Listening as a lifelong learning skill- what, why, and how

Abstract

Listening plays a significant role in learning. Speaking, reading and writing skills normally proceed listening. The importance of listening in formal educational contexts has resulted in much discussion on how students' learning can be facilitated through effective listening practices. However, its place in informal learning contexts throughout life often goes unnoticed. As a result, its potential for lifelong learning is not utilized adequately. A clear understanding of listening as a process and different listening activities can help exploit listening skills in formal, non-formal and informal learning contexts throughout life.

Full text

 Abstract—Listening plays a significant role in learning.
Speaking, reading and writing skills normally proceed listening.
The importance of listening in formal educational contexts has
resulted in much discussion on how students’ learning can be
facilitated through effective listening practices. However, its place
in informal learning contexts throughout life often goes unnoticed.
As a result, its potential for lifelong learning is not utilized
adequately. A clear understanding of listening as a process and
different listening activities can help exploit listening skills in
formal, non-formal and informal learning contexts throughout life.
Keywords— Listening, Lifelong learning, Informal learning,
Active Listening.
I. INTRODUCTION
Learning is an integral, ineliminable part of life. Learning is
an inborn ability enabling us not only to survive but also to make
meaning out of our lives. There is in fact overwhelming
evidence that learning starts as genes develop in the womb
(Kolata, 1984; Hepper, 1989; Martens, 2013) indicating our
potential to grow intellectually at all stages of life. It is also true
that learning takes place in a variety of forms and ways.
Multiple sensory organs, often used simultaneously, help
learning occur. One primary sensory organ that enables learning
is the ear through which we first receive auditory messages. It is
argued that “All learning begins with the ear, not the eye”
(Gordon, 2007, p. 29). It is in fact the ear that allows us to learn
to speak. Lovinger, Brandell and Seestedt-Standord (1991)
cited in Paul and Whitelaw (2011, p. 7) emphasize this by
saying [The ear] serves as the main feedback
mechanism in the development and production of
speech. Sound is received by the ear, [and it] is
interpreted by the brain and a reaction is
expressed by the use of words. Input of sound to
the brain for storage, analysis, and association is
done through the ear. Not to hear the human voice
is not to develop the ability to speak.
Listening also precedes learning to read and write. Brown
(1987) cited in Purdy (1997) underscores the significance of
listening arguing “Of foremost importance is the role of
listening in language acquisition, the basis of all subsequent
communication, the foundation of all life-long reading, writing,
speaking and listening activities” (p. 4).
Tanju Deveci, Associate Professor, Khalifa University of Science and
Technology, Abu Dhabi, UAE (e-mail: tanjudeveci@yahoo.com).
Considering these, it is hard to underestimate the importance
of listening for learning to be effective. Despite this, our ability
to listen is often taken for granted without concentrated efforts
devoted to its use for learning throughout life. However, our
inborn ability to learn formally and informally requires us to
approach listening from the lifelong learning perspective, which
potentially encompasses all forms of learning. It is, therefore,
useful first to define „listening‟ and „lifelong learning‟, and then
to describe the symbiotic relationship between the two. It is also
important to identify how listening can be used to support
individuals‟ development as lifelong learners. This paper seeks
to do these.
II. LISTENING
The Merriam-Webster dictionary (n.d.) provides three
definitions of listening: “1) pay[ing] attention to sound, 2)
hear[ing] something with thoughtful attention, 3) be[ing] alert to
catch an expected sound.” A similar definition is given by Purdy
(1997, p. 8): “the active and dynamic process of attending,
perceiving, interpreting, and remembering, and responding to
the express (verbal and nonverbal) needs, concerns, and
information offered by other human beings.”
What is at the heart of these definitions is the fact that
listening requires us to be attentive. In this sense, it differs from
hearing, a simple definition of which in the Merriam-Webster
dictionary (n.d.) is “to perceive or become aware of by the ear.”
Rizvi (2005) notes that hearing is an automatic behavior since it
takes place involuntarily in that it does not require the listener‟s
conscious involvement. Rizvi (2015, p. 60) provides the
following table in which the two concepts are compared.
TABLE I. COMPARISON OF LISTENING AND HEARING
Listening
Hearing
voluntary
involuntary
requires conscious efforts
happens automatically
active process
passive process
the listener play a very active
part
the listeners plays a passive
part
a two-way interactive
process engaging the speaker
and the listener
a one-way process
Others argue that hearing is a physical act while listening is a
mental act (Purdy, 1997). The former is because hearing is
related to our physiological capacity to receive and process
sounds. The latter, on the other hand, requires us to assign
meaning to the stimuli received by the brain through the ear.
