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An Empirical Examination of the Structural Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad in an Advertising Pretesting Context

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Abstract

Recent research has identified attitude toward the ad (AAd) as an important construct mediating the effects of advertising on brand attitude and purchase intention. To date, however, little attention has been directed toward explaining the origins of AAd. The authors present the latest version of a theory of AAd formation, report the results of an empirical test of a portion of that theory, and offer further refinements to the theory based on the observed results. Implications of the findings for advertising practice are discussed.

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... This water utility is concerned to improve the well-being of society CASR3 This water utility behaves responsibly regarding the environment Perceived crisis response (MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989) PCR1 ...
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Consumption culture not only has an impact on fashion, art, and many daily needs but also affects sports. As sports become a part of culture, it attracts the attention of many manufacturers and extensive corporate identities. Thus, it started to make a difference in the sports industry. This study aimed to examine the impact of sports in the context of postmodern consumption as a means of communication in the directing processes and persuading people as a power of access in all layers of society. It was investigated the interaction of sports-related visual metaphors with the perception of the impact of sports on socially responsible consumption and the values carried by consumption and using visual metaphors. A mixed-method design was used in the research. The measurement tool was applied to individuals over 18 years old in Turkey in the quantitative research part of the study. 626 people participated in the research, and the collected data was analyzed via using SPSS 25 and AMOS 22 statistical programs. It was applied an independent two-sample t-test, one-way analysis of variance, regression analysis, bootstrap method, and structural equation model to analyze the data. Sports-related visual metaphors were employed and examined within the scope of Phillips and McQuarrie's visual rhetoric typology, helping from the approach of semiotics theorist Roland Barthes in the qualitative research section. The data was conducted the content analysis and interpreted. Research findings showed a statistically significant relationship between consumption values, socially responsible consumption behaviors, and a tendency towards visual metaphors with sports content. It was found a positive relationship between all dimensions of the research and the education and income variables. However, the study revealed a negative relationship between all factors and the age variable. Additionally, the research showed a statistically significant relationship between all dimensions and the sports group or exercise and following sports. The structural equation model analysis displayed that the tendency towards sports content mediates the effect of consumer culture values on socially responsible consumption behaviors. The visual structure and demographic research findings indicated that visual metaphors with sports content could be a valid factor in socially responsible consumption behavior formation and other social change studies. Keywords: Sports, Visual Metaphor, Postmodern Consumer Culture, Social Change, Advertising
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This investigation used expectancy violation theory (EVT) to explain how a body positivity influencer's clothing styles (modest or revealing) and skin tones (filtered or unfiltered) affected viewers' responses to branded Instagram posts violating (i.e., unfiltered and revealing) or confirming (i.e., filtered and modest) appearance norms. Specifically, viewers' attractiveness and authenticity ratings as well as their emotional responses were measured to verify that their appearance norm internalization triggered EVT's effects. Finally, this study explored how viewers' attractiveness, authenticity, and emotional response ratings mediated the effect of the influencer's appearance on their purchase intentions. The results indicate viewers punished norm violations in their attractiveness ratings but rewarded them in their authenticity and emotional response ratings. Finally, viewers' emotional responses and authenticity ratings more powerfully shaped their purchase intentions than their attractiveness ratings. These results suggest body positivity influencer marketing may mutually benefit both sponsors and consumers while countering toxic appearance norms on social media and society at large.
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The chapter discusses the role of the manner of attitude formation. It focuses on the development of an attitude through direct behavioral experience with the attitude object and examines whether such attitudes better predict subsequent behavior than attitudes formed without behavioral experience. The chapter provides an overview of the attitude-behavior consistency problem and describes the effect of the manner of attitude formation through the “housing” study, the “puzzle” experiment, and the “subject pool” study. The prior-to-later behavior relation is also discussed in the chapter, wherein it has described the self-perception of past religious behaviors, attitudes and self-reports of subsequent behavior, an individual difference perspective, and a partial correlation analysis. The chapter discusses attitudinal qualities—namely, confidence and clarity, the persistence of the attitude, and resistance to attack. The reasons for the differential strength are also explored in the chapter—namely, the amount of information available, information processing, and attitude accessibility. The chapter briefly describes the attitude-behavior relationship, personality traits, and behavior.
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The results of an experiment examining the use of attitude toward the ad and brand-related beliefs in brand attitude formation under two different processing "sets"-brand evaluation and nonbrand evaluation-are reported. Findings suggest that attitude toward the advertisement affects attitude toward the advertised brand as much under a brand evaluation set as under a nonbrand evaluation set.
