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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep?
Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian
peninsula during the Iron Age based on
strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat
tooth enamel
Silvia Valenzuela-LamasID
1
*, Hector A. Orengo
2
, Delphine Bosch
3
, Maura PellegriniID
4
,
Paul Halstead
5
, Ariadna Nieto-Espinet
1
, Angela Trentacoste
4
, Sergio Jime
´nez-Mancho
´n
6
,
Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes
7
, Rafel Jornet-Niella
8
1Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientı
´ficas- Institucio
´Milài Fontanals (CSIC-IMF), Barcelona, Spain,
2McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom,
3Laboratoire Ge
´osciences, CNRS- Universite
´Montpellier, UMR-5243, Montpellier, France, 4School of
Archaeology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom, 5Department of Archaeology, University of
Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom, 6Arche
´ologie des Socie
´te
´s Me
´diterrane
´ennes, UMR 5140, Labex
ARCHIMEDE program IA- ANR-11-LABX-0032-01, Univ Paul-Vale
´ry, CNRS, MCC, Montpellier, France,
7Arqueovitis sccl, Avinyonet del Penedès, Spain, 8Àrea de Prehistòria i Arqueologia, Universitat de
Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
*svalenzuela@imf.csic.es
Abstract
Animal mobility is a common strategy to overcome scarcity of food and the related over-
grazing of pastures. It is also essential to reduce the inbreeding rate of animal populations,
which is known to have a negative impact on fertility and productivity. The present paper
shows the geographic range of sheep provisioning in different phases of occupation at the
Iron Age site of Turo
´de la Font de la Canya (7
th
to 3
rd
centuries BC). Strontium isotope ratios
from 34 archaeological sheep and goat enamel, two archaeological bones and 14 modern
tree leaves are presented. The isotopic results suggest that sheep and goats consumed at
the site were reared locally (within a few kilometres radius) during the whole period of occu-
pation. The paper discusses the isotopic results in light of the socio-political structure of this
period, as complex, strongly territorial societies developed during the Iron Age in the north-
east Iberian Peninsula.
Introduction
The Bronze and the Iron Ages in Europe witnessed increased social differentiation and territo-
riality. This is reflected in the archaeological record in changing settlement pattern (from
open-air sites on the plains to fortified sites on hills), the expansion and progressive complexity
of fortifications, and the spread of warrior equipment and weapons in some tombs. These pro-
cesses thus apparently involved a significant increase in warfare and, probably, in the
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 1 / 14
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Valenzuela-Lamas S, Orengo HA, Bosch
D, Pellegrini M, Halstead P, Nieto-Espinet A, et al.
(2018) Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep?
Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian
peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium
isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel.
PLoS ONE 13(10): e0205283. https://doi.org/
10.1371/journal.pone.0205283
Editor: John P. Hart, New York State Museum,
UNITED STATES
Received: May 4, 2018
Accepted: September 21, 2018
Published: October 31, 2018
Copyright: ©2018 Valenzuela-Lamas et al. This is
an open access article distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the paper. Information regarding the
specimen numbers and names are detailed in
Tables 1and 2under the tab ‘Sample’. The precise
geographic location of the present-day samples is
detailed with the UTM coordinates in Table 1.
Authors may be contacted for further details at
svalenzuela@imf.csic.es.
maintenance of boundaries between territories [1–8]. In the north-east of the Iberian penin-
sula (present-day Catalonia), the spread of iron technology during the 8
th
-7
th
centuries BC
coincided with the first evidence of rectangular stone buildings, urbanism and fortifications [4,
7,9]. Iron Age animal husbandry, which did not change dramatically compared to the Late
Bronze Age [10–11], was characterised by a remarkable predominance of sheep and goats and
by the small size of domestic cattle, sheep/goats and pigs [10–16]. This changed only slightly in
the 3
rd
century BC, when increased consumption of pigs and a slight increase in animal size
are attested [10–14,16], coinciding in time with the expansion of urban centres in the area [9,
17–19].
The site named Turo
´de la Font de la Canya (Barcelona, Spain) was an important point for
cereal storage and trade with other cultures of the Mediterranean, as suggested by the presence
of numerous subterranean ‘silos’ suitable for cereal storage, together with imports of Phoeni-
cian, Greek and other origins (Fig 1; [20–22]). The site is located on a small promontory (230
m a.s.l.), about 15 km from the present-day coastline and about 40 km south-west of Barcelona
[22] (Fig 2). Its occupation spanned the 7
th
to 2
nd
centuries BC, that is, from the spread of iron
metallurgy in the area to the period of the Roman conquest.