Nevertheless, Purdy (1997) warns that not every listening is
Listening as a Lifelong Learning Skill: What, Why, and
How
Tanju Deveci
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effective. He identifies seven components of effective listening .
First, we ought to want to listen. This is related to its feature of
being voluntary. Second, we ought to focus our attention. Third,
it is essential that we be perceptive as we listen. Fourth, we
ought to be able to interpret both verbal and nonverbal cues.
Fifth, we need to make a conscious effort to recall wat we have
heard. Sixth, we need to provide feedback by responding. Last
but not least, we should care about the relationship as we listen.
As is indicated in these definitions, listening is a process
which requires the use of multiple cognitive skills. As is seen in
Figure 1 below, it has four main stages (Rizvi, 2005): sensing,
encoding, evaluation, and response.
Fig. 1 The listening process (Adapted from Rizvi, 2005)
In the first stage, physical hearing of the message takes
places. We hear sounds and concentrate on them so that we can
receive the message. During this stage, we recognize unit
boundaries phonologically. Recognition of sound patterns is
followed by the second stage where we decode and interpret the
message. This entails changing the coded message into
information, which enables understanding of the message. If the
message cannot be decoded or understood, communication
fails. In the third stage, we evaluate the significance of the
message and draw appropriate conclusions from it. For this to
happen effectively, we need to be able to separate relevant
information from irrelevant information, explicit information
from implicit information, and facts from opinions. We ought to
analyze and understand the speaker‟s intention and attitude
successfully. To do this, it is essential that we be aware of our
own prejudices and biases. This helps us avoid making wrong
conclusions. During the final stage, we -as the listener- respond
to the messages we have received. For our response to be
appropriate, we need to have analyzed, interpreted and
evaluated the message correctly in the previous stage. The
fourth stage is particularly important since it is in this stage that
we clarify the message and indicate to the speaker whether we
have understood the message correctly.
Watson, Barker and Weaver (1995) identified four different
types of listening. One of these is “discriminative listening.” It
normally occurs at the receiving stage of the listening process. It
is a focused, and usually an instrumental type of listening. When
engaged in this type of listening, we listen to scan and monitor
our surroundings in order to isolate particular auditory or visual
stimuli. The second type of listening is “informational
listening,” which is done with the goal of comprehending and
retaining information. It is the most common in teaching and
learning contexts. Good concentration and memory skills are
necessary because retention and recall are important for
informational listening. “Critical listening” is the third type. It
involves listening with the goal of analyzing or evaluating a
message based on verbally presented information which can be
inferred from context. Critical listeners evaluate a message in
order to accept or reject it. Alternatively, they may choose to
withhold judgment and seek more information before reaching a
decision. The fourth type of listening is “emphatic listening”
which takes place when we want to understand or experience
what a speaker is thinking or feeling.
III. LISTENING IN FORMAL LEARNING CONTEXTS
Effective listening is “the primary channel of instruction at all
levels” (Duck & McMahan, 2017, p. 85). There is empirical
evidence showing a positive correlation between school
children‟s listening behavior and arithmetic skills, language arts
skills, work study skills as well as intelligence (Winter, 1966).
Students‟ use of effective listening strategies allows them to
obtain the information that is needed to respond effectively
(Roth, 2010). Often times teachers give instructions about how
students are supposed to conduct an experiment, write a paper,
deliver a presentation etc. Unless they listen to these
instructions effectively, students‟ response will result in
inadequate performance.
Effective listening is also essential for developing
relationships between students and their instructors and between
students and their academic advisors (Duck & McMahan,
2017). When teachers feel that their students have a genuine
interest in what they have got to say, they will be more
enthusiastic about the lesson and more committed to teaching
their students. When students engage in informational listening
type asking the teacher questions when and where relevant, their
understanding of the subject matter will increase. Similarly,
students‟ engagement in an effective dialogue with their
academic advisors will allow them to make informed decisions
about their educational and career goals. By listening to the
information provided by their advisors on university policies,
procedures and requirements, students can make an adequate
use of the educational opportunities.
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Effective, or attentive, listening is also a must for students to
develop social skills necessary for a fulfilling college life.