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P. M. Bentler and D. G. Bonett (1980) argue that it is often useful to compare a hypothesized covariance structure model or set of models to a nested null model using fit coefficients and they propose both generic null models for a variety of cases and 2 new measures of fit extends the work of Bentler and Bonett in 2 ways / 1st, we provide general analytic conditions for ascertaining whether their generic null models are nested under a substantive model of interest, an issue they do not address clearly and completely / 2nd, we show that the null models they propose are inappropriate in all but the purely exploratory case / in other cases, we argue that the comparison should be developed in terms of baseline models that reflect the state of prior theory and knowledge, unlike the null models of Bentler and Bonett (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Factor analysis, path analysis, structural equation modeling, and related multivariate statistical methods are based on maximum likelihood or generalized least squares estimation developed for covariance structure models (CSMs). Large-sample theory provides a chi-square goodness-of-fit test for comparing a model (M) against a general alternative M based on correlated variables. It is suggested that this comparison is insufficient for M evaluation. A general null M based on modified independence among variables is proposed as an additional reference point for the statistical and scientific evaluation of CSMs. Use of the null M in the context of a procedure that sequentially evaluates the statistical necessity of various sets of parameters places statistical methods in covariance structure analysis into a more complete framework. The concepts of ideal Ms and pseudo chi-square tests are introduced, and their roles in hypothesis testing are developed. The importance of supplementing statistical evaluation with incremental fit indices associated with the comparison of hierarchical Ms is also emphasized. Normed and nonnormed fit indices are developed and illustrated. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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In the latest decades, emotions have become an important research topic in all behavioral sciences, and not the least in advertising. Yet, advertising literature on how to measure emotions is not straightforward. The major aim of this article is to give an update on the different methods used for measuring emotions in advertising and to discuss their validity and applicability. We further draw conclusions on the relation between emotions and traditional measures of advertising effectiveness. We finally formulate recommendations on the use of the different methods and make suggestions for future research.
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This article argues that affective responses (ARs) should supplement the cognitive responses more often studied in communication research. ARs are not evaluative responses to an advertisement, but represent the moods and feelings evoked by the ad. The literature on ARs is reviewed, and a typology for such responses is presented. Three ARs are studied empirically; they appear to be antecedents of the attitude towards the ad ( A ad ) and to have a weak but significant impact on brand attitudes.
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Two experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that the amount of attention drawn to an attribute by an advertisement mediates the effect of advertising on attribute importance. The first experiment manipulated the amount of attention given to an attribute in an advertisement and found this to have an impact on the importance of the attribute. The second experiment manipulated the concreteness of an advertisement's copy mentioning the attribute, the relevance of the ad's picture, and the number of repetitions of the ad, and found that attention mediated the impact of textual concreteness on attribute importance, but that picture relevance and repetition were not related to attention or importance.
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Using a naturally occurring situation as a quasi-experiment, this article contrasts measures of attitude toward advertisements for groups of subjects with different potential levels of exposure to repeated airings of the ads during a four-month TV campaign. These measures were taken after several different periods of delay following subjects' exposure to the ads. The results indicate that even with all of the confounding variables that exist in a natural viewing environment, subjects' evaluations of the ads decline as levels of potential exposure increase, though those evaluations return to their initial levels after an eight-month period of no exposure. A striking result, however, is that two different measures of attitude toward the ad show very different patterns over time. The article also presents exploratory evidence on the role of the initial likeability of the ad.
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A bipolar adjective scale, the Personal Involvement Inventory (PII), was developed to capture the concept of involvement for products. The scale successfully met standards for internal reliability, reliability over time, content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity. Tests of construct validity demonstrated that the scores were positively related to perceived differences among brands, brand preferences, interest in gathering information about the product category, and comparison of product attributes among brands.
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A conceptual framework is presented that depicts both the mediating role of mood states and their potential importance in consumer behavior. Reviewing findings from the psychological literature indicates that mood states have direct and indirect effects on behavior, evaluation, and recall. The scope and limitations of these effects are addressed, and the implications for consumer behavior in three areas—service encounters, point-of-purchase stimuli, and communications (context and content)—are examined. Finally, the potential feasibility and viability of mood-related approaches to marketing research and practice are discussed.
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The authors describe new developments in structural equation modeling as incorporated in LISREL V. The procedures are illustrated on data from three previous studies.
