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Human-directed aggression in rabbits: a behavioural case study
Abstract
This behavioural case study discusses human-directed aggression in a companion rabbit. It highlights how, when assessing and treating problem behaviour, the natural habitat, biology and behaviour of wild rabbits must be considered in relation to companion rabbit management.
Rabbits are commonly kept in a variety of settings, including homes, laboratories, and veterinary clinics. Despite the popularity of keeping this prey species, little research has investigated current methods of handling. The aim of this study was to examine the experience of caregivers (owners and keepers) in using five handling methods commonly referred to in books written for companion animal (pet) owners and veterinary and/or laboratory personnel. An online survey was completed by 2644 respondents, representing all three of these groups, and breeders. Data were acquired to determine sources that participants used to gain knowledge of different handling methods, the methods they used and for what purposes they used them, and their perceptions of any associated difficulties or welfare concerns. Results indicated that participants most frequently used the method of supporting a rabbit's body against a person's chest, which was considered the easiest and most welfare-friendly method of the handling methods explored. "Scruffing with rear support" was the least used method and was considered to be distressing and painful for the rabbit. As rabbits are a terrestrial prey species, being picked up is likely an innately stressful experience. Additional research is encouraged to explore the experience of rabbits during handling to identify methods that can be easily used with the fewest welfare compromises.
Olfactory signalling is widespread among mammal inter-and intra-specific communication systems. Social mammals use latrines (faecal accumulations) as a communication system, which address the needs of indi-viduals both inside and outside the social group. Latrines are commonly used as olfactory and visual signals for the delimitation of territories, and the location of these signals may thus provide useful clues for the study of the mark-ing animals' behaviour and the delimitation of a spatial framework for these studies. In this work, we have tested the application of indigestible faecal markers in order to define territorial boundaries marked by latrines in wild rabbit social groups. Different combinations of baits and markers were first tested on wild rabbits kept in captive conditions, and the best combinations were then applied to rabbits in semi-natural conditions in order to test their feasibility for use with wild populations. As one possible application of the method, Minimum Convex Polygons and Kernel density estimators were used to analyse the distribution of the latrines of three wild rabbit social groups in semi-natural conditions. The results of this showed that the marked bait method is a useful tool for exploring the territorial behaviour of social mammals that use latrines for communication. It can also provide useful information for the definition of spatial frameworks based on social structures, and is fast, straightforward, easy, cheap, and does not require specialised training.
The habitat choice of the small hindgut fermenter, the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.), was studied in relation to sward height, forage quality, population size fluctuations and spatial distribution of burrows in a temperate grassland. In a multi-phase differential clipping experiment with alternating short and tall vegetation strips, rabbits tended to graze near the closest burrows in situations of equal vegetation heights, while a clear preference for short swards was found during summer (July). In this period, general crude protein content was significantly lower than in spring (April) and autumn (September), apparently leading to a potential forage quality deficit. The summer behavioural pattern with short sward preference coincided with the relatively higher crude protein content of short swards as compared to tall swards in this period, and with higher intraspecific competition, due to significantly larger numbers of animals present in summer. In autumn, rabbit densities decreased, while crude protein content of both short and tall vegetation increased to a higher, though not significantly different level, comparable with spring crude protein content. In those conditions, significant preference for low vegetation height could no longer be detected. Data suggest that selection for nutritive quality appears when intraspecific competition is high and nutritive quality remains under a certain threshold value. When, in autumn, competition decreases and nutritive quality increases again, short sward preference disappears. We conclude that short sward preference is primarily caused by the better forage quality of re-growth in periods of forage quality limitation, while this preference disappears when forage quality limitation no longer occurs.
Successful observation of behaviour depends upon knowing both which behaviours to look for and focusing on the appropriate areas of the body to observe them. Behaviour based scoring systems have become increasingly widely used to assess animal pain and distress. Although studies are available demonstrating which behaviours need to be observed, there has been little attempt to assess how effectively observers apply such information when viewing an animal's behaviour.
This study used historical video recordings of New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculi) considered to be experiencing varying degrees of post-operative pain to assess the pattern of observation and the ability to assess pain exhibited by both experienced and inexperienced human participants (n = 151). Eye tracking equipment was used to identify how quickly, how frequently, for how long different areas of the rabbit's body were attended to by the participants. Simple visual analogue scoring was used to assess the pain experienced in each sequence. The results demonstrate that irrespective of their experience or gender, observers focus first, more frequently and for longer on the face, compared to the abdomen, ears, back and hindquarters of the rabbit and that participants were poor at identifying rabbits in pain. Observing the back and hindquarters was correlated with 'correct' assessments and observing the face was correlated with 'incorrect' assessments.