Students‟ use of attentive listening skills will enable them to
understand each other‟s point of view, feelings and needs
(Canter, 2006). This will surely help students address both
academic and non-academic skills essential for success at
university. By listening to others‟ concerns and/or failures,
students can understand the underlying reasons for problems.
This will help them come up with healthier solutions to
problems. In addition to building solidarity between students,
this will also give students the chance to refrain from potential
problems themselves. In fact, it has been argued that
stories about other peoples‟ failures … elicit a
… pronounced motivational response, such that
people elaborate the content of failure stories
more actively. As a consequence, the knowledge
gained from failure stories will more likely be
applied on a transfer task… this motivational
response to failure stories and its benefits for
learning [is expected] to be most pronounced for
people who view failures as valuable learning
opportunities (Bledow, Carette, Kuehnel & Pittig,
2017, p. 39)
Lending peers a listening ear in this fashion likely creates a
better harmony among students, which has been identified as a
factor contributing to retention at university (Deveci & Ayish,
2017).
A listening skill that improves academic performance is
note-taking, which is particularly important at college. Students
sit in countless lectures and presentations which often require
them to listen carefully to be able to take notes. Recognizing its
importance as well as how challenging it may be, many
instructors now assist students in taking notes. One way in
which they do is to provide guided note-taking sheets that
students use for selective listening. Rost and Wilson (2013) note
that, in comparison to full notes, guided-notes help students
achieve better academic results. They also point out that
full-notes affect attendance negatively. Gore (2010) states that
guided-notes assist students in accessing and understanding
knowledge because a) students are actively engaged and their
attention is increased, b) their perception is increased, and c)
their ability to discriminate between essential and nonessential
information is increased.
IV. LISTENING AND LIFELONG LEARNING
Although lifelong learning is not a new concept, there has
been a burgeoning interest in it since the 1990s partly because of
shifts in educational philosophies towards a holistic view of
development and the role of learning in achieving this. Seeing
learning as a factor enabling individuals to meet their existential
needs, Jarvis (2009) defines lifelong learning as “the process of
transforming experience into knowledge and skills, etc.,
resulting in a changed person–one who has grown and
developed as a result of the learning” (p. 11). What is at the
heart of this definition is the role of experience and the
individual‟s ability to use it as a basis for knowledge generation
and skills development. It is also important to note that this
definition of lifelong learning points to growth as a result of
engagement in the learning process. On the other hand, Titmus
(1979) draws attention to the idea that
education is not a once-for-all experience that is
confined to an initial cycle of continuous
education commenced in childhood, but a process
that should continue throughout life. Life itself is a
continuous learning process, but each person
needs specific opportunities for continuing,
purposive and sequential learning in order that he
or she may keep abreast of technical and social
change, may equip himself or herself for changes
in his or her own circumstances.
Central to Titmus‟ definition of lifelong learning is the idea
that learning needs to be purposive, sequential and continuous.
For this to happen, individuals ought to be provided with
specific learning opportunities without leaving learning to
chance. This, however, is not to undermine the importance of
incidental learning –a subset of informal learning –, which is a
significant aspect of lifelong learning.
Individuals ought to have a variety of skills in order to be
effective lifelong learners. One of these is relative to
information literacy. According to Duman (2007), people with
literacy skills know what knowledge they need, and they can use
a variety of ways to access it. They can evaluate the usefulness
and accuracy of sources, and use the information they reach
purposefully. In the same way, Gilton (2012) notes that
“lifelong learners can informally educate themselves through
self-teaching or consulting with experts, take advantage of
institutions promoting formal learning, … or pursue more
formal education” (p.67).
Needham (2009) notes that the four skills (i.e. reading,
writing, speaking, and listening) “are to information literacy
what the fingers are to the hand. While fingers are important in
their own right, they become more important when they function
as part of the hand” (p. 38). As is suggested in this sentiment,
listening is an integral part of information literacy. Effective use
of it enables individuals to obtain richer information. As is also
mentioned above, information literate people are able to
question the validity and usefulness of information they have.
To do this, they often search for evidence. According to
Hepworth and Walton (2009, p. 20), this requires “a liberal
approach to where [people] obtain sources of information and
question the voice they are listening to,” and this, they say, leads
them to alternative sources of information and knowledge.
