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The Permanente Journal • https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ORIGINAL RESEARCH & CONTRIBUTIONS
Effect of Meditation on Emotional Intelligence and Perceived
Stress in the Workplace: A Randomized Controlled Study
Laurent Valosek; Janice Link, MA; Paul Mills, PhD; Arthur Konrad, PhD; Maxwell Rainforth, PhD; Sanford Nidich, EdD Perm J 2018;22:17-172
E-pub: 10/29/2018 https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ABSTRACT
Context: Research highlights the role of emotional intelligence and perceived stress as im-
portant factors associated with mental and physical health and organizational eectiveness.
Objective: To determine whether a mind-body technique, the Transcendental Medi-
tationa (TM) program, delivered in the context of a workplace wellness program, could
signicantly decrease perceived stress and improve emotional intelligence in govern-
ment employees.
Design: Ninety-six central-oce sta at the San Francisco Unied School District were
randomly assigned to either an immediate start of the TM program or to a wait-list control
group.
Main Outcome Measures: The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory and the Perceived
Stress Scale were administered at baseline and at 4-month posttest.
Results: Findings indicate a signicant increase in emotional intelligence total score
(p<0.003) and a signicant decrease in perceived stress (p<0.02) in TM participants com-
pared with controls. A signicant increase in general mood, stress management, adaptability,
intrapersonal awareness, and reality testing composite scales for emotional intelligence
were observed (p<0.05); a signicant increase was not observed in the interpersonal scale.
Compliance with meditation practice was high (93%). Because of the sex composition in
this study, results are most generalizable to female employees.
Conclusion: The TM program was eective as a workplace wellness program to improve
emotional intelligence and reduce perceived stress in employees.
INTRODUCTION
According to the World Health Or-
ganization, psychological stress is one of
the most common occupational health
problems aecting workers worldwide.1
Psychological stress, including perceived
stress, adversely affects organizational
commitment, work engagement, and
productivity, as well as contributes to poor
mental and physical health.2-4
Emotional intelligence has gained
considerable attention in the workplace
because of its positive association with
mental and physical health and with
social-emotional competencies.5,6 Emo-
tional intelligence refers to the ability to
perceive emotions in oneself and others,
and to understand, regulate, and use such
information in productive ways toward
successful environmental adaptation and
problem solving.7-9
Study ndings indicate that emotional
intelligence has a moderating eect on
psychological well-being and mental
health.10,11 It is further linked to organi-
zational eectiveness, social-emotional
competencies such as the ability to man-
age stress, organizational awareness, and
self-confidence associated with work
productivity and eective leadership.12-19
Recent developments in neurocogni-
tion reveal that decisions and actions can-
not be undertaken without engaging both
the emotional and thought-processing
areas of the brain.20 Research on deci-
sion making and brain functioning sup-
ports the notion that emotional-social
intelligence is distinctly dierent from
cognitive intelligence.7,20 Emotional in-
telligence can be developed over time
through training programs, coaching, and
psychosocial therapy.13,18-21 Emotional
intelligence is also associated with better
recovery from work-related stressors and
better mental health in clinical popula-
tions.22,23
e impact of self-development and
mind-body programs such as the practice
of meditation has been studied in the
elds of health and management. One
such program that has received wide at-
tention is the Transcendental Meditationa
(TM) program, a neuropsychological
technique for mind-body integration.
is traditional form of meditation is
generally described in the research lit-
erature as an automatic self-transcending
technique for brain integration.24,25
Research on TM has shown that prac-
titioners of TM achieve a high level of
brain integration both during and after
practice.26,27 Practice of the TM technique
shows increased electroencephalographic
alpha coherence and synchrony, especially
in the frontal area of the brain, respon-
sible for cognition related to emotional
self-awareness and stability.24,27-29 In ran-
domized controlled research, increased
structural and functional connectivity
between brain areas and decreased re-
activity to stress are observed in those
practicing the TM technique compared
with controls.26
Other randomized controlled trials
of TM have found significant reduc-
tions in perceived stress in employees,30
patients with chronic illness,31,32 and
young adults.33 Meta-analyses on the
TM program have indicated increased
Laurent Valosek is the Director of the Center for Wellness and Achievement in Education in San Francisco, CA (lvalosek@cwae.com).
