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Air pollution in Asia and the Pacific: Science-based solutions

  • October 2018
  • Publisher: United Nations Environment Programme
  • ISBN: 978-92-807-3725-7
Authors:
Yun-Chul Hong at Seoul National University
Yun-Chul Hong
Kevin Hicks at The University of York
Kevin Hicks
Chris Malley
Chris Malley
Chris Malley
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
Johan Kuylenstierna
Johan Kuylenstierna
Johan Kuylenstierna
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
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... These high pollution levels cause significant health impacts (Balakrishnan et al., 2014;Cohen et al., 2017;Landrigan et al., 2017;David et al., 2019;Hong et al., 2019). While for India their exact quantification remains uncertain, the scientific literature estimates large numbers, ranging between 483,000 and 1,267,000 cases of premature deaths annually from outdoor pollution, and 748,000-1,254,000 cases from indoor pollution (Lim et al., 2012;Forouzanfar et al., , 2016Chowdhury and Dey, 2016;WHO, 2016;Balakrishnan et al., 2019). ...
... It brings together information on future economic, energy and agricultural development, emission control potentials and costs, atmospheric dispersion and environmental sensitivities towards air pollution as shown in the SI (section S.2). The GAINS model has been applied widely for policy analyses in Europe (Amann et al., 2011), South Asia (Purohit et al., 2010Dholakia et al., 2013;Mir et al., 2016;Amann et al., 2017;Bhanarkar et al., 2018;Karambelas et al., 2018) and East Asia (Amann et al., 2008;Klimont et al., 2009;Zhao et al., 2013;Chen et al., 2015;Dong et al., 2015;Hong et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2019). ...
Mitigation pathways towards national ambient air quality standards in India
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2019
Exposure to ambient particulate matter is a leading risk factor for environmental public health in India. While Indian authorities implemented several measures to reduce emissions from the power, industry and transportation sectors over the last years, such strategies appear to be insufficient to reduce the ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) concentration below the Indian National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS) of 40 μg/m3 across the country. This study explores pathways towards achieving the NAAQS in India in the context of the dynamics of social and economic development. In addition, to inform action at the subnational levels in India, we estimate the exposure to ambient air pollution in the current legislations and alternative policy scenarios based on simulations with the GAINS integrated assessment model. The analysis reveals that in many of the Indian States emission sources that are outside of their immediate jurisdictions make the dominating contributions to (population-weighted) ambient pollution levels of PM2.5. Consequently, most of the States cannot achieve significant improvements in their air quality and population exposure on their own without emission reductions in the surrounding regions, and any cost-effective strategy requires regionally coordinated approaches. Advanced technical emission control measures could provide NAAQS-compliant air quality for 60% of the Indian population. However, if combined with national sustainable development strategies, an additional 25% population will be provided with clean air, which appears to be a significant co-benefit on air quality (totaling 85%).
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... This is not surprising as, due to its physical features, air pollution is often considered as a local/regional and short-term problem, even if it is of universal nature, i.e. occurring as a concomitant of development in most industrialized areas throughout the world. However, a global perspective is of interest due to the intercontinental transport of pollution [43,44], the serious global health burden of air pollution [1] and the intimate interactions between clean air policies and efforts to achieve the UN global sustainable development goals [45][46][47]. ...
Reducing global air pollution: the scope for further policy interventions
Article
Full-text available
Over the last decades, energy and pollution control policies combined with structural changes in the economy decoupled emission trends from economic growth, increasingly also in the developing world. It is found that effective implementation of the presently decided national pollution control regulations should allow further economic growth without major deterioration of ambient air quality, but will not be enough to reduce pollution levels in many world regions. A combination of ambitious policies focusing on pollution controls, energy and climate, agricultural production systems and addressing human consumption habits could drastically improve air quality throughout the world. By 2040, mean population exposure to PM2.5 from anthropogenic sources could be reduced by about 75% relative to 2015 and brought well below the WHO guideline in large areas of the world. While the implementation of the proposed technical measures is likely to be technically feasible in the future, the transformative changes of current practices will require strong political will, supported by a full appreciation of the multiple benefits. Improved air quality would avoid a large share of the current 3–9 million cases of premature deaths annually. At the same time, the measures that deliver clean air would also significantly reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and contribute to multiple UN sustainable development goals. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Air quality, past present and future’.