In the context of university studies, lifelong learning requires
students to use a variety of information literacy skills. One of
these is the skill in reflecting on and evaluating the outcomes of
learning (Dunne, 1999). This entails thinking about the lecture
they have been listening to, and doing something with what they
have heard (Kaplowitz, 2014). In this way, their retention skills
are improved. This helps them use effective information
retrieval and selection skills, which are also among the abilities
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university students require as lifelong learners (Dunne, 2009).
These active listening skills are compatible with information
literacy.
The first two key lifelong learning competences (i.e.
communication in the mother tongue & communication in
foreign languages) identified by the European Commission
(2007) also point to the role of listening in addition to the other
three skills. Regarding communication in the mother tongue,
lifelong learners are expected to
have the skills to communicate both orally and
in writing in a variety of communicative situations
and to monitor and adapt their own
communication to the requirements of the
situation. This competence also includes the
abilities to distinguish and use different types of
texts, to search for, collect and process
information, to use aids, and to formulate and
express one‟s oral and written arguments in a
convincing way appropriate to the context (the
European Commission, 2007, p. 4)
The commission also points to the importance of having a
positive attitude towards communication in the mother tongue
through engagement in critical and constructive dialogue.
Lifelong learners, according to the commission, also ought to be
able to interact with others in a positive and socially responsible
manner. Naturally, this requires them to use active listening
skills.
With regards to the second competence, communication in
foreign languages, the commission posits that lifelong learners
need to have “the ability to understand, express and interpret
concepts, thoughts, feelings, facts and opinions in both oral and
written form … in an appropriate range of societal and cultural
contexts … according to one‟s wants and needs” (p. 5). It is
acknowledged that people are likely to have different
proficiency levels in the four sub-skills. However, an important
skill for a lifelong learner to have is being able to understand
spoken messages. This is essential for him/her to “initiate,
sustain and conclude conversations” (p. 5). Lifelong learners
are also expected to have a positive attitude towards
intercultural communication. This is only possible if individuals
are open to cultural perspectives different from their own. The
open attitude requires an ability to listen to what others have got
to say. However, it also requires them to raise their awareness of
their own listening styles as well as their communication
partners‟ culturally different listening styles (Matveev, 2017).
Active listening during interaction with those from other
cultures also plays a critical role in establishing mutual
understanding when communicators‟ cultural backgrounds
differ in terms of their orientation to tasks and how they deal
with status differences (Brinkmann & Weerdenburg, 2014).
Also, active listeners allow for error when they are interacting
with people from a different culture (Arasaratnam, 2013). This
is because active listeners know that messages can be
interpreted differently on the basis of people‟s own
understanding of cultural context.
Oral tradition plays a pivotal role in our lives as an
educational tool. One way or another, every individual is
engaged in oral tradition either as a storyteller or a listener.
Leggett (2005) points out that “A story is a narrative which
actively engages the listener‟s sense-making faculties. It helps
the listener to make sense of what is being said and to make the
right associations. It helps the listener to think widely by
stimulating his or her imagination.” Therefore, storytelling
creates ample lifelong learning opportunities. In addition to its
aim to entertain listeners, it teaches them a history of a culture,
endows morals and principles on them, stimulates them
intellectually, and inspires innovation and social change
(Quora, n.d.). Listening without verbal or mental interruption is
central to storytelling (James, 1998 cited in Atleo & James,
2000).
Listeners‟ engagement in the process provides educational
experience helping them explore alternative ways of looking at
the world and tackling real-life problems. Capitalizing on
technological advances, some invest time and money in the
utilization of digital story-telling as a means of promoting
lifelong learning. Pesce et al. (2014, p. 197) note that digital
storytelling is
a powerful approach to lifelong learning and
civil participation … Digital stories allow
individuals, regardless their social or economical
background, to give others an insight into their
everyday lives, engaging participants and the
entire community by having a cognitive and
emotional impact
Taken together, these show that oral tradition in general, and
storytelling in particular, can help listeners examine their beliefs
and behaviors, renew and modify them as required throughout
their lives. This points to the power of storytelling as a lifelong
learning undertaking.
V. TEACHING LISTENING FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
It seems that listening is not covered adequately in curriculum
despite the fact that 55% of our lives is spent listening (Costa &
Kallick, 2019 cited in Pearse & Dunwoody, 2013). Pearse and
Dunwoody (2013) posit that active listening skills have to be an
integral part of the learning environment to help students
become lifelong learners. They suggest generating a definition
of active listening with students. To this end, the following steps
are listed: 1) Generate discussion on what active listening looks
like, sounds like, and feels like. 2) Create a wall-sized poster to
refer to and use whenever the importance of active listening
needs to be reinforced and reminded to students. 3) Use probing
questions to encourage students to reflect on the importance of
active listening. Among these questions are “What makes a
persona an effective listener?”, “Why is it important to listen
actively?”, and “What are barriers to effective listener?”
