Possibilities and Constraints for the Widespread Application of Solar Cooling Integrated Façades

Abstract

Cooling demands in buildings have drastically increased in recent decades and this trend is set to continue into the near future, due to increasing standards of living and global climate change, among the most relevant factors. Besides energy consumption, the use of re-frigerants in common vapour compression cooling technologies is a source of concern because of their environmental impact. Hence, there is a need to decrease cooling demands in buildings while looking for alternative clean technologies to take over the remaining loads. Solar cooling systems have gained increased attention in recent years, for their potential to lower indoor temperatures using renewable energy under environmentally friendly cooling processes. Nonetheless, their potential for building integration has not been fully explored, with the exception of scattered prototypes and concepts. This paper aims to address these knowledge gaps by presenting the results of the PhD research project 'COOLFAÇADE: Architectural integration of solar cooling technologies in the building envelope'. The research project explored the possibilities and constraints for architectural integration of solar cooling strategies in façades, in order to support the design of climate responsive architectural products for office buildings, driven by renewable energy sources. This paper explores different aspects related to façade integration and solar cooling technologies, in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of current possibilities for façade integration, while drafting recommendations based on identified barriers and bottlenecks at different levels.

Full text

010 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
Possibilities and Constraints for
the Widespread Application of
Solar Cooling Integrated Façades
Alejandro Prieto1*, Ulrich Knaack1, Tillmann Klein1, Thomas Auer2
* Corresponding author
1 Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Architectural Engineering +
Technology, Architectural Façades & Products Research Group, The Netherlands, A.I.PrietoHoces@tudelft.nl
2 Technical University of Munich, Department of Architecture, Chair of Building Technology and Climate
Responsive Design, Germany.
Abstract
Cooling demands in buildings have drastically increased in recent decades and this trend is set to continue into the near future, due to
increasing standards of living and global climate change, among the most relevant factors. Besides energy consumption, the use of re-
frigerants in common vapour compression cooling technologies is a source of concern because of their environmental impact. Hence,
there is a need to decrease cooling demands in buildings while looking for alternative clean technologies to take over the remaining
loads. Solar cooling systems have gained increased attention in recent years, for their potential to lower indoor temperatures using
renewable energy under environmentally friendly cooling processes. Nonetheless, their potential for building integration has not been
fully explored, with the exception of scattered prototypes and concepts. This paper aims to address these knowledge gaps by presenting
the results of the PhD research project ‘COOLFAÇADE: Architectural integration of solar cooling technologies in the building envelope’.
The research project explored the possibilities and constraints for architectural integration of solar cooling strategies in façades, in
order to support the design of climate responsive architectural products for oce buildings, driven by renewable energy sources. This
paper explores dierent aspects related to façade integration and solar cooling technologies, in order to provide a comprehensive
understanding of current possibilities for façade integration, while drafting recommendations based on identified barriers and bottle-
necks at dierent levels.
Keywords
solar cooling, integrated façades, façade design, renewables, barriers
DOI 10.7480/jfde.2018.3.2468