In conclusion, irrespective of experience and gender, observers focused on the face when using behaviour to assess pain and were unable to effectively identify rabbits in pain. Focusing on the face is unlikely to be effective when using behavioural indicators of pain since they involve other body areas. Alternatively, if animals exhibit pain-related facial expressions, then it could improve our ability to assess pain. In addition, these results have potential implications for the use of behaviour to assess how rabbits and potentially other species feel.
Understanding the genetic structure of domestic species provides a window into the process of domestication and motivates the design of studies aimed at making links between genotype and phenotype. Rabbits exhibit exceptional phenotypic diversity, are of great commercial value, and serve as important animal models in biomedical research. Here, we provide the first comprehensive survey of nucleotide polymorphism and linkage disequilibrium (LD) within and among rabbit breeds. We resequenced 16 genomic regions in population samples of both wild and domestic rabbits and additional 35 fragments in 150 rabbits representing six commonly used breeds. Patterns of genetic variation suggest a single origin of domestication in wild populations from France, supporting historical records that place rabbit domestication in French monasteries. Levels of nucleotide diversity both within and among breeds were ~0.2%, but only 60% of the diversity present in wild populations from France was captured by domestic rabbits. Despite the recent origin of most breeds, levels of population differentiation were high (F(ST) = 17.9%), but the majority of polymorphisms were shared and thus transferable among breeds. Coalescent simulations suggest that domestication began with a small founding population of less than 1,200 individuals. Taking into account the complex demographic history of domestication with two successive bottlenecks, two loci showed deviations that were consistent with artificial selection, including GPC4, which is known to be associated with growth rates in humans. Levels of diversity were not significantly different between autosomal and X-linked loci, providing no evidence for differential contributions of males and females to the domesticated gene pool. The structure of LD differed substantially within and among breeds. Within breeds, LD extends over large genomic distances. Markers separated by 400 kb typically showed r(2) higher than 0.2, and some LD extended up to 3,200 kb. Much less LD was found among breeds. This advantageous LD structure holds great promise for reducing the interval of association in future mapping studies.
People have obligations to ensure the welfare of animals under their care. Offences under the UK Animal Welfare Act (HMSO 2006) are acts, or failures of action, causing unnecessary suffering. Veterinary professionals need to be able to provide current, scientifically-based prophylactic advice, and respect the limits of their expertise.
The ethical concept of a life worth living and the Five Freedoms are core to welfare (FAWC 2009; Broom and Fraser 2015). Behaviour is a central component, both influencing and influenced by physical health. Keepers of small prey mammals (SPM) frequently misunderstand their behaviour and how to meet their needs.
This review provides insight into the physical-social (external) and the cognitive-emotional (internal) environments of SPM, contextualised within an evolutionary perspective. This is extrapolated to captivity and practical suggestions given for meeting behavioural freedoms and enhancing client understanding and enjoyment of their animals, thereby improving welfare for both.<br/
This chapter provides an introduction to rabbit ethology and management, and thereby the prevention of behaviour problems. It then provides advice regarding history taking, diagnosis and modification of problematic behaviour
This compact, easy-access guide to behavioral problems encountered in veterinary practice offers immediate and helpful advice for today's veterinary team. Instructor resources are available please contact your Elsevier sales representative for details. Coverage offers immediate advice to the veterinary team who are often presented with behavioral problems in their practice. Easy-to-read format includes introductions, medical differentials, underlying causes, diagnosis, action boxes, and summaries. Content refers the reader to other chapters throughout the book, so that information can be found quickly and easily. Helpful handouts, which can be photocopied, offer yet another way to further your learning experience.
The major activities of wild rabbits in confined populations are classified and
aefined. Seasonal changes of behaviour are described.
The social organization of rabbits in three confined populations during the
1958 breeding season is presented in detail. With increase in density, the number of
breeding groups in each population increased, and mean size of group territory and
home range decreased. Male home ranges remained larger than female home ranges,
and the home ranges of dominant males larger than those of their subordinates
except under the most crowded conditions, when all animals in the group moved over
the same area irrespective of dominance or sex.