The analysis of strontium isotope ratios from tooth enamel is now a well-established
method for exploring human and animal mobility [23–32]. The aim of this study is to charac-
terise the geographical range of sheep provisioning for this important site through its period of
occupation, and thus to assess its degree of connectivity regarding meat provisioning through
the Iron Age. In other words, we wanted to know whether sheep were moving as much as
other materials, such as pottery and other goods recovered from the site [22]. A previous study
on seven sheep teeth from this site suggested that sheep were reared locally [33]. The present
work significantly expands the number of sheep teeth analysed and covers different phases of
occupation, allowing us to look for variations in the geographical range of meat provisioning
through time; in this study, we also analysed a few goat teeth. In order to determine the base-
line of strontium isotope variability, archaeological bones and modern leaves collected from
trees growing on different geological units around the site were also analysed as a basis for
comparison with archaeological results.
Strontium isotope analysis
Strontium substitutes for calcium and occurs as a trace element in biogenic tissues, includ-
ing the hydroxyapatite of teeth and bones [23,34–35]. The Sr isotopic ratio (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) varies
in different geological formations according to the age and original rubidium (Rb) /stron-
tium (Sr) ratio of the bedrock, leading to high radiogenic
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in old or crustal
rocks, and low
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratios in young or mantle rocks [23,36]. The
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotope com-
position of plants reflects the strontium isotopic ratios of the underlying bedrock, as biologic
processes involved during plant growth do not entail isotopic fractionation of strontium iso-
topes [37–38]. Other factors affecting strontium ratios in plants include a significant contri-
bution of rainfall water [39] atmospheric pollution and the use of modern fertilizers [40–
44].
In the case of skeletal material, the
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotope composition derives from the food and
drink ingested by the animal [45–46]. The porosity of bones makes their strontium signature
susceptible to diagenetic alteration, but the isotopic signature of tooth enamel bioapatite
reflects the period of tooth formation with little subsequent change [47–48]. Therefore, stron-
tium isotope ratios from tooth enamel indicate the type of geological formation from which
food and water were sourced during the period of mineralization of the tooth analysed [23–38,
49].
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 2 / 14
Funding: This paper was developed as part of the
research projects ‘The origins of intensive
pastoralism and the creation of cultural landscapes
in North-Eastern Spain (HumanScapes)’, which
was funded by the European Commission with a
Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship (grant
number 330098) and the Service of Archaeology
and Palaeontology of the Culture Department of the
Catalan Autonomous Government under the
direction of HAO and PH, and the ERC-Starting
Grant 716298 ZooMWest- Zooarchaeology and
Mobility in the Western Mediterranean: Husbandry
production from the Late Bronze Age to the Late
Antiquity, funded by the European Research
Council Agency (ERCEA) under the direction of
SVL. The research also benefited from the support
of the Agència de Gestio
´d’Ajuts Universitaris i de
Recerca (2017SGR995). SJM is employed under
the LabEx ARCHIMEDE from "Investissement
d’Avenir" program ANR-11-LABX-0032-01.
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
Geology at the site
The site of Turo
´de la Font de la Canya is located on a coastal promontory on the south-west
margin of the Catalan Coastal Range. From a geological perspective, this mountain range is
characterised by fragmented outcrops of mainly Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary forma-
tions overlying infra-Silurian and Varingian batholith and other Palaeozoic metamorphic
rocks [50]. The settlement is located on Miocene clays, sandstones and conglomerates and is
surrounded by Plio-Pleistocene alluvia to the west and north, and by Cretaceous limestones to
the east and south (Fig 2). In the vicinity of the site, within 10–15 km, other sedimentary (Tri-
assic sandstones, dolomites, limestones and marls) and metamorphic (Cambro-Ordovician
Micacitic slates) formations also outcrop. Further to the north-east, an extensive outcrop of
Late Hercynian biotitic granodiorite is also present.