011 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
1 INTRODUCTION
Energy demands for cooling have increased drastically in recent decades, due to societal and
economic factors such as higher standards of living and aordability of air conditioning, as well as
environmental aspects such as temperature rise in cities in what is known as urban heat islands,
and global climate change (Santamouris, 2016). Total energy projections for the coming decades
show that energy consumption will keep rising, mostly driven by fast-growing emerging economies
(BP, 2016; DOE/EIA, 2016), and cooling energy demands are expected to follow this trend (Jochem
& Schade, 2009; OECD/IEA, 2015). As an example, yearly sales of room air conditioning units are
expected to grow by 10-15%, going from 100 million worldwide in 2014, to an expected 1.6 billion by
2050 (Montagnino, 2017).
The first course of action in tackling this situation should always aim to reduce energy consumption
through saving measures and the application of passive design strategies in buildings. Nonetheless,
this is often not enough to avoid mechanical equipment altogether, particularly in the case of oce
buildings in warm climates, which are characterised by particularly high cooling demands (Qi, 2006).
In this regard, solar cooling technologies have been increasingly explored, as an environmentally
friendly alternative to harmful refrigerants used within vapour compression systems, while also
being driven by solar - thus, renewable - energy. The principles behind some of these technologies
have been researched for over a century, reaching mature solutions and components, and
being recognised as promising alternatives to commonly-used air-conditioning units (Goetzler,
Zogg, Young, & Johnson, 2014). Nonetheless, application in buildings remains mostly limited to
demonstration projects and pilot experiences (Balaras et al., 2007; Henning & Döll, 2012).
Recently, façade integrated concepts have been explored as ways to promote widespread application
throughout the development of multi-functional building components (Avesani, 2016; Ibañez-Puy,
Martín-Gómez, Bermejo-Busto, Sacristán, & Ibañez-Puy, 2018; Prieto, Knaack, Auer, & Klein, 2017a;
Xu & Van Dessel, 2008). However, while these are regarded as relevant and promising standalone
concepts, further research is still needed to assess the integration potential of diverse solar cooling
technologies, and identify any barriers that must be overcome, in order to promote the widespread
application of solar cooling components in the built environment.
This paper aims to address these knowledge gaps by presenting the results of the PhD research
project ‘COOLFAÇADE: Architectural integration of solar technologies in the building envelope’,
carried out by the main author under the supervision of the co-authors. As the title suggests, the
research project explored the possibilities and constraints for the architectural integration of solar
cooling strategies in façades, in order to support the design of climate responsive architectural
products for oce buildings, without compromising the thermal comfort of users. The underlying
hypothesis was that self-sucient solar cooling integrated façades may be a promising alternative to
conventional centralised air-conditioning systems widely used in oce buildings in warm climates.
The research explored dierent aspects relating to façade integration and solar cooling technologies,
in order to provide a comprehensive understanding of current possibilities for the development of
architectural products. Hence, dierent types of barriers were identified, corresponding to distinct
aspects that need to be considered in the development of integrated concepts. These specific findings
have been presented separately and discussed in detail in previous publications. So, this article
presents a collated summary of all results, focusing on the general discussion of overall possibilities
after accounting for key aspects for further development, and drafting recommendations based on
the identified constraints at dierent levels.

012 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
2 RESEARCH STRATEGY AND METHODS
The evaluation of the façade integration potential of solar cooling technologies was carried out
considering two main families of parameters, targeting particular key aspects for the development
and application of integrated façade concepts. Therefore, selected solar cooling technologies were
assessed in terms of (a) architectural requirements for the integration of building services within
the façade design and development process, and (b) the potential climate feasibility of self-sucient
integrated concepts, matching current technical possibilities with cooling requirements from several
climates under an holistic approach to climate responsive façade design. The basic strategy behind
the research project is summarised in Fig. 1.
ARCHITECTURAL REQUIREMENTS
FOR FACADE INTEGRATION
OF BUILDING SERVICES
FACADE INTEGRATION POTENTIAL OF SOLAR COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
CLIMATE FEASIBILITY OF
SELF-SUFFICIENT COOLING
FACADE CONCEPTS
SOLAR COOLING
TECHNOLOGIES
POSSIBILITIES & CONSTRAINTS
FOR FACADE INTEGRATION
FIG. 1 Research strategy and parameters for the assessment
On the one hand, the response of the technologies to architectural requirements for façade
integration was assessed qualitatively, based on a comprehensive review of the key aspects of each
technology and their potential to overcome the main identified barriers for façade integration of
building services. These barriers were previously identified and discussed by means of a survey
addressed to experienced professionals in the fields of façade design and construction. The survey
aimed to identify the main perceived problems relating to the façade integration of building services
(Prieto, Klein, Knaack, & Auer, 2017), and the integration of solar collection technologies (photovoltaic
panels and solar thermal collectors) (Prieto, Knaack, Auer, & Klein, 2017b), discussing specific
barriers separately. The responses from the survey were interpreted using qualitative content
analysis techniques and quantitative descriptive statistics, defining barriers relating to the design
and construction process, as well as barriers relating to the products themselves.
On the other hand, the feasibility of applying integrated façade concepts in several climates was
evaluated through numerical calculations based on climate data and building scenarios simulated
with specialised software (EnergyPlus). The goal of this assessment was to check the theoretical
feasibility of solar cooling façades as self-sucient cooling units, matching solar availability at
dierent orientations and locations, with the cooling requirements of a base scenario that consisted
of a single oce room in dierent climate contexts (Prieto, Knaack, Auer, & Klein, 2018). These
scenarios considered several passive cooling strategies, such as shading, window-to-wall ratio,
glazing type, and ventilation, as the first step of the assessment, obtaining optimised base scenarios
for each orientation before integrating solar cooling technologies (Prieto, Knaack, Klein, & Auer, 2018).
The assessment focused on five main solar electric and solar thermal technologies, based on
widespread categorisations: thermoelectric, absorption, adsorption, solid desiccant, and liquid
desiccant cooling (Henning, 2007; Prieto, Knaack, et al., 2017a). Given that cooling needs are the
main driver of the research, the assessment focused exclusively on warm climates, ranging from
temperate to extreme desertic and tropical environments. Furthermore, discussion about design

