulated vorticity sections and the local field hollowings was revealed.
The leading role of dissolution and the dominant subsurface drainage determine the special idiosyncrasy of karst geomorphology, with some notable variations depending on the type of soluble rock. The formation of karren is essentially related to the uneven or differential dissolution of the bedrock surface controlled by a number of factors, resulting in the development of depressions, clefts, channels, tubes, protruding features, and irregular patterns. Sinkholes or dolines are enclosed depressions with internal drainage widely regarded as one of the most characteristic landforms of karst landscapes. They are typically circular to subcircular in plan and show wide morphological diversity (cylindrical‐, conical‐, bowl‐, and pan‐shaped). In some cases, the variable geometry of the sinkholes can indicate different evolutionary stages and the relative age of the depressions. In nature, a complete spectrum between suffosion, collapse, and sagging sinkholes can be found in covered karst settings.
True diversity of geological heritage sites (geosites) is yet to be fully understood. New field studies of the Khadzhokh Canyon and its vicinities in the Western Caucasus (Mountainous Adygeya tourist destination, southwestern Russia) have allowed characterizing its geoheritage. Multiple unique features are assigned to geomorphological, stratigraphical, paleontological, palaeogeographical, sedimentary, tectonic, hydro(geo)logical, and coupled economical and geoexplorationgeoheritage types. This geoheritage is highlycomplex, and its rank is national. The unique features include (but not limited to) three canyons, Triassic stratigraphical sections, Late Jurassic coral reef, megaclast accumulations, chevron folds, and waterfalls. The geoheritage is distributed along the Khadzhokh Canyon and its branches. The configuration of thisgeositemakes it possible to propose a new category, namely dendritic geosites distinguished by continuous occurrence of geoheritage via branching stripes. Such geosites can be either natural (determined by dendritic drainage network and deep valley incision) or anthropogenic (determined by dendritic road network with lengthy road cuttings). In the former case, geosites are also geomorphosites and host viewpoint geosites.
Na kraškem površju, ki je pokrito z naplavino ali prstjo, nastajajo tudi podtalne skalne oblike. So posledica pretakanja vode po stiku med skalo in prstjo, prenikanja vodo skozi prst in pritekanja vode do površine prsti, ki obdaja skalo. Podtalne skalne oblike so pogosto pomembna sled razvoja kraškega površja. To je poskus razločevanja tipičnih kraških podtalnih skalnih oblik in zasnova za njihovo novo tipizacijo.
Subcutaneous rock forms occur on karst surfaces covered with sediment or soil. They are the consequence of water running along the contact between rock and soil, the percolation of water through the soil, and inflow of water to the surface of the soil surrounding the rock. Subcutaneous rock forms are often important traces of the development of karst surfaces. This article tries to distinguish typical karst subcutaneous rock features and to offer a design for their new standardization.
Cone karst of all types occurs, and is dissected by deeply incised fluvial canyons. River capture, above and below ground, is a recurring feature in the karst, and is spectacularly developed along the incised Sancha River. Morphometric analysis of the karst cones reveals a remarkable uniformity and only limited geological control. The critical factor in the evolution of the karst is the rate of tectonic uplift. -from Authors
Snežnik and Gorski Kotar are mountainous areas in the Northern Dinaric Alps. We investigated this remote and densely forested area on the border between Slovenia and Croatia between 2011 and 2014. The result of the fieldwork campaign is a 1:30,000 geomorphological map covering almost 600 km2. The study area mainly consists of Mesozoic age limestone and dolostone. Karstified carbonate lithology results in almost the complete absence of surface run-off and a dominance of typical karst morphology. The extensive karstified area was modified by Quaternary glaciations; therefore, the recent landscape is characterized as a glaciokarst. The focus of the presented map is to provide a basis for further research of Quaternary glaciations in the areas of Snežnik and Gorski Kotar. Along with the map, we propose a legend for glaciokarst landscape mapping.