Fig 1. Plan of the site, sections of some silos, and examples of Mediterranean imports dated from the early Iron Age (7
th
century BC)
and the Full Iberian Period (4
th
- 3
rd
centuries BC).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.g001
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
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Materials and methods
The analysed archaeological material totals 30 sheep and four goat teeth (including seven
sheep teeth previously reported [33]) from different levels of occupation and silos filled with
domestic debris. Sheep and goat identification followed usual criteria [51–53]. The selected
teeth correspond to second and third molars dated from different phases of occupation of the
site: nine teeth dated from the early Iron Age (7
th
century BC), nine from the Middle Iron Age
(6
th
-5
th
centuries BC), and 16 from the Late Iron Age (4
th
-3
rd
centuries BC). Despite the
higher inter-individual variation in the enamel mineralization of the third molar in compari-
son to the second [54–55], as well as the possible averaging of isotope ratios [56], third molars
were selected because they were easily identifiable even when isolated. In all cases, only fully
erupted teeth (i.e. in wear) from different individuals were chosen for analysis.
The enamel samples were prepared for strontium isotope analysis following standard prac-
tices described in previous studies [24,33,57]. The tooth enamel surface was first mechanically
abraded to remove all dentine and cementum to a depth of 100 μm using a tungsten carbide
dental burr. A transversal slice of enamel about 2mm wide was cut above the enamel root junc-
tion (ERJ) from the protoconid of each tooth using a diamond cutter disc coupled to a dentist’s
drill. On ten teeth, two more transversal slices of enamel about 2mm wide were cut at the mid-
dle and top of the tooth crown (about 9mm and 15mm from the enamel root junction) to ana-
lyse potential strontium variations during the period of enamel mineralisation. Although some
variation may occur between breeds, mineralisation of sheep third molars starts about 9–12
months, and finishes about 22–34 months [58–59]. Consequently, sequential sampling allows
us to observe whether animals moved between different geological layers during enamel
mineralisation [49,56,60–61]. These ten teeth were added to the seven teeth published in our
previous study [33] thus totalling 17 teeth sequentially sampled (minimum 5 teeth per
350 375 400 425 450
4600
4575
4550
50510 15 20 25 30 Km
TARRAGONA
BARCELONA
Cretaceous limestones
and dolomites
Oligocene sandstones, marls,
shales and conglomerates
Eocene conglomerates,
sandstones and marls
Late Herzynian
biotitic granodiorites
Pliocene/Pleistocene
gravels and clays
Triassic sandstones, dolomites,
limestones and marls
Miocene clays, sandstones,
conglomerates
Mediterranean Sea
Cambro-Ordovician
Micacitic slates
0.7123
0.7105
0.7089
0.7092
Turó de la Font de la Canya
(Avinyonet del Penedès)
0.7090
0.7089
0.7095
0.7113
0.7098
0.7085
0.7157
Fig 2. Location of the site (star) and the sampling locations of modern tree leaves and archaeological bones used to assess the bioavailable
strontium of the different geological formations surrounding the site. The site is on a Miocene plateau surrounded by Pliocene and Pleistocene
sediments.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.g002
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
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chronological period). The resulting samples were transferred to a clean (class 100, laminar
flow hood) working area in the Laboratoire de Ge
´osciences (Montpellier, France) for further
preparation. This involved ultrasonic cleaning to remove adhering material and immersion in
60˚C water for an hour for further cleaning. After each cleaning phase the sample was rinsed
three times on MilliQ high purity de-ionized water. A final cleaning step, in 5% acetic acid for
half an hour in an ultrasonic bath, followed by rinsing three or four times with pure water, was
also performed in order to be sure that potential remaining diagenetic effects were removed.
Once cleaned and dried in a laminar flow hood, the samples were weighed in pre-cleaned Tef-
lon beakers. The samples were then dissolved in Teflon distilled nitric acid (8 M HNO
3
).
Strontium was collected using standard resin columns (Eichrom Sr-Spec resin) and then
loaded onto single rhenium filaments with a TaCl
5
activator. Total chemistry blanks were less
than 20pg and thus negligible for this study. The strontium isotope composition was deter-
mined with a solid-source thermal-ionization mass spectrometer at the Labogis of Nı
ˆmes Uni-
versity (Thermo Finnigan TRITON TI). Repeated measurements of the international standard
for
87
Sr/
86
Sr NBS 987 gave a mean value of 0.710251±0.000018 for static analysis (2 s, n = 9).