Janice Link, MA, is a School Administrator in the San Francisco Unied School District in CA (janicethejewel@yahoo.com).
Paul Mills, PhD, is a Professor in the Department of Family Medicine and Public Health at the University of California, San
Diego (pmills@ucsd.edu). Arthur Konrad, PhD, is a Professor of Cognitive Psychology at the University of California Santa Cruz
(apeacefulwarrior@gmail.com). Maxwell Rainforth, PhD, is a Biostatistician in the Center for Social and Emotional Health at the
Maharishi University of Management in Faireld, IA (rainforth@mum.edu). Sanford Nidich, EdD, is a Professor and the Director of
the Center for Social and Emotional Health at Maharishi University of Management in Faireld, IA (snidich@mum.edu).
The Permanente Journal • https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ORIGINAL RESEARCH & CONTRIBUTIONS
Eect of Meditation on Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Stress in the Workplace: A Randomized Controlled Study
self-actualization and decreased anxiety,
factors associated with emotional intel-
ligence and perceived stress.34-37
On the basis of prior research, a ran-
domized controlled study was conducted
to evaluate the eects of the TM program
on emotional intelligence and perceived
stress in administrators and sta. It was
hypothesized that there would be a sig-
nicant decrease in perceived stress and an
increase in emotional intelligence resulting
from TM practice compared with controls
during a 4-month intervention period.
METHODS
Participants
Approval was given on August 31,
2009, by the institutional review board
of Maharishi University of Management,
Faireld, IA, before the start of the study.
Participants of the study were recruited
from Fall 2009 through Spring 2010 from
administrators and sta working in the
central oces of the San Francisco Uni-
ed School District who were interested
in being part of a workplace wellness
program. Interested participants were
asked to attend an informational meeting
to learn about the wellness project. ose
who wanted to join were then scheduled
for baseline testing. Ninety-six supervi-
sors and administrative sta completed
written informed consent, followed by
baseline testing, and were then randomly
assigned to either an immediate start of
the TM program (n=48) or a delayed-
start wait-list control group (n=48;
Figure1).
Group allocation was concealed by an
o-site member of the research group,
using a computer-generated random
number sequence (SPSS 2009, IBM
Corp, Armonk, NY). e o-site mem-
ber assigned the participant to treatment
and notied the study coordinator, who
informed the participant of his/her al-
location. Participants completed psycho-
logical measures via the Internet. Final
statistical analyses were conducted with
blinding to group assignments. Senior
investigators and the study statistician
were blinded throughout the study.
Inclusion criteria included age 18 years
or older, being an employee of the San
Francisco Unied School District, at-
tendance at an informational meeting on
the TM program, and willingness to be
randomly assigned to either active treat-
ment or the control group. Exclusion cri-
teria included having already learned TM.
Interventions
Transcendental Meditation Program
e TM technique is a simple, natural,
eortless technique that allows the mind
to experience a state of “restful alertness”
associated with a more integrated style
of brain functioning.29,36 Four certied
instructors taught TM to the study par-
ticipants using standardized procedures
for teaching.38,39
After initial introductory and prepara-
tory lectures and a brief personal interview
with the teacher, participants attended an
individual personal instruction session,
followed by group meetings to verify the
correctness of practice and to provide ad-
ditional knowledge about the practice.
e personal instruction and follow-up
group meetings were held during 4 con-
secutive days (about 90 minutes each day).
Participants were instructed to practice
their meditation program at home, sitting
comfortably with their eyes closed, twice
a day for 20 minutes each session, for
the duration of the project (4 months).
Follow-up group sessions were oered 2
times each month during the 4-month
intervention to review experiences, verify
the correctness of practice, and support
participants’ regular home practice.
Control Group
Members of the control group served
as wait-list controls and were eligible to
learn the TM technique after completion
of the four-month study. Both the control
and TM group participants continued
with their usual daily work routines dur-
ing the study.