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Past research has examined the effect of level of involvement (high vs. low) on subjects’ reactions to persuasive communications. The authors suggest that high involvement can be differentiated into two types (cognitive vs. affective). By manipulating involvement level and type (low involvement, cognitive involvement, affective involvement), they show that the three different forms of involvement have different effects on how brand attitudes are formed. They also examine how music, as a peripheral persuasion cue, affects the process of brand attitude formation. The results indicate that the effect of music on brand attitude depends on the type and level of involvement. Music had a facilitative effect on brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition; its effect for those in the affective involvement condition was not clear. Alternative explanations of these results are offered and implications for advertising research are discussed.
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The results of an experiment examining the use of attitude toward the ad and brand-related beliefs in brand attitude formation under two different processing “sets”—brand evaluation and nonbrand evaluation—are reported. Findings suggest that attitude toward the advertisement affects attitude toward the advertised brand as much under a brand evaluation set as under a nonbrand evaluation set.
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Repetition of a pattern of television commercials caused wearout in viewers’ evaluation of the commercials and the products being advertised. As predicted by an information processing view, wearout was not forestalled by strategies designed to enhance attention.
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Fishbein's attitude theory posits that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change. The validity of this proposition for consumers’ beliefs about product attributes and brand attitudes was exmained in the context of an advertising effects study. To manipulate product attribute beliefs and to create settings in which other mediation processes might occur, the authors exposed subjects to simple advertisements that contained either a verbal claim or visual information. Level of repetition also was varied. As expected, product attribute beliefs mediated attitude formation. However, another variable, termed attitude toward the advertisement, also mediated brand attitudes and purchase intentions. The authors discuss alternative explanations for the results and offer suggestions for future research.
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Repetition of a pattern of television commercials caused wearout in viewers' evaluation of the commercials and the products being advertised. As predicted by an information processing view, wearout was not forestalled by strategies designed to enhance attention.
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The authors describe new developments in structural equation modeling as incorporated in LISREL V. The procedures are illustrated on data from three previous studies.
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Past research has examined the effect of level of involvement (high vs. low) on subjects' reactions to persuasive communications. The authors suggest that high involvement can be differentiated into two types (cognitive vs. affective). By manipulating involvement level and type (low involvement, cognitive involvement, affective involvement), they show that the three different forms of involvement have different effects on how brand attitudes are formed. They also examine how music, as a peripheral persuasion cue, affects the process of brand attitude formation. The results indicate that the effect of music on brand attitude depends on the type and level of involvement. Music had a facilitative effect on brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition; its effect for those in the affective involvement condition was not clear. Alternative explanations of these results are offered and implications for advertising research are discussed.
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Attitude toward the ad (Aad) has been postulated to be a causal mediating variable in the process through which advertising influences brand attitudes and purchase intentions. Previous conceptual and empirical research on this topic has suggested four alternative models of the relationships between brand-related cognitive, affective, and conative responses and ad-related cognitive and affective responses. The authors describe a structural equations analysis of these four models, utilizing two data sets generated within a commercial pretest setting. The results suggest that a dual mediation hypothesis, which postulates that Aad influences brand attitude both directly and indirectly through its effect on brand cognitions, is superior to the other three models under the particular set of conditions in the pretest setting.
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This article addresses the issue of how advertising influences consumers' brand choices. A concept termed the attitude toward the advertisement approach (ATT A) is introduced; a theoretical case is developed showing why ATT A is an important mediator of brand choice; empirical evidence in support of this case is presented; and suggestions for future research are offered.