Mean size of home range was greatest during the summer months, when social
pressures were absent, and smallest during the breeding season, when social activities
were at a maximum. During the breeding season the dominant and older animals
moved over larger areas than their younger subordinates, and males moved over
larger areas than females. During the summer most of these differences disappeared.
Aggression between males was always high. With increase in population,
aggression against foreign males increased. Aggression between females was low at
low densities. As the population grew, aggression between the females belonging to
the same group increased.
Most shifts of home range occurred during the period of group formation, when
young adults of both sexes were forced to move to join breeding groups, and towards
the end of the breeding season when the older young began competing sexually with
their parents. Shifts of young rabbits during the breeding season were also common,
but many of these were probably due to experimental scattering of kittens.
The formation of breeding groups was initiated by the behaviour of old
females with previous breeding histories.
Dental disease is considered as one of the, if not, the most common disorders seen in pet rabbits. This article provides a review of the scientific literature and an overview of the peculiarities of calcium homeostasis in the rabbit in an attempt to draw together current thinking on the cause of dental disease. A complete understanding of the aetiology and pathophysiology of rabbit dental disease is necessary for the veterinary practitioner to establish a proper therapeutic plan, prognosis and ultimately prevention of this common cause of morbidity and mortality in pet rabbits.
The domestic rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, is descended from the European rabbit, which lives in large social groups and digs extensive warrens. Behavior problems include urine spraying, failure to use the litter box, fear of humans and human-directed aggression, intraspecies aggression, destructive digging and chewing, and infanticide. These problems are best prevented and treated by understanding their origin in both species-specific behavior and learning. Urine spraying is primarily a problem of intact males. Litter box use results from both rabbits’ species-specific tendency to use particular sites for elimination and from training. Rabbits may become fearful of humans because of painful or frightening experiences with them. Rabbits will become comfortable with humans if they have numerous positive interactions with them. Fearful or aggressive rabbits may be treated by repeatedly exposing them to pleasant associations with humans. Rabbits are territorial and may aggressively reject new rabbits that are not members of the group. Introduction of a new rabbit must be gradual, allowing rabbits to become familiar with each other and preventing them from fighting. Digging and chewing are natural, species-specific behaviors. Giving rabbits acceptable objects to chew prevents them from destroying household items. Infanticide originates, in part, from intense competition between wild females for safe nesting sites. Housing birthing does separately may prevent infanticide.
The aim of this study was to ascertain how collective cage and pre-kindling handling (training does to go into their own nest) practices, in comparison to standard housing (single cage rearing), modify the behaviour and the performance of rabbit does. To this aim, 40 nulliparous New Zealand White does were artificially inseminated, where the pregnant ones were assigned to three groups with the following treatments: eight does, kept in single standard cages (group S); eight does kept in two colony cages and trained to recognise their own nest (group TC); eight does kept in two colony cages, but not trained to recognise their own nest (group UC). Performance and behaviour, with particular attention to the social relationships of animals, were evaluated for one year. The housing system and training practice affected the behaviour of animals. Does kept in colony cages showed a wider behavioural repertoire, as well as fewer stereotyped and social behaviours. However, the interactions between animals were not always friendly; in particular, the UC group showed the highest incidence of aggressiveness: attack (26.61% vs. 13.55%) and dominance (12.98% vs. 8.81%) and lower allo-grooming (4.16% vs. 19.56%) in comparison to TC does. Negative correlation values between feeding and moving behaviours were obtained (−0.37 and −0.28) for TC and UC does, respectively. UC does showed significant correlation coefficients between stereotyped, moving and static behaviours (0.50 and −0.61, respectively). Different correlation values between moving and social interactions were shown for TC (−0.44) and UC does (0.48). In UC does, stereotypies were also correlated with social relationships (0.40) and, in particular, with attack (0.57; data not shown). Smelling one other was one of the major social activities, but while animals in the UC group exhibited a stable trend in the days close to kindling, in the TC group, the values increased from 20% (3 days before partum) to 75% (3 days after partum). Dominant and submissive features in TC does showed the same trends and decreased to about 0% after kindling; in contrast, in the UC group, dominant behaviours were performed even after kindling (4.8%) and submissiveness reached values similar to that of the first day of observation (about 35%). Reproductive performance and productivity of colony does were lower than S does. This reduction was lessened if does were trained to recognise their own nest. In the UC group, does had very low sexual receptivity (49.8%) and fertility rates (40.8%), a higher annual replacement of does (83.3%) and low rabbits sold/year/doe (17.7), probably due to the higher social pressure and aggressiveness, as confirmed by the percentage of does replaced due to severe injury (8.3%).In conclusion, breeding does in a colony cage, without the training to recognise their own nest, renders the animals disagreeable to social encounters, does not assure adequate welfare or a productive performance and increases the possibility of suffering from injuries caused by attacks from other does.