In order to assess the variability of bio-available strontium ratios in the vicinity of the site
and surrounding geological areas, 14 modern leaves from oak, pine and strawberry trees grow-
ing on different geological formations were also analysed (see Table 1 for details, specimen
name and precise location). Six of them originated from forests protected as a natural reserve
(Natural Park of Garraf, Sant Llorenc¸del Munt i l’Obac, Montseny, and Montnegre-Corre-
dor), and eight from trees growing on non-cultivated fields far (>100m) from human activities
and rivers or streams. The field permits were granted by Diputacio
´de Barcelona. Each sam-
pling location was recorded using a hand-held GPS device. The preparation protocol was
adapted from the one described in [40]. Samples of modern leaves were crushed in a Retsch
200ZM grinder, and then weighed in pre-cleaned pressure vessels in a clean laboratory envi-
ronment. They were dissolved in Teflon distilled nitric acid (8 M HNO
3
) overnight at room
temperature. Further acid and a trace of H
2
O
2
were added, before the samples were processed
in a microwave oven at 175˚C for 20 minutes. The samples obtained were then dried overnight
on a hotplate prior to a secondary oxidation stage which repeated the whole process. The sam-
ples were converted to chloride in a solution of 6 M HCl, then dried and taken up again in 2N
HNO
3
prior to strontium separation using standard resin columns (Eichrom Sr-Spec resin).
Despite every effort was made to collect reliable samples from the Pleistocene sediments of
the Vallès-Penedès valley, it proved difficult due to the high degree of anthropic impact on the
landscape–buildings, agriculture–. We therefore took two bone samples from two archaeolog-
ical sites located on Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments further away to the West (Table 1) as
bone tissue absorbs the strontium signature of the burying environment [47–48]. The bone
sample preparation followed the same protocol described above for enamel samples.
Results
Modern samples
Table 1 and Fig 3 (left) show the strontium
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotopic ratios obtained from the 14 mod-
ern leaf samples and two archaeological bones sourced from different geological formations
neighbouring the site. The results indicate that the strontium signature of the site is around
0.7095, and that the potential strontium variation in the surroundings of the site ranges
between 0.7089 and 0.7123. The neighbour Jurassic and Cretaceous bedrock of the Garraf
mountain displays a range between 0.7089 and 0.7090. Further to the north, the Triassic dolo-
mites gave a signal of 0.7105, and further to the north-east, the Palaeozoic granodiorites and
micacitic slates of the littoral mountains display strontium ratios between 0.7113 and 0.7123.
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 5 / 14
In the Vallès, the sample collected on Miocene sediments close to Palaeozoic sediments of the
Montseny gave a
87
Sr/
86
Sr value of 0.7157, and the sample from the Eocene conglomerates in
the West a
87
Sr/
86
Sr ratio of 0.7098. The Eocene- Oligocene marls and the Pleistocene sedi-
ments of the Catalan Central Depression had values around 0.7085 and, further to the West
(130 Km distant from Turo
´de la Font de la Canya) the Oligocene bedrock displayed values
comprised between 0.7093 and 0.7095. All these strontium ratios are consistent with other
measurements from similar geological formations in the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere [29–
30,32,38].
Archaeological samples
Table 2 and Fig 3 show the results of the 34 archaeological sheep and goat teeth from Turo
´de
la Font de la Canya. The vast majority of strontium
87
Sr/
86
Sr isotopic ratios (n = 27), including
those for all four goats, range between 0.7091 and 0.7096, compatible with the values attested
on the Miocene sediments where the site is located. Six teeth (one of 7
th
century BC, two of 6
th
-5
th
centuries BC, and three of 4
th
-3
rd
centuries BC) have values in the range 0.7086–0.7090,
which could correspond to Cretaceous sediments from the neighbouring Garraf mountains
(circa 4km away). Only one tooth dated to the 7
th
century BC has a value of 0.7102 (sample
Table 1. Strontium isotopic ratios (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) obtained on modern tree leaves and sheep bones from different geologic formations. Coordinates ETRS89 UTM31N.