Fengcong and fenglin are the two major types of karst terrain as defined in Chinese literature. They correlate only loosely with the Western terms of cone and tower karst respectively. With its isolated towers rising from a karst plain, fenglin is the most extreme form of karst landscape, and much of it may evolve from fengcong where tectonic uplift is critically slow, but overall it appears to be polygenetic. It is suggested that fengcong and fenglin are more useful karst terms with genetic implications and should take precedence, whereas cones and towers should be used purely as descriptive terms.
We present and investigate the karren forms of the Island of Diego de Almagro. We mapped the bigger karren forms and we measured the density and the size of the smaller forms. We analysed the connection between the karren formation and the effect of the wind by using the morphological data. Because of the wind such karren forms developed on the island, which do not occur on the Earth elsewhere. (For example there are 'ripple karren'. These are steps with 1-2 cm width and height occurring on each other on a slope in several decimetres' length.) The direction of some karren forms is or can be the same as that of the wind and they become streamlined. Other forms can be (for example dissolutional basins) asymmetrical and these are very extensive. We present varieties of wind effect at karren formation. We analyse the role of these effects in the increasing of the dissolution, and in control of dissolution.
Morphological maps of a few meandering karren in Totes Gebirge have been made, and a range of meander parameters were measured. By using the terrain observations and the parameters of the meanders on the maps the development of the meanders can be explained and furthermore different types of meandering karren can be distinguished. © 2004 Gebrüder Borntraeger, D-14129 Berlin · D-70176 Stuttgart.
The karren formation of salt dome of Praid (Transylvania, Romania) was investigated. Different
parameters of the karren features of the halite were measured along profiles. The rillenkarren and
rinnenkarren were classified by using the measured data. The development of rillenkarren and rinnenkarren
further more that of the Spitzkarren was presented. We explained the karren formation of the salt. It
depends on the quantity of the water. The relationship between the quantity of the water and karren features
was analysed. Using the development of karren formation we sketched the development of a salt slope.
The relation between the inclination and the quality of the bearing slope, and the channel type and channel density of various rinnenkarren (type A and type B channels) was investigated. On the bare karren slopes of Totes Gebirge, the connection between the densities of type A and type B (type A channels have no tributary channels, and they are smaller; type B channels have tributary channels, and they are larger) channels and the slope angle was studied, while in laboratory the relation between the number of rivulets forming the channels and the slope angle and the quality of slope was analysed. The density of type A channels increases with the increase in the slope angle, while that of type B channels decreases. In the laboratory the number of rivulets on the various parts of the slope was studied on glass, gypsum and metal plates between 5 and 50° (as well as on metal plate between 1 and 70°). The dip angle of the bearing slope was modified every 5°. The number of rivulets increases with the slope angle mainly on the upper part of the slope and on the metal plate. The number of rivulets decreases towards the lower part of the slope in the case of the same slope and the same slope angle. The number of rivulets (and thus the number of channels) depends on the speed of water flow and the roughness of the surface. On a slope with a small dip angle (smaller than 20°), few rivulets and channels develop and, thus, rinnenkarren systems with large catchment areas may form whose main channels develop into large, type B channels. On slopes with a large dip angle (greater than 30°), numerous rivulets develop even at the beginning of channel development. Because of large rivulet density, channels with small catchment area and thus small-sized (type A) channels may develop. On the karren slopes, two models of channel development are possible: according to model 1, on slopes with a continuously smaller dip angle, the beginning of channel development is increasingly different, thus rinnenkarren systems form which are built by main and tributary channels. In the case of an increasing slope angle, this tendency is less and less valid. On slopes with an increasingly larger slope angle, the beginning of channel development will not be different. According to model 2 (based on the laboratory model), the rivulets that developed on the upper part of the slope join on the lower part of the slope. In this case the initiation of channel formation of the main and tributary channels of the rinnenkarren systems is similar. On the bare slopes of Totes Gebirge, model 1 can be regarded as the dominant one.