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Measurement report: Interpretation of wide-range particulate matter size distributions in Delhi
Article
Full-text available
Delhi is one of the world's most polluted cities, with very high concentrations of airborne particulate matter. However, little is known about the factors controlling the characteristics of wide-range particle number size distributions. Here, new measurements are reported from three field campaigns conducted in winter and pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons at the Indian Institute of Technology campus in the south of the city. Particle number size distributions were measured simultaneously, using a scanning mobility particle sizer and a GRIMM optical particle monitor, covering 15 nm to >10 µm diameter. The merged, wide-range size distributions were categorized into the following five size ranges: nucleation (15–20 nm), Aitken (20–100 nm), accumulation (100 nm–1 µm), large fine (1–2.5 µm), and coarse (2.5–10 µm) particles. The ultrafine fraction (15–100 nm) accounts for about 52 % of all particles by number (PN10 is the total particle number from 15 nm to 10 µm) but just 1 % by PM10 volume (PV10 is the total particle volume from 15 nm to 10 µm). The measured size distributions are markedly coarser than most from other parts of the world but are consistent with earlier cascade impactor data from Delhi. Our results suggest substantial aerosol processing by coagulation, condensation, and water uptake in the heavily polluted atmosphere, which takes place mostly at nighttime and in the morning hours. Total number concentrations are highest in winter, but the mode of the distribution is largest in the post-monsoon (autumn) season. The accumulation mode particles dominate the particle volume in autumn and winter, while the coarse mode dominates in summer. Polar plots show a huge variation between both size fractions in the same season and between seasons for the same size fraction. The diurnal pattern of particle numbers is strongly reflective of a road traffic influence upon concentrations, especially in autumn and winter, although other sources, such as cooking and domestic heating, may influence the evening peak. There is a clear influence of diesel traffic at nighttime, when it is permitted to enter the city, and also indications in the size distribution data of a mode
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Model-based assessments for long-term climate strategies
Article
Many countries are formulating a long-term climate strategy to be submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change by 2020. Model-based, multi-disciplinary assessments can be a key ingredient for informing policy makers and engaging stakeholders in this process.
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Ozone Pollution: Impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity
Technical Report
Full-text available
  • Apr 2013
In this report we provide a review of the state of current knowledge on the effects of ozone pollution on ecosystem services including consideration of effects on biodiversity. Although considered separately, all of the ecosystem services and underlying processes are interlinked, with for example, ozone impacts on root growth contributing to supporting services (primary productivity), provisioning (crop and timber production), regulating (C sequestration and impacts on climate) and cultural services (reduced growth of sensitive species influencing aesthetic qualities of vegetation), and reducing economic value of products such as crop yield. Until recently, much of the research on ozone impacts has focussed on quantifying effects on ecological processes rather than considering the implications for ecosystem services. This report, for the first time, places current process-based knowledge within the context of ecosystem services and thus reports on the potential for impacts of ozone on ecosystem services and biodiversity. The report has been prepared by the Coordination Centre of the ICP Vegetation, an International Cooperative Programme reporting on air pollution impacts on vegetation to the Working Group on Effects of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.
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Algae explosive growth mechanism enabling weather-like forecast of harmful algal blooms
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2018
As a global problem in coastal environments, harmful algal blooms (HABs) have seriously affected the health of coastal ecosystems and regional economies. Here we report an aerosol-trigger mechanism for the occurrence of HABs based on long-term field data and laboratory experiments. The occurrence times of HABs and aerosol events had a significant correlation from 2005 to 2013 in the East China Sea, indicating that aerosol transport was probably an alternative trigger of HABs. HABs mostly occur in the transition time between winter and summer, during which northwest monsoon transport substantial aerosol (rich in phosphate, iron and other trace metals) to coastal waters, as revealed by chemical measurements, transmission electron microscope and electron microprober results. Such nutrients can stimulate algal growth in our incubation experiments, suggesting that such aerosol transport can be important nutrient sources for the East China Sea where phytoplankton growth is relatively phosphate limited. Air-borne nutrients are available for algal growth by rapid downward air flow, which additional results a clear weather condition, and thus adequate light intensity for algal growth. At last, the transition from northwest monsoon to warm southwest monsoon establishes favorable seawater temperature for algal blooms. Such weather-related aerosol-trigger mechanism suggests possibly forecast of HABs.