Sample W N Era Period Epoch Bedrock Species
87
Sr/
86
Sr Error (2s) Geological
layer
VI-11 329415.2 4603851.5 Cenozoic Quaternary Pleistocene Gravels with lutite matrix
and sandy banks
Sheep bone 0.708589 ±0.000004 Qvpu
GAR-5 401093.85 4578084.81 Cenozoic Neogene Late Miocene Calcarenites Evergreen
oak
0.709226 ±0.000007 NMe
TFC 50 397472 4580693 Cenozoic Neogene Middle Miocene Clays, sandstones and
conglomerates
Evergreen
oak
0.709508 Nmag
TFC 51 397472 4580693 Cenozoic Neogene Middle Miocene Clays, sandstones and
conglomerates
Oak 0.709528 Nmag
VG-
020
449065.3 4616603.9 Cenozoic Neogene Miocene Lenticular levels of
conglomerates with arcsic
sandy matrix
Evergreen
oak
0.715757 ±0.000003 NMcga
VG-
002
331435.8 4635310.3 Cenozoic Paleogene Oligocene Conglometrates Oak 0.709304 ±0.000005 Pogm1
VI-98 291167.6 4611828.6 Cenozoic Paleogene Oligocene Shales and sandstones Sheep bone 0.709606 ±0.000006 POmgc4
VG-
001
324446.7 4630001.3 Cenozoic Paleogene Eocene-Oligocene Gray marls Pine 0.708506 ±0.000007 PEOx
VG-
025
380229.6 4606831.3 Cenozoic Paleogene Eocene-Oligocene Marls, limestones and
sandstones
Pine 0.708541 ±0.000005 PEOmg
VG-
022
421143.4 4610785.2 Cenozoic Paleogene Eocene Heterometric
conglomerates
Evergreen
oak
0.709820 ±0.000003 PEcg
GAR-6 401454.53 4578621.58 Mesozoic Cretaceous Late Cretaceous Calcareous and dolomitic Pine 0.708977 ±0.000012 CVBcd
GAR-3 405910.83 4576288.54 Mesozoic Jurassic-
Cretaceous
Upper Jurassic-
Lower Cretaceous
Calcareous and dolomitic Evergreen
oak
0.709063 ±0.000008 Jd
GAR-4 405910.83 4576288,53 Mesozoic Jurassic-
Cretaceous
Upper Jurassic-
Lower Cretaceous
Calcareous and dolomitic Evergreen
oak
0.708923 ±0.000007 Jd
GAR-1 409109.00 4575181.04 Mesozoic Triassic Middle—Late
Triassic
Calcareous and dolomitic Evergreen
oak
0.710552 ±0.000092 Tm2
VG-
024
443688.4 4602000.2 Paleozoic Carboniferous-
Permian
Carboniferous-
Permian
Granodiorites and
alcaline granites
Strawberry
tree
0.711321 ±0.000005 Ggd
GAR-7 416507.47 4579214.7 Paleozoic Cambro-
Ordovician
Cambro-
Ordovician
Micacitic slates Evergreen
oak
0.712337 ±0.000006 C¸Orp
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.t001
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
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37–1, SU 1549), which could be compatible with the Triassic limestone and dolomites present
further away in the Garraf (circa 10km from the site).
The 17 teeth for which sequential sampling was done display low variability along the tooth
crown (Table 3,Fig 4). Again, most teeth have strontium ratios compatible with the local Mio-
cene geology all along the tooth enamel. This indicates that most animals grazed in the vicinity
of the site all the year round, and thus suggests that herding was mainly done locally. Only
three teeth (717—6
th
century BC, SU1087A, 4
th
century BC and SU1090B, 3
rd
century BC)
have notable differences along the tooth height (over 0.000200 between the maximum and the
minimum
87
Sr/
86
Sr value, see Table 3 for details). Two of those animals grazed on an area with
strontium values compatible with the Cretaceous sediments from the neighbouring Garraf
mountains (teeth 717 and SU1087A), thus reinforcing the idea that some animals arrived to
the site from other locations. In this respect, no seasonal pattern of mobility is evidenced
between the Garraf mountains and the Plio-Pleistocene valley, but some teeth have similar
degrees of variation along the tooth crown. This is the case of teeth 32 and 33 (7
th
century BC)
Fig 3. Strontium isotopic ratios (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) obtained from 14 modern tree leaves and two archaeological bones (green crosses), 34 archaeological sheep enamel
from Turo
´de la Font de la Canya (blue dots) and three archaeological sheep dentine from Turo
´de la Font de la Canya (red triangles). The dark orange band
indicates the strontium isotopic range of the Miocene bedrock where the site is located, and the light orange band indicates the range of the Jurassic and Cretaceous
sediments neighbour to the site. ‘GAR’ vegetal samples refer to the samples collected on the Garraf mountain area (sample codes starting with GAR on Table 1), ‘Other’
refer to all the other areas (see Table 1 for sample details).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.g003
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
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as well as SU1087A and SU1090B (3
rd
century BC, see Fig 4). This suggests that some animals
may have moved around in a similar way, although this was not the case for most animals.