Glacio-karst closed depressions are the major large scale karst landforms of the Eastern Massif of the Picos de Europea. The depressions are associated with a higher density of caves than the surrounding areas, and major shaft systems presently drain their floors. During valley glaciation the major depressions functioned as cirques, with smaller depressions also developing in the floor of glacial troughs and in glacier margin locations. Active sub- glacial karst circulation occurred to the major resurgence which was beyond the glacial limit, but sub-glacial initiation of caves is also indicated. Overall glacial erosion dominates surface landform development, but underground the relative effects are more equal. -from Author
It is hypothesised that glacial truncation of the pre-glacial surfaces was imperfect. Where truncation was partial, an older set of grikes was preserved and have widened in post-glacial times. Where truncation was complete, grike initiation took place entirely during the post-glacial period. On any one stretch of pavement the 2 populations of grikes may be detected by the careful analysis of the morphometric data. In the present study, histograms of grike width data from several pavements in the Morecambe Bay karst area have been examined. -from Authors
In this study, the evolution, the development and the development environment of solution dolines of glaciokarst (the Alps and the Dinarides) are studied. Based on morphological observations (partly with the help of literary data), the dolines of sample sites were put into doline types (giant solution doline, small-sized solution doline and schachtdoline). The various features of the dolines belonging to different doline types were analysed and compared: their size, shape, elongated nature and the slope angle of their side slope. Giant solution dolines are much more similar to the dolines of the temperate belt rather than to small-sized solution dolines or schachtdolines. At temperate climate, giant solution dolines developed under the tree line similarly to dolines of the temperate belt, and not above the tree line. Below the tree line, the dolines grew horizontally to the effect of horizontal dissolution. Later, in the glacials, they developed laterally mainly along their longer axis by glacial erosion. They got into their periglacial environment during the uplifting of the bearing area. In mountains where they are absent, the circumstances of their environment were not present either because the uplifting of the mountain was fast or it was covered by non-karstic rock. The shapes of small-sized solution dolines and schachtdolines prove that their increase happened by deepening. Their deepening was caused by the meltwater of the snow patches of snow drifts which water does not move laterally because of the rock debris of the floor and thus, solution works downwards in the features. Deepening and snow accumulation strengthen each other. These karstic depressions are connected to the periglacial zone because treeless environment favours snow drifts. If the depression is completely filled with snow in most part of the year, the snow patch is wide thus, dissolution affects the total width of the doline. A doline (schachtdoline) with vertical sides and plain floor develops. If snow-fill is only partial in most part of the year, the snow patch and thus, dissolution will have a smaller area and a small-sized solution doline with funnel shape develops.
Addresses two problems: establishing the extent of modern karst ground water circulation and associated karst landform genesis in terrains with permafrost today; determining whether there may be significant development of karst below glaciers in regions that will become permafrozen upon deglaciation. It appears that subglacially generated karst systems cannot be passed on as a viable inheritance when the terrain reverts to deep continuous permafrost conditions upon deglaciation. -K.Clayton
Below ground along the coast there is an interface between salt and freshwater. The form of the interface and the water movement each side of it are examined. Changes of sea-level will lead to changes of ground water conditions either side of the interface, and these may be related to cave forms. -K.Clayton
There is extensive karst development in Paleozoic carbonate and sulphate strata of the Front and Main ranges, southern Rocky Mountains of Canada. Its characteristics are summarized under six headings: 1) Lithology and structure. 2) Spatial and typological patterns of carbonate solution. 3) Groundwater systems and caves. 4) Karst groundwater systems and glacial hydrology. 5) Types of surface karst landforms. 6) Altitudinal zonation of surface karst. -from Author
This book provides an overview of covered karst types, covered karst features, functioning of covered karst features, the evolution of covered karst features and the development of covered karst reliefs. The introductory chapters present the characteristics of karst, the investigated areas and the applied methods. The covered karsts are categorized according to the quality and development of the superficial deposit and its geomorphological position and environment. The morphology, development, functioning, sediment development and the transformation of the karst features are presented. The relationship between the covered karst formation and climate is analyzed; including the covered karst formation of the tundra climate, taiga climate, temperate zone climate, subtropical, tropical climate and the high mountains. The manifestation of the human activity on covered karsts is presented.