Pearse and Dunwoody (2013) also recommend the use of
paraphrasing exercises to teach and practice active listening
skills. However, more importantly, teachers need to role-model
active listening. To this end, it is first essential for teachers to
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understand their own personal communication styles (Gravells
& Simpson, 2010). If they are aware of how students see and
hear messages, they will be more able to modify their
communication style to suit students‟ learning styles. This
approach will create a lasting impression upon their students.
Dictation could also be a good activity to teach active
listening skills. In Deveci and Ayish (2018), we discuss that
dictation is traditionally perceived as a passive activity where
the teacher reads aloud a text while students write down
verbatim what they hear. Because of this, more often students
and teachers alike find it boring. However, if used as a
collaborative activity in the form of dictogloss, it can support
the social constructivist nature of learning. Wajnryb (1990, p. 6)
lists the stages of dictogloss as follows: 1) Read a short, dense
text to learners at normal speed, and ask students to jot down
familiar words and phrases. 2) Have students work in small
groups to compare notes and reconstruct a version of the text
from their shared resource. 3) Ask each group of students to
produce their own reconstructed version. The aim is to achieve
grammatical accuracy and textual cohesion, but not replicate the
original text. 4) Have open-class discussion analyzing and
comparing student outputs, and ask students to refine their own
texts in light of the shared scrutiny and discussion.
Another dictation activity is mutual dictation developed by
Davis and Rinvolucri (1988). Mutual dictation requires students
to combine two-part texts into one continuous piece. The steps
are: 1) Prepare copies of gapped text A and gapped text B
opposite. 2) Sit the students facing each others in pairs. Give
person A in each pair a version A sheet and person B a version B
sheet. 3) Tell the students each has half the text. Without look at
each other‟s sheets, A dictates and B writes, then B dictates and
A writes. 4) Have the students show each other their sheets to
check for accuracy (Davis & Rinvolucrim 1988, p. 70).
Advances in technology are such that it has penetrated into all
parts of our lives, and education has not been immune to this.
Broadband internet connection and Wi-Fi in particular have
significant implications for lifelong learning. This is particularly
because they enable learning to take place without physical
boundaries. Among the many learning sources available on the
Internet are podcasts. Podcasts are defined as “are audio files,
usually in mp3 format, that can be downloaded from the
Internet” (McBride, 2009, p. 154). When listeners subscribe to
a published podcast series, they are notified every time a new
audio file is added to the series. They can even automatically
receive a downloaded copy of the newly published episode.
This feature of podcasts makes them readily available. They
provide such a lot of information that people can use it to
enhance their knowledge and increase their productivity.
Demirdirek and Ozgirin (2013) note that podcasts improve
students‟ academic listening while enhancing their general
knowledge of world events and understanding of content topics
in university courses. They also emphasize that podcasts cater
for different student needs and abilities. Their use for self-study
purposes also allows learning to continue outside class time. As
a result, they are more likely to create intrinsic motivation for
learning, which is a must for lifelong learning.
VI. CONCLUSION
As the eminent educational theorist Peter Jarvis puts it,
“Learning isn‟t just something which is tugged on to life; it‟s life
itself…there can[not] be any real living without learning, and …
any human living without learning, and so … learning is at the
heart of living itself” (Rabusicova & Nehyba, 2015: 112). Jarvis
(2006) also notes that we experience the world throughout our
lives using our five senses individually or in any combination of
them. Therefore, we can talk of learning as a way of different
senses, one of the most significant is learning as a way of
hearing. Although learning in this way can take place
subconsciously, therefore incidentally, for it to be an efficient
lifelong learning attribute, we ought to be able to listen actively.
As the European Commission (2007) also noted, effective
listening contributes to the development of key lifelong learning
competences in communication in the mother tongue as well as
in foreign languages. It is often through these competences that
our knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, and beliefs
are built upon, modified, or changed, the result of which is
individuals who have become more experienced or changed
(Jarvis, 2006). This is learning and life itself. In order for us to
have more fulfilling lives, then, it is essential to train the ear,
which is argued to initiate all learning (Gordon, 2007). All in all,
how we start will determine where we will end up!
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