013 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
possibilities is constrained to the façade, leaving potential for further optimisation of cooling
demands throughout building level strategies, which is outside the scope of the research project.
coordinaon
physical integraon
knowledge
performance
technical feasibility
logiscs
responsibilies
durability & maintenance
aesthecs
cost
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durability
others
knowledge
process
aesthecs
informaon
technical complexity
performance
economy
BARRIERS FOR FACADE INTEGRATION OF
SOLAR COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES (PV & STC)
BARRIERS FOR WIDESPREAD
FACADE INTEGRATION OF BUILDING SERVICES
TE
ABS
ADS
SD
LD
SOLAR COOLING TECHNOLOGIES CLIMAT E CONTEXTS PRODUCT INTEGRATION BARRIERS
TE: Themoelectric cooling HOT-ARID (deserc) TF: Technical feasibility
ABS: Absorpon cooling HOT-HUMID (tropical) PI: Physical integraon
ADS: Adsorpon cooling TEMPERATE-DRY (mediterranean) D&M: Durability & maintenance
SD: Solid desiccant + evap cooling TEMPERATE-HUMID (sub-tropical) P: Performance
LD: Liquid desiccant + evap cooling A&A: Aesthecs & availability
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FIG. 2 Chart of current possibilities and identified barriers for the development of solar cooling integrated façades
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The driving force behind the research project was the intention to test the limits of solar cooling
integration in façades, showcasing current possibilities while identifying technical constraints
and barriers to be overcome to achieve a widespread application of integrated façade concepts.
In response to this task, an overview of the main outcomes of the research project is presented in Fig.
2. This chart is regarded as a summarised panorama of the identified strengths and shortcomings
of the assessed technologies in terms of façade integration; serving as a compass to guide further
explorations and developments in the field.