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Used affectively valenced TV commercials for supermarket products as stimuli in a laboratory test of the impact of consumer attitudes toward an advertisement on consumers' brand attitudes. 168 undergraduates served as Ss. The test was designed to evaluate the classical-conditioning model of the influence of an advertisement. Theoretically, the model indicates that an advertised brand may elicit, after repeated pairing with an affectively valenced advertisement, the same affective response as the advertisement itself. Actual TV commercials that had not been shown for several years were shown to Ss, and they rated the commercials' ability to elicit positive, neutral, or negative affect. Ss saw each commercial 3 times while GSR or heart rate data were recorded (a ruse to induce strategy-limited low involvement); they then completed measures of their attitudes toward the commercials and the advertised brands and belief and evaluation items to assess cognitive structures related to the products. Results fail to provide strong support for the classical conditioning model—only 3 of 10 positive and negative affect advertisements supported the hypothesis that attitudes toward the advertisement would affect attitudes toward the product. Theoretical and statistical accounts of the data are presented. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Investigated the role of viewer involvement (INV) in commercial effectiveness (measured by recall of brand name and message, attitude toward commercial, and intention to buy). It was hypohesized that program environments that are higher in INV will cause commercials embedded in them to be less effective than those embedded in environments that are lower in INV. INV was operationalized by analyzing a small sample of TV viewers' rank orderings of 15 shows from most to least suspenseful, and by choosing the 2 shows determined to be the most and least involving. Data were collected by questionnaire from 87 Ss in a random sample of employees in a medium-size organization. Results support the hypothesis. Implications for research on differences in degree of INV and their impact on commercial effectiveness are noted. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Book
This classic text surveys a number of different theoretical approaches to the related phenomena of attitude and belief change. These theories are grouped into seven major approaches, each presented and evaluated in a separate chapter. Each contributes in an important way to a complete understanding of the persuasion process. Appropriate for both upper level undergraduates and graduates in the social sciences.
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Four experiments investigated the dependence of persuasion on cognitive factors. All experiments employed a court case for which 795 subjects acted as jury members, reading summaries of both the prosecution and defense's testimony. The amount of objective information on both sides of the case was varied. Persuasion was a position function of the number of prosecution arguments and the number of defense arguments. This finding was extended by obtaining measures of the subjects’cognitive reactions to the case as well as their opinions and by following both of these measures over time. Both analysis of variance and multiple regression techniques showed that subjects could have derived their opinions from their cognitions about the case. This relationship also held up over time. These results suggest the general form of an information-processing theory of persuasion. One prediction of this theory is for an asymptotic function relating objective information to persuasion. This prediction received empirical support.
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Significant, favorable attitudinal response toward both the brand and ad were observed at the first exposure in a laboratory experiment on the effects of repeated exposure to television advertisements. At higher levels of repetition, lower, although still positive, ratings were obtained. Response was significantly mediated by prior brand attitude. Mean differences in attitude toward the brand and ad were only partially accounted for by changes in brand perception.
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This article presents the results of a study designed to obtain a better understanding of the effects of using valenced visual information in advertising. In the study, subjects saw advertisements for hypothetical products that contained affect-laden photographs with different valences (Picture Type Manipulation). The results indicate that the affect-laden photographs had an effect on both attitude toward the advertisement ( A ad ) and brand attitudes; however, no differences were found in the product attribute beliefs that were formed. Photographs that were evaluated positively created more favorable attitudes toward the advertisements and brand attitudes, whereas the reverse was true for photographs that were evaluated negatively. The results of an analysis of covariance indicate that the inclusion of both the predicted attitude from structured scales (ΣΣ b i , e i ) and elicited beliefs did not eliminate all the reliable Picture Type effects on brand attitudes; however, the inclusion of A ad did eliminate these effects. In addition, A ad was found to affect brand attitudes for advertisements that contain only copy, and evidence is presented that A ad and brand attitudes are separate hypothetical constructs. Finally, a Dual Component model is presented to explain the effects of visual and verbal information in advertisements.
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The impact of the feeling of warmth created by a commercial, as measured by the “warmth monitor,” is explored in a series of three studies. The first study examines the relationship between warmth and arousal as measured by skin response. The other studies explore the relationship between warmth and advertising responses such as liking of the ad and purchase likelihood through testing ads with warm and other execution strategies. They also test the effects of sequences of commercials on warmth responses and on the impact of the ad.
  • Calder Bobby J.
Advertising in America: The Consumer View
  • Raymond A Bauer
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Measuring Emotional Responses to Advertising
  • Ronald P Hill
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Hill, Ronald P. and Michael B. Mazis (1986), "Measuring Emotional Responses to Advertising," in Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 13, R. J. Lutz, ed. Provo, UT: As
Assessing the Effects of Attitude-Towardthe-Ad on Brand Attitudes: A Multitrait-Multimethod Design
  • Thomas J Madden
  • Kathleen Debevec
  • Jacquelyn L Twible
Madden, Thomas J., Kathleen Debevec, and Jacquelyn L. Twible (1985),\ "Assessing the Effects of Attitude-Towardthe-Ad on Brand Attitudes: A Multitrait-Multimethod Design," in Marketing Communications-Theory and Research, M. J. Houston and R. J. Lutz, eds. Chicago: American Marketing Association, 109-13.