Discussion
The
87
Sr/
86
Sr data of the modern vegetation and archaeological bone reflect the diversity of the
geological settings in the Catalan central coast and central depression. The samples originated
from the main geological areas around Turo
´de la Font de la Canya and provide a first over-
view of the strontium isotopic ranges from the vicinity of the site to 130 Km away to the West.
The sampling of the Pleistocene sediments of the Vallès-Penedès valley proved challenging
due to the high degree of human impact in this area, which prevented us to collect reliable
samples. The strontium results from the large majority of the archaeological samples (27 out of
Table 2. Strontium isotopic ratios (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) obtained from archaeological sheep and goats enamel. Sample located at the base of each tooth, about 1mm above the
enamel root junction. In the table, ‘s/g’ refers to specimens identified as ‘sheep/goat’.
Sample code SU Tooth Species Chrono Wear stage (Payne 1987)
87
Sr/
86
Sr Error (±2sigma) Reference
25–1 SU 1233 m2 inf sheep 7th BC 9A 0.709378 0.000004 This study
30–1 SU 1549 m3 inf goat 7th BC 10G 0.709418 0.000004 This study
32–1 SU 1549 m3 inf sheep 7th BC 11G 0.709218 0.000004 This study
33–1 SU 1549 m2 inf sheep 7th BC 9A 0.708935 0.000003 This study
34–1 SU 1549 m3 inf goat 7th BC 11G 0.709379 0.000004 This study
37–1 SU 1549 m3 inf sheep 7th BC 11G 0.710236 0.000005 This study
38–1 SU 1549 m3 inf sheep 7th BC 5A 0.709126 0.000008 This study
41–1 SU 1649 m2 inf sheep 7th BC 5A 0.709505 0.000004 This study
59–1 SU 1670 m2 inf sheep 7th BC 10A 0.709464 0.000004 This study
137–1 SU 1710 m2 inf sheep 6th BC 9A 0.709631 0.000004 This study
139–1 SU 1710 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 6G 0.709402 0.000004 This study
47–1 SU 1616 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 11G 0.709452 0.000008 This study
712–1 SU 1710 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 9G 0.709441 0.000015 This study
714–1 SU 1710 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 11G 0.709475 0.000004 This study
716–1 SU 1710 m3 inf goat 6th BC 6G 0.709401 0.000005 This study
717–1 SU 1710 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 11G 0.708664 0.000005 This study
718–1 SU 1710 m3 inf sheep 6th BC 11G 0.708690 0.000003 This study
719–1 SU 1710 m3 inf goat 6th BC 5G 0.709445 0.000008 This study
53–1 SU 1696 m2 sup s/g 4th-3rd BC 9A 0.709097 0.000004 This study
54–1 SU 1696 m3 sup s/g 4th-3rd BC 9A 0.709486 0.000003 This study
13–1 SU 1615 m2 sup s/g 4th BC 9A 0.709569 0.000005 This study
15–1 SU 1615 m3 sup s/g 4th BC 4A 0.709309 0.000003 This study
17–1 SU 1646 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 9G 0.709394 0.000006 This study
58–1 SU 1660 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 9G 0.708687 0.000004 This study
SU1022 SU 1022 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 2A 0.709557 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
SU1030 SU 1030 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 10G 0.709430 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
SU1081 SU 1081 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 6G 0.709235 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
SU1087A SU 1087 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 5G 0.708894 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
SU1087B SU 1087 m3 inf sheep 4th BC 6G 0.709471 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
1–1 SU 1090 m2 inf sheep 3rd BC 7A 0.709622 0.000004 This study
2–1 SU 1090 m2 inf sheep 3rd BC 4A 0.709287 0.000005 This study
44–1 SU 1769 m2 sup s/g 3rd BC 5A 0.709638 0.000004 This study
SU1090A SU 1090 m3 inf sheep 3rd BC 4A 0.709592 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
SU1090B SU 1090 m3 inf sheep 3rd BC 11G 0.709314 Valenzuela-Lamas et al 2016
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.t002
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 8 / 14
34 considering the bottom slice, and 53 out of 64 considering all the samples) are compatible
with the geology immediately surrounding the archaeological site. This is consistent with
sheep and goats being reared locally in the different phases of occupation, most likely on the
Miocene sediments and Pleistocene gravels and clays of the Penedès Valley. Nevertheless, the
use of other areas of this valley (the Vallès) cannot be excluded, as the Vallès-Penedès forms a
corridor of Plio-Pleistocene alluvial sediments surrounded by older geological formations (see
text above and Fig 2, also [50]). The presence of various stone pastoral enclosures in the
Table 3. Strontium isotopic ratios (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) obtained from 17 archaeological sheep and goats enamel. Samples located at the base, middle and top of enamel. Teeth
codes are the same as in Table 2.