Outcome Measures
The Emotional Quotient Inventory
(EQ-i, Multi-Health Systems Inc, To-
ronto, Ontario, Canada) is a widely used
measure of emotional intelligence that
evaluates a broad range of noncognitive,
social-emotional skills, inuencing one’s
ability to positively cope with environmen-
tal demands and pressures.20,40 e EQ-i
has a total Emotional Quotient (EQ) score
Figure1.ConsolidatedStandardsofReportingTrials(CONSORT)owdiagramofstudyenrollment.
TM = Transcendental Meditation.
The Permanente Journal • https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ORIGINAL RESEARCH & CONTRIBUTIONS
Eect of Meditation on Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Stress in the Workplace: A Randomized Controlled Study
and 6 composite scales (intrapersonal,
interpersonal, stress management, adapt-
ability, reality testing, and general mood)
with 14 subscales. Scale scores indicate the
degree of eectiveness in understanding
oneself, relating well to people, and adapt-
ing to and coping with one’s immediate
surroundings.7,20,40 e Cronbach α for the
total EQ scale is 0.97, the composite scales
range from 0.88 to 0.93, and subscales are
all above 0.77.40
e Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, 14-
item version) measures the degree to
which situations in one’s life are appraised
as stressful. e Cronbach α is reported to
be 0.85. e PSS shows good discrimina-
tive validity with meditation.41
Procedures
All participants were tested at baseline,
after giving written informed consent
and before the start of meditation train-
ing, and were then randomly assigned to
either the TM program or wait-list control
groups. Participants were then posttested 4
months later, at the end of the intervention
period. Each participant took the EQ-i
and PSS online. e EQ-i was scored by
Multi-Health Systems, the publisher of
the EQ-i. e total EQ, composite, and
subscale scores for each participant were
then electronically transmitted to the
research sta for inclusion in the study
database. e PSS was scored by the study
statistician.
Statistical Analysis
e sample size was determined us-
ing statistical power calculation software
(G*Power 3.1.3, available at www.gpower.
hhu.de/en.html). We based the sample size
on previous studies,30,40 which reported
eect sizes for TM vs control groups on
outcome measures similar to our study:
Experiential intelligence as measured
by the Constructive inking Inventory
(d=0.62) and the PSS (d=0.94). e
power calculation showed that a sample
size of 48 per group would provide at
least 90% power to detect treatment ef-
fects similar to those reported in these
previous studies, assuming a 2-sided test
for between-group dierences at the 0.05
signicance level.
e main outcomes of the study were
the total EQ and perceived stress scores.
Secondary outcomes were the EQ com-
posite scales—intrapersonal, interper-
sonal, stress management, adaptability,
reality testing, and general mood. Data
were analyzed using repeated-measures
analysis of variance according to the in-
tention-to-treat principle; all randomized
participants were included. Missing data
were imputed using the software programs
SAS PROC MI (SAS Institute Inc, Cary,
NC), a multiple imputation using the
Markov Chain Monte Carlo method, and
SAS PROC MIANALYZE. Alpha was
set at 0.05, 2-tailed, for the primary out-
comes and at 0.01, 2-tailed, for the second-
ary outcome scales. Additional secondary
analyses were conducted for the subscales
(comprising the 6 main scales), with the
α level set at 0.01, 2-tailed. Eect sizes
(Cohend) were computed for the PSS and
total EQ and composite scales, using the
dierence in mean change scores divided
by pooled standard deviation. Eect sizes
are: Small (d=0.20), medium (d=0.50),
and large (d=0.80).
RESULTS
Baseline Data
Table 1 shows the baseline charac-
teristics of the study participants. The
average age was 45.5 years (standard
deviation= 10 years), and 83% of the
participants were women. ere were no
statistically signicant dierences between
groups at baseline in age, sex composition,
race/ethnicity, administrator/sta status,
baseline emotional intelligence, and per-
ceived stress.
Table 1. Baseline characteristics by group
Variable
Control
(n = 48)
Transcendental
Meditation (n = 48)
p value
Age,y,mean(SD)
45.5 (9.4)
45.5 (11.0)
0.992
Female sex, no. (%)
40 (83)
40 (83)
0.999
Administrator vs staff, no. (%)
40 (83)
37 (77)
0.442
Race/ethnicity,no.(%)
White (non-Hispanic)
18 (38)
16 (33)
0.937
African American
5 (10)
5 (10)
Asian American
12 (25)
12 (25)
Hispanic
11 (23)
14 (29)
Other
2 (4)
1 (2)
Emotionalintelligencetotalscore,mean(SD)
97.2 (15.4)
96.7 (15.4)
0.879
PerceivedStressScale,mean(SD)
22.9 (7.4)
23.3 (7.6)
0.766
SD=standarddeviation.