014 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
The chart comprises several types of barriers acting at dierent levels, around a core composed of
the solar cooling technologies assessed throughout the research project. The widespread application
of integrated solar cooling façades will therefore depend on successfully overcoming each particular
set of barriers. The ring around the core of solar cooling technologies consists of the threshold for
façade integration of these systems, under self-sucient operation in dierent climate contexts.
Therefore, this ring shows distinct possibilities and constraints for each assessed technology,
allowing them to be compared against each other. On the contrary, the barriers depicted outside of
the circle are identified barriers for the development of solar cooling integrated concepts in general,
applicable to all technologies; these consider barriers for further façade integration of solar collection
technologies, namely photovoltaics and solar thermal collectors (lower left corner), and barriers for
widespread façade integration of building services in general. The font size alludes to the perceived
relevance of each barrier, based on how often it was mentioned by respondents of the survey (Prieto,
Klein, et al., 2017). This comparative relevance only applies within each group of barriers separately,
due to the nature of the assessment tool.
3.1 FAÇADE INTEGRATION POTENTIAL OF
SOLAR COOLING TECHNOLOGIES
The potential for façade integration of each solar technology is represented by the shaded area
around the inner core of solar technologies, summarising the qualitative evaluation conduced in
terms of their ability to overcome product related key issues derived from the façade integration
of building services. Technical feasibility, physical integration, durability & maintenance,
performance, and aesthetics & availability were defined as these key issues, following analysis of the
aforementioned expert survey conducted during the project.
First, it is clear that, although some technologies fare better than others, no technology currently
meets all criteria in all required aspects for the development of self-sucient integrated façade
products, so further research and development is needed, targeting specific aspects. Table 1 shows
the final recommendations for each technology in order to overcome current key barriers for
façade integration. These were obtained from a qualitative evaluation that was presented in detail
and discussed in a scientific article currently under review for publication (Prieto, Knaack, Auer,
& Klein, n.d.). Recommendations that are marked in bold within particular aspects were identified
as having particular shortcomings in relation to each technology, advocating for more pressing
eorts on those matters.
Further developments and exploration focused on the generation of integrated building products,
or plug & play compact systems, are needed for all assessed technologies. At the same time, the
fact that liquid desiccant cooling technologies have only been explored recently, as opposed to other
thermally-driven systems about which there is more knowledge, puts them at a disadvantage in
both the level of development and technical maturity, needing further research in most aspects to
be up to date. For adsorption and solid desiccant cooling, the main current bottlenecks are related
to the size of components and the generation of compact integrated systems. This also holds true
for some compact desiccant units currently being developed, which still need to be field tested and
thoroughly validated under dierent working conditions (Finocchiaro, Beccali, Brano, & Gentile,
2016; SolarInvent, n.d.). Finally, thermoelectric modules are regarded as a promising technology
for the development of integral building components, and absorption-based compact units present
interesting prospects for modular plug & play systems for façade integration. Nevertheless,

015 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
important performance barriers remain in the former, while further exploration of alternative
working materials and testing of compact modular units are the main challenges for the latter.
KEY PRODUCT RELATED ISSUES
FOR FAÇADE INTEGRATION
THERMOELECTRIC
COOLING
ABSORPTION
COOLING
ADSORPTION
COOLING
SOLID DESICCANT
COOLING
LIQUID DESICCANT
COOLING
Technical feasibility Prototype testing
and experimental
measurement of
façade integrated
concepts.
Further exploration
and development of
compact systems for
façade integration.
Size reduction
of components
and exploration
of alternative
processes.
Development
and validation
of compact
systems for façade
integration.
Development and
testing of compact
units.
Physical integration Standardize
connections and
components for
development
of architectural
products.
Further exploration
of plug & play
integrated
approaches to
system design.
Exploration of
integrated systems.
Exploration of
integrated compact
systems.
Exploration
of alternative
processes to
simplify connections
and increase
compatibility.
Durability & maintenance Testing of durability
of TE modules
applied in building
components over
time and dierent
climate conditions.
Exploration of non-
corrosive working
pairs and vacuum
sealed compact
systems.
Testing of compact
adsorption systems
over time and
dierent climate
conditions.
Testing of compact
solid desiccant
systems over time
and dierent climate
conditions.
Exploration
and testing of
alternative non-
corrosive materials.
Performance Increase cooling
power of peltier
modules, balancing
adequate COP
values. Explore up-
scaled components.
Further
development and
testing of compact
systems below 3kW.
Increase COP values
of small scale
systems.
Further
development and
testing of compact
systems below 3kW
for reliability of COP
values.
Further
development and
testing of compact
systems below 3kW
for reliability of COP
values.
Aesthetics & availability Development
of architectural
products and
integrated building
components.
Development
of plug & play
systems for façade
integration.
Size reduction of
components for
development of plug
& play systems.
Size reduction
and simplification
of connections
for development
of decentralised
ventilation systems.
Development
and validation of
compact integrated
systems for
future product
development.
TABLE 1 Recommendations for further development of solar cooling technologies for façade integration purposes
3.2 THEORETICAL CLIMATE FEASIBILITY OF SELF-
SUFFICIENT SOLAR COOLING FAÇADES
The inner ring shows the climate contexts where self-sucient application could be theoretically
feasible, based on the development of integrated concepts based on specific technologies. Results
from numerical calculations showed that the application of these concepts could be feasible on
virtually all orientations, from every assessed location (Prieto et al., 2018). Even though these
outcomes followed a theoretical approach, based on several assumptions and referential values,
this fact is regarded as evidence that the application of self-sucient solar cooling façades is not
a far-fetched concept and could indeed be promoted following further technical developments to
overcome previously identified barriers for façade integration. Nevertheless, the self-suciency of
these concepts is conditioned by important restrictions for façade design in most cases, seeking
to optimise the solar input throughout lower panel tilt and bigger dimensions of photovoltaic/
thermal collector solar arrays in the building façade. These design constraints are more persistent
in south and north façades, making east and west orientations more generally suited to solar
cooling applications.