Sample code Top Middle Base Chronology Max Min Difference
25 0.709390 0.709392 0.709378 7th BC 0.709392 0.709378 0.000014
30 0.709434 0.709386 0.709418 7th BC 0.709434 0.709386 0.000048
32 0.709153 0.709139 0.709218 7th BC 0.709218 0.709139 0.000079
33 0.708826 0.708864 0.708935 7th BC 0.708935 0.708826 0.000108
34 0.709430 0.709460 0.709379 7th BC 0.709460 0.709379 0.000081
714 0.709475 0.709387 0.709259 6th BC 0.709475 0.709259 0.000215
716 0.709401 0.709303 0.709331 6th BC 0.709401 0.709303 0.000099
717 0.708664 0.708297 0.708323 6th BC 0.708664 0.708297 0.000367
712 0.709441 0.709414 0.709398 6th BC 0.709441 0.709398 0.000044
719 0.709445 0.709450 0.709410 6th BC 0.709450 0.709410 0.000040
SU1022 0.709557 0.709537 0.709387 4th BC 0.709557 0.709387 0.000170
SU1030 0.709430 0.709432 0.709391 4th BC 0.709432 0.709391 0.000041
SU1081 0.709235 0.709274 0.709269 4th BC 0.709274 0.709235 0.000039
SU1087A 0.708894 0.708804 0.709006 4th BC 0.709006 0.708804 0.000202
SU1087B 0.709471 0.709375 0.709412 4th BC 0.709471 0.709375 0.000096
SU1090A 0.709592 0.709614 0.709566 3rd BC 0.709614 0.709566 0.000048
SU1090B 0.709314 0.709193 0.709394 3rd BC 0.709394 0.709193 0.000201
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.t003
Fig 4. Strontium isotopic ratios (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) of the 17 teeth sequentially sampled (top, middle and bottom of tooth
enamel). Grey dots refer to teeth dated from the 7
th
century BC, red dashed-lines to teeth from 6
th
century BC and
blue lines to teeth dated from the 4
th
and 3
rd
centuries BC.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283.g004
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 9 / 14
neighbouring Garraf mountains indicates that livestock was present in this coastal mountain
area during the first millennium BC [62–65]. Interestingly, the strontium results obtained so
far at Turo
´de la Font de la Canya suggest that this human community did not pasture its
sheep and goats on the Garraf or other neighbouring mountains on a regular basis. Only six
teeth out of the 34 analysed have a strontium signature compatible with that of the Cretaceous
limestones of the Garraf, despite their proximity (circa 4 km as the crow flies). Overall, the lim-
ited variability of strontium ratios points towards local rearing of caprines rather than long-
distance trade of animals.
The homogeneity of the strontium results contrast with the diversity of imports recovered
from the site, which include Cruz del Negro pottery from the Straits of Gibraltar, Tanit figu-
rines of Punic origin, a clay mask from the central or eastern Mediterranean, and numerous
Campanian A ceramics from Italy in the levels dated from the 4
th
and 3
rd
centuries BC among
others [20–22]. While the possibility cannot be excluded that the sheep and goats analysed
originated from other areas with similar geology, the homogeneity of tooth values in a fairly
large sample argues against this. It seems, therefore, that sheep and goats were mainly bred
locally, and only ‘prestige’ goods (e.g. Phoenician wine, Greek pottery) arrived from distant
sources.