One million pet rabbits are kept in The Netherlands, but there are no data available on their behaviour and welfare. This study seeks to assess the welfare of pet rabbits in Dutch households and is a first step in the development of a welfare assessment system. In an internet survey, housing systems, general up-keep and behaviour of pet rabbits were reported by their owners. The answers of 912 respondents were analysed with behavioural observations carried out on 66 rabbits in as many households. The rabbits were observed in their home cage and during three fear-related tests: a contact test, a handling test and an open-field test. The survey revealed that the average lifespan of the rabbits is approximately 4.2 years (the maximum potential lifespan is 13 years) and solitary housing appears to reduce lifespan. Close to half of respondents subjected their rabbit(s) to solitary housing and the majority housed them in relatively small cages (< 5,000 cm2). Health risks may arise from a failure to inoculate rabbits and via inappropriate diet. During the contact test, solitary-housed rabbits made more contacts with a human than group-housed rabbits and rabbits in a small housing system made more contacts than those in a large system. Observations in the home cage differed greatly compared with the natural time budget of rabbits, ie displaying increased stereotypic behaviour and decreased foraging and, in solitary-housed rabbits, a complete lack of social behaviour. Nearly 25% of rabbits displayed strong resistance to being picked up, indicating socialisation problems. During the open-field test, solitary-housed rabbits sat up more than social-housed rabbits suggesting increased fearfulness. These findings indicate that the conditions in which pet rabbits are kept often have a negative impact on their welfare, further underlining the need to study this in greater detail
"Chinning" is a stereotyped scent marking behavior of domestic rabbits, in which the animal rubs the underside of its chin against objects in order to deposit scent gland secretions. Although the long-term maintenance of chinning requires circulating gonadal steroids, little is known about the acute regulation of this behavior. To define specific environmental stimuli that engage the chinning motor pattern, male rabbits were placed into an open field arena containing markable objects ("standard" bricks, "tall" bricks, or polished onyx spheres), observed for 30 min, returned to the home cage for 5 min, and then placed in the open field arena for another 30 min. During the 5 min interim: (1) the location of the open field or the spatial orientation of the objects within it were changed, (2) the olfactory or (3) visual characteristics of the objects were changed; or (4) no changes were made. Chinning and ambulation habituated to each type of object across the first 30 min, and bricks elicited more chinning than polished onyx spheres. In the second 30 min test, chinning was re-stimulated only when the original objects were replaced by visually different ones that had preferred characteristics. Ambulatory behavior was increased by changing the location of the open field arena, while modifying the olfactory characteristics of the objects had no effect on chinning or ambulation. These results indicate that scent marking is stimulated by object novelty and by the visual and/or tactile characteristics of the objects being marked.
The major issues regarding the welfare of both farmed and laboratory rabbits are reviewed, according to husbandry and management systems. The main stressors that can affect welfare and homeostatic responses in rabbits are also reviewed. An overview of the most widespread housing systems for both farmed and laboratory rabbits is presented. The main problems related to housing and management are identified, in particular those related to individual and group housing, space requirements and group size, as well as human-animal interaction. The effects of psychological and physical stressors on physiology and behaviour are illustrated through examples in various rearing conditions. Psychological stressors include social stress and fear, while physical stressors include environmental variables such as housing system and climatic factors, i.e. heat. Welfare indicators are identified that can be monitored to determine the effects of individual and environmental variables on the animals' possible coping strategies. Physiological indicators include the neuro-endocrine and psycho-neuro-immuno-endocrine measurements, while behavioural indicators include the behavioural repertoire and responses to behavioural tests. Some possible ways to enhance welfare are indicated, such as enrichment of the environment and improved handling procedures.
Aspects of social and parental behaviour in the European rabbit
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