Table 2. Pretest and posttest scores for Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and Emotional
Quotient (EQ) total and major scales by groupa
Variable
Control (n = 48)
Transcendental
Meditation (n = 48)
p value
Effect
size
c
Pretest
Posttest
b
Pretest
Posttest
b
PSS
22.9 (7.4)
22.2 (8.1)
23.4 (7.6)
18.8 (7.1)
0.015
-0.51
EQ total
97.2 (15.4)
96.6 (16.0)
96.7 (15.4)
101.8 (14.2)
0.003
0.37
EQ composite scales
Intrapersonal
96.6 (16.2)
96.7 (16.3)
96.9 (16.1)
102.2 (15.4)
0.004
0.33
Interpersonal
100.1 (15.1)
100.6 (12.4)
100.2 (16.0)
101.7 (12.6)
0.613
0.07
Stress management
98.9 (14.8)
98.9 (15.2)
98.8 (12.4)
103.7 (12.4)
0.022
0.36
Adaptability
97.1 (15.8)
96.6 (16.1)
96.4 (14.8)
100.0 (12.4)
0.033
0.27
Realitytesting
100.8 (15.2)
100.3 (16.8)
99.3 (14.4)
102.8 (14.0)
0.035
0.27
General mood
94.8 (14.5)
92.8 (16.3)
94.7 (13.7)
99.9 (13.3)
0.001
0.51
aDataarepresentedasmean(standarddeviation).
bBasedonintention-to-treatanalysis.
c Cohen d.
EQ total = emotional intelligence total score.
The Permanente Journal • https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ORIGINAL RESEARCH & CONTRIBUTIONS
Eect of Meditation on Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Stress in the Workplace: A Randomized Controlled Study
Pretest-Posttest Change
Intention-to-treat analysis indicated
a signicant improvement in total EQ
score in those practicing TM compared
with controls: F(1,94)=5.95, p<0.02. A
signicant decrease in perceived stress ow-
ing to the TM treatment compared with
controls was also found: F(1,94)= 9.12,
p<0.003; Table2.
Multivariate analysis of variance showed
signicant improvement in the compos-
ite scales comprising the total EQ score
(Wilks λ=0.835, p=0.009). Univariate
tests showed signicant eects for intra-
personal [F(1,94)=8.29, p=0.004]; stress
management [F(1,94) = 5.29, p<0.03];
adaptability [F(1,94)=4.54, p<0.04]; re-
ality testing [F(1,94)=4.45, p<0.04]; and
general mood [F(1,94)=11.42, p=0.001]
composite scores during the 4-month
intervention period. Table 2 shows the
pretest and posttest scores by group for
total EQ and the composite EQ scores.
e largest eect sizes for the main
scales in the study were for perceived
stress (d=-0.51) and EQ general mood
composite score (d=0.51). e eect size
for the total emotional intelligence main
scale was d=0.37.
Table3 shows the post hoc ndings for
each of the emotional intelligence sub-
scales comprising the composite scores.
e largest eect sizes were for happiness
(d=0.49) and stress tolerance (d=0.45).
Further analyses of both EQ total score
and perceived stress showed no signicant
group by sex interaction (p=0.21 and
p=0.79, respectively, on the dependent
variables perceived stress and total EQ
score). us, there was no evidence that
the treatments varied signicantly by sex
subgroups. In a separate analysis, the group
by administrator/sta status interaction
also showed no signicant eects (p=0.97
and p=0.25, respectively, on the depen-
dent variables perceived stress and total
EQ score). Hence, there was no evidence
that the treatments varied signicantly by
administrator/sta status.
Overall, change in perceived stress in-
versely correlated with change in total EQ
(r=-0.613, p<0.01).