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Linkages of the dynamics of glaciers and lakes with the climate elements over the Tibetan Plateau
Article
Full-text available
Future climate warming is expected to have a significant effect on the operation of Earth and Ecological systems. A key concern in the future is water resource availability. In regions such as the Tibet Plateau (TP) lakes and glaciers appear to be highly sensitive to climate forcing and variations in the size and extent of these systems will have profound socio-economic and environmental consequences in South and Central Asia. Although the variety of glaciers and lake son the TP is a heavily researched and discussed topic the interaction between glaciers/lakes and climate change has not been thoroughly investigated. Here we present, through a review of existing studies and original remote sensing analysis, a reconstruction of changes in the spatial coverage of glaciers and lakes on the TP from 1990 to 2015 along with an analysis of climate data for the same period. The results revealed that these systems responded to changes in both temperature and precipitation but the nature of this response, and the controlling factor, was spatially diverse. During this interval, the total number of lakes increased from 868 to 1207, thus a large number of new lakes (n = 339) formed. The total water surface area of the lakes increase from 38,823.3 km2 in 1990 to 48,793.0 km2 in 2015, at a rate of 383.5 km2 yr-1. Over this period intensive glacial shrinkage occurred, primarily driven by increasing average temperature, except in the Karakoram Mountains where a slight increase in glacier extent was explained by low and stable temperatures along with increasing precipitation. The expansion of lakes in the central and northeastern TP can, therefore, be explained by a trend of increasing precipitation and the accelerated melting of glaciers associated with rising temperatures, both of which contributed to the enhanced total basin runoff. The shrinkage of lake areas along the Himalayan Mountains are accounted for by low precipitation coupled with high evaporation and limited basin space. The lakes within the Qaidam Basin express a complex pattern of response in association with fluctuating precipitation and strong evaporation. The pattern of shrinking glaciers and expanding lakes indicate that water cycle processes on the TP have been accelerating during the past 25 years. Under current climates and future climate change, the shrinkage of glaciers and the enlargement of lakes may be expected to continue to accelerate until a “tipping point” is reached when the meltwater of declining glaciers can no longer sustain the enhanced.
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Association of Solid Fuel Use With Risk of Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality in Rural China
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2018
Importance When combusted indoors, solid fuels generate a large amount of pollutants such as fine particulate matter. Objective To assess the associations of solid fuel use for cooking and heating with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Design, Setting, and Participants This nationwide prospective cohort study recruited participants from 5 rural areas across China between June 2004 and July 2008; mortality follow-up was until January 1, 2014. A total of 271 217 adults without a self-reported history of physician-diagnosed cardiovascular disease at baseline were included, with a random subset (n = 10 892) participating in a resurvey after a mean interval of 2.7 years. Exposures Self-reported primary cooking and heating fuels (solid: coal, wood, or charcoal; clean: gas, electricity, or central heating), switching of fuel type before baseline, and use of ventilated cookstoves. Main Outcomes and Measures Death from cardiovascular and all causes, collected through established death registries. Results Among the 271 217 participants, the mean (SD) age was 51.0 (10.2) years, and 59% (n = 158 914) were women. A total of 66% (n = 179 952) of the participants reported regular cooking (at least weekly) and 60% (n = 163 882) reported winter heating, of whom 84% (n = 150 992) and 90% (n = 147 272) used solid fuels, respectively. There were 15 468 deaths, including 5519 from cardiovascular causes, documented during a mean (SD) of 7.2 (1.4) years of follow-up. Use of solid fuels for cooking was associated with greater risk of cardiovascular mortality (absolute rate difference [ARD] per 100 000 person-years, 135 [95% CI, 77-193]; hazard ratio [HR], 1.20 [95% CI, 1.02-1.41]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 338 [95% CI, 249-427]; HR, 1.11 [95% CI, 1.03-1.20]). Use of solid fuels for heating was also associated with greater risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 175 [95% CI, 118-231]; HR, 1.29 [95% CI, 1.06-1.55]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 392 [95% CI, 297-487]; HR, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.03-1.26]). Compared with persistent solid fuel users, participants who reported having previously switched from solid to clean fuels for cooking had a lower risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 138 [95% CI, 71-205]; HR, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.69-0.99]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 407 [95% CI, 317-497]; HR, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.79-0.95]), while for heating, the ARDs were 193 (95% CI, 128-258) and 492 (95% CI, 383-601), and the HRs were 0.57 (95% CI, 0.42-0.77) and 0.67 (95% CI, 0.57-0.79), respectively. Among solid fuel users, use of ventilated cookstoves was also associated with lower risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 33 [95% CI, −9 to 75]; HR, 0.89 [95% CI, 0.80-0.99]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 87 [95% CI, 20-153]; HR, 0.91 [95% CI, 0.85-0.96]). Conclusions and Relevance In rural China, solid fuel use for cooking and heating was associated with higher risks of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. These risks may be lower among those who had previously switched to clean fuels and those who used ventilation.
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Residential energy use emissions dominate health impacts from exposure to ambient particulate matter in India
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2018
Exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is a leading contributor to diseases in India. Previous studies analysing emission source attributions were restricted by coarse model resolution and limited PM2.5 observations. We use a regional model informed by new observations to make the first high-resolution study of the sector-specific disease burden from ambient PM2.5 exposure in India. Observed annual mean PM2.5 concentrations exceed 100 μg m−3 and are well simulated by the model. We calculate that the emissions from residential energy use dominate (52%) population-weighted annual mean PM2.5 concentrations, and are attributed to 511,000 (95UI: 340,000–697,000) premature mortalities annually. However, removing residential energy use emissions would avert only 256,000 (95UI: 162,000–340,000), due to the non-linear exposure–response relationship causing health effects to saturate at high PM2.5 concentrations. Consequently, large reductions in emissions will be required to reduce the health burden from ambient PM2.5 exposure in India.