This book provides a broad account of glacial geology which is particularly suited to students at undergraduate level. Following an introductory chapter the book is organised as follows: chapter two introduces the history of ice on Earth underlining the causes of ice ages; chapters three and four detail the mechanisms of the glacial system; chapters five and six continue with the processes of glacial erosion and consider the landforms they create; chapters seven to eleven tackle the processes of glacial sedimentation and landform development; and finally chapter 12 interprets how large scale patterns of glacial erosion are reflected in the landscape.
Studies on Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean and Grand Cayman Island, Caribbean Sea, have shown that algal colonization rates are rapid in subtidal and intertidal environments. However, colonization rates are much slower on subaerial surfaces and it is unlikely that 'phytokarst' landscapes are solely the product of blue-green algae. -from Authors
The development of solution pans has significant effects on vertical degradation of granitic terrains and, in many instances, may be the most important factor in fashioning tors and pediments. -English summary
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions. Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
This paper attempts to dispel the notion that limestone pavements are typical karst landforms. The confused terminology is briefly discussed, and the relation between lapiés and pavements is explained. A summary of views on the origin of limestone pavements precedes their detailed analysis. In the British Isles, glacial scouring is shown to be of fundamental importance in their creation, while solution of limestone--a karst process--is subservient; corrosion simply modifies the glaciated surface. Limestone pavements are therefore glacio-karstic features. Geological influences on pavement formation are examined. Pavements are found most extensively developed on dense, pure, horizontally bedded limestones; hence in the British Isles, Carboniferous limestones are favoured. Sedimentary cycles and petrological variations in the limestones are also considered to have a bearing on pavement morphology. Finally, the development and rate of erosion of limestone pavements are discussed. The evolution of pavements is seen to be a sequence which can be repeated only if the locality is glaciated afresh.
Weathering of a Permo-Triassic, red-bed sandstone is described from an area around Oukaimeden in the central High Atlas of Morocco which experiences a semi-arid, periglacial climate. The sandstone outcrops as cliffs and steeply dipping pavements, and exhibits three distinct crusts or coatings, of different character and origin. Weathering features described include polygonal cracking, rock basins, honeycombing, pseudo-rillenkarren and shallow drainage channels or gutters. The origin and chronology of the weathering features are discussed, and it is concluded that the sandstone has undergone several cycles of surface coating, polygonal cracking and basin development over many thousands of years. -Authors
Glaciokarst is a landscape which combines karst features and hydrology as well as inherited glacial features. It is a result of glaciation upon a karst geomorphological system. The relationship between glaciers and karst is rather poorly known and inadequately recognised. This research focuses on three distinct karst areas along the Adriatic coast in the southern Dinaric Alps that were affected by the Quaternary glaciations. An insight into specific glaciokarst processes and surface features was provided through the study of the areas of the Lovćen, Orjen and Velež Mountains. A glaciokarst geomorphology is in general well preserved due to the prevailing vertically oriented chemical denudation following deglaciation and almost the entire absence of other surface processes. Typical glacial erosional features are combined by a variety of depressions which are the result of a karstic drainage of subglacial waters. The majority of glacial deposits occur as extensive lateral-terminal moraine complexes, which are often dissected by smaller breach-lobe moraines on the external side of the ridge. Those moraine complexes are likely to be a product of several glacial events, which is supported by complex depositional structures. According to the type of glacial depositional features, the glaciers in the study areas were likely to have characteristics of moraine-dammed glaciers. Due to vertical drainage ice-marginal fluvial processes were unable to evacuate sediment. Fluvial transport between glacial and pro-glacial systems in karst areas is inefficient. Nevertheless, some sediment from the glacier margin is washed away by the pro-glacial streams, filling the karst depressions and forming piedmont-type poljes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Karren in tropical Australia are strongly developed at all scales from microkarren to giant grikes and pinnacled towers, but with decreasing intensity and variety as one moves into the drier climates of the interior. However, the local effects of lithology, structure, cover and denudation history can create considerable variation.