Compliance
Regularity in TM practice was dened
as home practice of the TM program of
at least once a day, on average, by self-
report at posttest. Compliance with the
meditation program was high, with 93%
of participants meeting the criteria for
study practice regularity. A dose response
was observed, with those meditating more
regularly scoring lower on perceived stress
(r=-0.33, p=0.032) and higher on total
EQ (r=0.28, p=0.067) at posttest. No ad-
verse events were reported for either group.
DISCUSSION
e results of this study suggest ben-
ecial eects of the TM program on per-
ceived stress and emotional intelligence
in workplace administrators and sta. e
ndings on perceived stress are consistent
with prior randomized controlled studies
showing decreased psychological distress
and burnout because of TM practice.30 e
ndings on increased emotional intelli-
gence are consistent with previous research
on TM showing improved constructive
thinking and emotional and behavioral
coping ability.33,39 e present study ad-
vances this prior research by demonstrat-
ing such benecial eects in the context of
the workplace. Prior studies demonstrate
an inverse relationship between perceived
stress and emotional intelligence, thus sup-
porting the importance of reducing stress
in the workplace.42
Prior research on TM found reduced
psychological and physiologic response to
stress factors, including decreased sympa-
thetic nervous system and hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal axis overactivation, and
reductions in elevated cortisol levels.43,44
Research also showed a more coherent
and integrated style of brain functioning,
evidenced by electroencephalographic
imaging associated with lower stress re-
activity.26 ese physiologic factors ow-
ing to TM practice may provide possible
Table 3. Pretest and posttest scores for Emotional Quotient (EQ) subscales by groupa
Variable
Control (n = 48)
Transcendental
Meditation (n = 48)
p value
Effect
sizec
Pretest
Posttest
b
Pretest
Posttest
b
Intrapersonal subscales
Self-regard
94.8 (15.5)
94.9 (14.9)
96.0 (15.0)
101.1 (13.6)
0.004
0.33
Emotional
self-awareness
102.6 (14.7)
101.3 (15.0)
100.5 (17.2)
103.8 (14.4)
0.031
0.29
Assertiveness
96.3 (15.7)
96.9 (16.3)
95.1 (16.2)
99.4 (16.2)
0.082
0.23
Independence
97.5 (15.6)
98.7 (17.5)
101.6 (14.3)
103.1 (14.4)
0.919
0.01
Self-actualization
96.2 (16.0)
96.1 (16.1)
95.4 (15.9)
101.2 (15.2)
0.003
0.37
Interpersonal subscales
Empathy
103.3 (13.6)
102.6 (12.3)
100.0 (14.2)
101.2 (13.8)
0.314
0.14
Socialresponsibility
102.3 (11.9)
101.6 (10.3)
100.6 (12.2)
100.1 (12.1)
0.929
0.02
Interpersonal
relationships
101.5 (13.4)
98.5 (15.1)
100.3 (14.9)
102.4 (13.8)
0.034
0.37
Stress management subscales
Stress tolerance
92.7 (16.6)
91.7 (19.6)
95.5 (14.6)
101.5 (14.0)
0.006
0.45
Impulse control
105.8 (15.2)
106.6 (12.2)
102.3 (13.0)
105.2 (12.7)
0.267
0.15
Realitytestingsubscales
Flexibility
97.1 (16.2)
95.0 (15.4)
98.7 (13.2)
99.4 (12.1)
0.203
0.19
Problem solving
94.4 (16.2)
95.6 (14.4)
92.4 (16.2)
97.1 (13.7)
0.157
0.21
General mood subscales
Optimism
94.1 (15.5)
92.9 (17.8)
94.0 (14.2)
98.5 (14.1)
0.006
0.38
Happiness
96.7 (15.0)
94.9 (15.7)
96.7 (13.9)
101.9 (13.0)
0.006
0.49
aDataarepresentedasmean(standarddeviation).
bBasedonintention-to-treatanalysis.
c Cohen d.
The ndings on perceived
stress are consistent with
prior randomized controlled
studies showing decreased
psychological distress and
burnout because of TM practice.