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Characterizing exposure to household air pollution within the Prospective Urban Rural Epidemiology (PURE) study
Article
Background: Household air pollution (HAP) from combustion of solid fuels is an important contributor to disease burden in low- and middle-income countries (LIC, and MIC). However, current HAP disease burden estimates are based on integrated exposure response curves that are not currently informed by quantitative HAP studies in LIC and MIC. While there is adequate evidence supporting causal relationships between HAP and respiratory disease, large cohort studies specifically examining relationships between quantitative measures of HAP exposure with cardiovascular disease are lacking. Objective: We aim to improve upon exposure proxies based on fuel type, and to reduce exposure misclassification by quantitatively measuring exposure across varying cooking fuel types and conditions in diverse geographies and socioeconomic settings. We leverage technology advancements to estimate household and personal PM2.5(particles below 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) exposure within the large (N~250,000) multi-country (N~26) Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) cohort study. Here, we detail the study protocol and the innovative methodologies being used to characterize HAP exposures, and their application in epidemiologic analyses. Methods/design: This study characterizes HAP PM2.5exposures for participants in rural communities in ten PURE countries with >10% solid fuel use at baseline (Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe). PM2.5monitoring includes 48-h cooking area measurements in 4500 households and simultaneous personal monitoring of male and female pairs from 20% of the selected households. Repeat measurements occur in 20% of households to assess impacts of seasonality. Monitoring began in 2017, and will continue through 2019. The Ultrasonic Personal Aerosol Sampler (UPAS), a novel, robust, and inexpensive filter based monitor that is programmable through a dedicated mobile phone application is used for sampling. Pilot study field evaluation of cooking area measurements indicated high correlation between the UPAS and reference Harvard Impactors (r = 0.91; 95% CI: 0.84, 0.95; slope = 0.95). To facilitate tracking and to minimize contamination and analytical error, the samplers utilize barcoded filters and filter cartridges that are weighed pre- and post-sampling using a fully automated weighing system. Pump flow and pressure measurements, temperature and RH, GPS coordinates and semi-quantitative continuous particle mass concentrations based on filter differential pressure are uploaded to a central server automatically whenever the mobile phone is connected to the internet, with sampled data automatically screened for quality control parameters. A short survey is administered during the 48-h monitoring period. Post-weighed filters are further analyzed to estimate black carbon concentrations through a semi-automated, rapid, cost-effective image analysis approach. The measured PM2.5data will then be combined with PURE survey information on household characteristics and behaviours collected at baseline and during follow-up to develop quantitative HAP models for PM2.5exposures for all rural PURE participants (~50,000) and across different cooking fuel types within the 10 index countries. Both the measured (in the subset) and the modelled exposures will be used in separate longitudinal epidemiologic analyses to assess associations with cardiopulmonary mortality, and disease incidence. Discussion: The collected data and resulting characterization of cooking area and personal PM2.5exposures in multiple rural communities from 10 countries will better inform exposure assessment as well as future epidemiologic analyses assessing the relationships between quantitative estimates of chronic HAP exposure with adult mortality and incident cardiovascular and respiratory disease. This will provide refined and more accurate exposure estimates in global CVD related exposure-response analyses.
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Association Between Household Air Pollution Exposure and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Outcomes in 13 Low- and Middle-income Country Settings
Article
  • Jan 2018
Rationale: Forty percent of households worldwide burn biomass fuels for energy, which may be most the important contributor to household air pollution. Objective: To examine the association between household air pollution exposure and COPD outcomes in 13 resource-poor settings. Methods: We analyzed data from 12,396 adult participants living in 13 resource-poor, population-based settings. Household air pollution exposure was defined as using biomass materials as the primary fuel source in the home. We used multivariable regressions to assess the relationship between household air pollution exposure and COPD outcomes, evaluated for interactions, and conducted sensitivity analyses to test the robustness of our findings. Results: Average age was 54.9 years (44.2-59.6 years across settings), 48.5% were women (38.3%-54.5%), prevalence of household air pollution exposure was 38% (0.5%-99.6%), and 8.8% (1.7%-15.5%) had COPD. Participants with household air pollution exposure were 41% more likely to have COPD (adjusted OR=1.41, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.68) than those without the exposure, and 13.5% (6.4% to 20.6%) of COPD prevalence may due to household air pollution exposure, compared with 12.4% due to cigarette smoking. The association between household air pollution exposure and COPD was stronger in women (1.70, 1.24 to 2.32) than in men (1.21, 0.92 to 1.58). Conclusions: Household air pollution exposure was associated with a higher prevalence of COPD, particularly among women, and it is likely a leading population attributable risk factor for COPD in resource-poor settings.
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