016 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
With regard to the climatic application potential of the assessed technologies, there are clear
research and development paths. Although solar electric processes present advantages for façade
integration, as previously discussed, their overall performance is a significant barrier, allowing
for application in mild temperate dry climates, as a best case scenario, under medium to strong
design constraints. Solar thermal oers more possibilities, further research is recommended
for the application of sorption-based concepts in temperate and hot-arid contexts with minor to
medium constraints, depending on orientation and climate severity. Finally, desiccant based units
are recommended for warm-humid environments, both due to higher eciencies associated
with the technology, and particular general suitability to handle larger latent loads. In Hong Kong
and Singapore, west, east, and north applications are theoretically feasible with medium design
constraints, but south applications are heavily hindered.
The design constraints discussed refer to requirements for the optimisation of the solar array.
However, basic design constraints remain for the application of all concepts, based on the collection
technology needed to achieve the reference eciencies used in the calculations. Presently, building
integrated solar thermal (BIST) and photovoltaic (BIPV) products such as coloured thermal collectors
or transparent PV cells, especially designed to appeal to architects, have lower eciencies than state-
of-the-art basic systems with no ‘aesthetical considerations’. Hence, further development of these
technologies is needed to expand the general range of façade design possibilities. Furthermore, the
self-suciency of integrated concepts is conditioned to the use of passive strategies to lower cooling
demands to a manageable amount. If these concepts are theoretically possible under important
design constraints, their feasibility is downright impossible without being embedded within a
climate responsive approach to façade design.
3.3 GENERAL BARRIERS FOR FAÇADE INTEGRATION OF BUILDING
SERVICES AND SOLAR COLLECTION TECHNOLOGIES
In general, barriers related to the overall process are perceived as more critical issues to solve
than issues relating to the end product itself, to allow for widespread façade integration of building
services. In particular, problems related to coordination of dierent professional areas are perceived
to be the most relevant, which holds true in all three defined stages of façade development (design,
production, and assembly). In terms of other frequently mentioned process related problems, lack of
technical knowledge seems to be especially relevant during design and assembly stages, and less so
during production. Nonetheless, several logistical issues were identified in production and assembly
stages, focusing on the lack of flexibility within the production chain, together with economic
barriers during production for the construction of high quality components, aggravated by a common
underestimation of cost projections during design phases. Finally, other mentioned problems,
which are minor in comparison, refer to undefined responsibilities and warranties throughout
the overall process.
In terms of product related problems, the physical integration of components seems to be the most
relevant issue during both production and assembly stages. Additionally, the inaccuracy of long term
performance estimations and operational limitations of currently available systems were stated
as relevant problems in the design stage. Furthermore, other product related barriers that were
identified, albeit with fewer mentions across all stages, are: the technical feasibility of integrated
concepts; durability and maintenance; and aesthetics and lack of variety of available building
services for integration. Even though these problems do not seem to hold the same importance as