The Permanente Journal • https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
ORIGINAL RESEARCH & CONTRIBUTIONS
Eect of Meditation on Emotional Intelligence and Perceived Stress in the Workplace: A Randomized Controlled Study
mechanisms for the results found in this
study on decreased perceived stress and in-
creased emotional competencies. However,
further direct research is needed.
Recent research highlights the impor-
tance of emotional intelligence as a predic-
tor of important work-related factors such
as stress management, job performance,
negotiation, leadership, emotional labor,
trust, and work-family conict.45-50 Emo-
tional intelligence further adds incremental
predictive validity beyond general mental
abilities and the Five-Factor Model of
Personality regarding job performance.51
Strengths and Limitations
e study presented was a randomized
controlled trial of 96 administrators and
sta working in the same organizational
setting. One major advantage of a wait-
list control is that all participants can
eventually receive the intervention. is,
in turn, can facilitate both recruitment and
retention. Use of an active control group
with matched treatment sessions and daily
home practice would have helped control
for time and attention factors. Other
possible confounders such as participant
expectations, treatment preference, and
possible social support inuence could be
addressed using an active control group.
All participants were tested under the
same conditions, using self-administered,
Internet-based measures although sole
use of self-report measures for study out-
comes is a possible limiting factor. Future
workplace studies should consider adding
supervisor and colleague rating scales for
emotional intelligence and workplace be-
haviors. Because of the sex composition of
the San Francisco Unied School District
administrators and sta in their central of-
ces, the ndings are most generalizable
to female administrators.
Future research is encouraged to use
a larger-designed, multisite study, with a
more active control group in additional
workplace settings. Future studies also may
want to have an equal balance of male and
female participants to more adequately
evaluate the eects of meditation on sex.
In addition, a measure of job performance
may be useful to determine relationships
between mental health factors (eg, emo-
tional intelligence and perceived stress)
and job performance.
CONCLUSION
e results of this study indicate de-
creased perceived stress and improved
emotional intelligence in administrators
and sta associated with practice of TM.
Total EQ and stress management, general
mood, intrapersonal, adaptability, and re-
ality testing composite scales of the EQ-i
were found to signicantly improve in the
TM group compared with controls. ese
results have implications for organizations
interested in improving the mental health
and social-emotional competencies of
employees. v
a Transcendental Meditation and TM are service marks
registeredintheUSpatentandtrademarkofce,licensed
toMaharishiFoundationUSA,anonprot501(c)(3),and
used under sublicense.
Disclosure Statement
The author(s) have no conicts of interest to
disclose. None of the study funders played any
role in the design of the study, in the collection,
analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of
the report, or in the decision to submit the report for
publication.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by grants from the
David Lynch Foundation, New York, NY; the Walter
and Elise Haas Fund, San Francisco, CA; and the
1440 Foundation, Santa Cruz, CA.
The authors thank Terry Ehrman, Jane
Lazzareschi, and Annie Falk for their assistance in
the implementation of the study.
Kathleen Louden, ELS, of Louden Health
Communications provided editorial assistance.
Authors’ Contributions
Laurent Valosek; Sanford Nidich, EdD; and
Janice Link, MA, participated in the study design,
supervision of the study, and drafting and critical
review of the nal manuscript. Arthur Konrad,
PhD, participated in the management of data,
and critical review of the manuscript. Paul Mills,
PhD, participated in the critical review of the nal
manuscript. Maxwell Rainforth, PhD, participated
in the analysis of data and critical review of the
manuscript. All authors have given nal approval to
the manuscript.
How to Cite this Article
Valosek L, Link J, Mills P, Konrad A, Rainforth M,
Nidich S. Effect of meditation on emotional
intelligenceandperceivedstressintheworkplace:
A randomizedcontrolledstudy.PermJ2018;22:
17-172.DOI:https://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/17-172
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Keywords: behavioral medicine, emotional intelligence,
integrative medicine, mind-body therapies, perceived
stress, spiritual medicine, stress, Transcendental
Meditation
Spirits and Health
I nd my spirits and my health aect each other reciprocally—that is to say, everything that
decomposes my mind produces a correspondent disorder in my body; and my bodily complaints are
remarkably mitigated by those considerations that dissipate the clouds of mental chagrin.
— Tobias Smollett, 1721-1771, Scottish poet and author
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