Overall, material cultural data suggest that Turo
´de la Font de la Canya had an active role in
the Mediterranean trade. Conversely, the results from strontium isotopic analysis on sheep
and goats suggest that animal were reared locally, and so probably on a small-scale basis, and
that caprines slaughtered at the site were mainly reared in the Penedès valley and perhaps also
the neighbouring Vallès. This local breeding of livestock may reflect (and be a consequence of)
the local socio-political context. The significant change in settlement pattern in the Late
Bronze and Iron Ages–from open-air sites located on the plains to fortified settlements located
on hills–is thought to reflect increased warfare and territoriality [1,5,7,66], while weapons in
some tombs and severed heads at several sites suggest the existence of a military elite at this
time [18–19]. Perhaps, even if long-distance maritime trade flourished during the Iron Age
across the Mediterranean, long-distance terrestrial movements of livestock were difficult in the
north-east Iberian Peninsula at this time.
Conclusions
This study has established baseline strontium isotopic ratio (
87
Sr/
86
Sr) values for the vicinity of
the Iron Age site of Turo
´de la Font de la Canya (Barcelona, Spain) and surrounding geological
areas, based on analysis of modern leaves from trees growing on different geological substrates
around the site and two archaeological bone samples. Modern leaves provided a consistent
and fairly narrow range of local strontium ratio values. This new baseline has been central for
the interpretation of the strontium isotopic ratios measured in 34 archaeological sheep and
goat tooth enamel samples dated from the 7
th
to 3
rd
centuries BC, to explore the geographical
range of meat provisioning at Iron Age Turo
´de la Font de la Canya. Seventeen of these sam-
ples were sequentially analysed to observe variations along the tooth crown. The investigated
archaeological samples indicate limited variability of strontium values throughout the occupa-
tion of the site, and 27 of the 34 samples are compatible with the local geology (
87
Sr/
86
Sr range:
0.7091–7096), while seven samples may be derived from bedrocks as close as 5 km from the
site (
87
Sr/
86
Sr: 0.7086–0.7090), and one more (
87
Sr/
86
Sr: 0.7102) is compatible with slightly
more distant (about 15 km from the site) geological areas. The sequential sampling suggests
that most animals were reared locally all the year round, thus supporting the idea of small scale
herding rather than long-distance sourcing. Interestingly, some animals display similar pat-
terns of variation along the tooth crown, thus suggesting that some movement of livestock
Livestock mobility Iron Age strontium sheep and goat tooth enamel
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205283 October 31, 2018 10 / 14
existed. Overall, the archaeological results suggest that sheep and goats slaughtered at the site
were mainly reared in the local area, most notably the Miocene clays and Plio-Pleistocene allu-
vial sediments of the plain. This contrasts with the role of the site as central point for cereal
storage (see Fig 2) as well as the diversity of imports recovered at the site, which suggests that
only ‘prestige’ goods (e.g. Phoenician wine, Greek pottery)–rather than animals–were brought
to this storage-rich site. It further suggests that crop rather than livestock surpluses financed
participation in supra-regional exchange.
The low diversity of strontium ratios of sheep and goats at Turo
´de la Font de la Canya
implies herding over a limited geographical range that may partly have been dictated to the
difficulty of long-distance terrestrial movements in the Iron Age, as a result of the emergence
of the small, strongly defended territories suggested by the settlement pattern, architecture and
finds of weapons. Alternatively, the limited geographical scale of herding may primarily reflect
the rearing of livestock in only modest numbers. Further zooarchaeological studies, both mac-
roscopic and isotopic, may clarify which of these rival explanations is more plausible.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to J. Evans and three other anonymous referees for their comments
on the paper, and to P. Verdoux for his technical expertise during TIMS Sr analyses.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo.
Data curation: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas.
Funding acquisition: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo.
Investigation: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes.
Methodology: Delphine Bosch.
Project administration: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo.
Resources: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Ariadna Nieto-Espinet, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes.
Supervision: Hector A. Orengo, Delphine Bosch, Paul Halstead, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes.
Validation: Delphine Bosch, Maura Pellegrini, Paul Halstead, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes.
Visualization: Ariadna Nieto-Espinet.
Writing – original draft: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo, Delphine Bosch, Maura
Pellegrini, Paul Halstead, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes.
Writing – review & editing: Silvia Valenzuela-Lamas, Hector A. Orengo, Delphine Bosch,
Maura Pellegrini, Paul Halstead, Ariadna Nieto-Espinet, Angela Trentacoste, Sergio Jime
´-
nez-Mancho
´n, Dani Lo
´pez-Reyes, Rafel Jornet-Niella.
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