017 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
process related aspects, they represent basic requirements and relevant challenges that must be
overcome on the development path of components and systems for façade integration.
Regarding the particular integration of solar collection technologies in façades, economic issues
were declared as the most pressing barrier to overcome. The cost of current systems, energy prices,
and the lack of economic incentives were mentioned among key aspects within this barrier.
Secondly, grouped product related issues were perceived as a highly relevant barrier, based on
the total amount of mentions. The disaggregated exploration of product related issues refers to
performance, technical complexity of the systems, aesthetics, durability, and product availability.
Besides performance, aesthetics is a relevant perceived issue to be overcome, which makes sense
considering the strong impact of solar collectors and PV panels on the external finish of the façade
and thus, the outward appearance of buildings.
4 CONCLUSIONS
General results based on the assessment of current possibilities show that self-sucient integrated
façade concepts based on solar cooling technologies are still far from achieving widespread
application. However, there is clear potential for further development of distinct integrated concepts,
based on specific technologies, provided that we manage to overcome existing barriers and technical
bottlenecks. The main recommendations for further research and development in the field follow the
dierent types of barriers discussed in the paper, posing specific challenges for diverse disciplines.
First, there is a need for further research on small-scale solar cooling systems and components,
aiming to increase current eciencies and simplify their operation. Fundamental research on new
working materials and alternative cooling processes derived from the main addressed principles
would enhance the potential for application at a base technological level. Furthermore, experimental
and applied research at a system level is encouraged for all cooling technologies, in order to develop
integrated building components, or modular compact plug & play units for façade integration
purposes. Fundamental research needs to be carried out by specialists, but the development of
systems conceived for architectural integration would greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary
approach, in order to tackle technology-specific challenges.
Similarly, the integration of solar collection technologies in façades needs to be further promoted.
The technical optimisation of these systems is currently well on track, steadily achieving
performance goals set by dierent technological roadmaps, whilst there is an increasing number
of products conceived with ‘aesthetical considerations’ in mind. Nonetheless, important economic
restrictions remain in order to promote widespread application. Recommended actions to mitigate
this include the further manufacturing of cost-eective products for integration by system
developers, technical improvements in electricity and heat storage technologies, and the exploration
of new business models and subsidy schemes to incentivise their application.
Finally, further parallel actions are needed to push for the integration of building services and new
technologies for high-performing façades in general. Building technologies should be a central
part of façade design education, striving for a basic understanding of technical aspects of building
systems and façade requirements under an integrated design approach. Moreover, the façade
manufacturing industry should take the lead in the exploration of new production processes,
simplifying logistical and coordination issues derived from the integration of several systems,

018 JOURNAL OF FACADE DESIGN & ENGINEERING VOLUME 6 / NUMBER 3 / 2018
under an integrated supply chain. Furthermore, research on innovative business models for the
management of façade systems could change the current value chain, generating new incentives
for the development and application of high-performing façades under an environmentally
conscious design approach.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of the ongoing PhD research project titled COOLFAÇADE: Architectural Integration of Solar Cooling Technologies
in the Building Envelope, developed within the Architectural Façades & Products Research Group (AF&P) of the Department of
Architectural Engineering + Technology, Delft University of Technology (TU Delft). The research project is being funded through
a scholarship granted by CONICYT, the National Commission for Scientific and Technological Research of Chile (Resolution
N°7484/2013).
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