ArticleLiterature Review

The Science behind Microgreens as an Exciting New Food for the 21st Century

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Abstract

Chronic diseases are major health problem in the United States. Accumulated data suggest that consumption of vegetables can significantly reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Dietary guidelines 2015-2020 from USDA recommend 1 to 4 cups of vegetables/day for males and 1 to 3 cups of vegetables/day for females depending on their ages. However, average intake of vegetables is below recommended levels. Microgreens are young vegetable greens. Although sizes are small, microgreens have delicate textures, distinctive flavors and various nutrients. In general, microgreens contain greater amount of nutrients and health promoting micronutrients than their mature counterparts. Because microgreens are rich in nutrients, smaller amounts may provide similar nutritional effects than larger quantities of mature vegetables. However, literature on microgreens remains limited. In this review, we discuss chemical compositions, growing conditions and biological efficacies of microgreens. We seek to stimulate interest in further study of microgreens as a promising dietary component for potential use in diet-based disease prevention.

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... According to the studies conducted, the mature versions of many microgreen species contain high amounts of carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, zeaxanthin), vitamins (E, C, and K), and mineral substances (Fe, Zn, Ca, Mg, Mn, Mo and Se), especially vitamin C, which has an antioxidant function in the human body. It is stated that it is rich in minerals such as copper and zinc and phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds, and contains low amounts of nitrate (Xiao et al., 2012;Weber, 2016;Choe et al., 2018;Kyriacou et al. 2019). One of the key features of microgreens is that they are more sustainable than mature ones; because more nutritious products can be obtained in a shorter time by using less land and less water. ...
... However, since microgreens are consumed before this transfer occurs and all parts of them, including the cotyledon leaves, are edible, the nutritional value of microgreens is quite high. Some studies have shown that microgreens are 20% to 600% more nutritious than the mature form of the plant (Xiao et al., 2012;Weber, 2016;Choe et al., 2018;Kyriacou et al. 2019). However, this nutritional value varies depending on the soil where the plants are grown and the time of harvest. ...
... In spinach microgreens, where partially similar results were obtained with our study in terms of chlorophyll content; It was determined as 44.0 µg g -1 (Petropoulos et al., 2021), 290.0 µg g -1 in carrots (Paradiso et al., 2018), 26.5 µg g -1 in leek and 522.75 µg g -1 in green peas (Wojdylo et al., 2020), 13.36 mg kg -1 Fw in coriander (Kyriacou et al., 2020). Also; Choe et al. (2018), in their study, compared the phytochemical concentration between microgreen and adult growth stages of red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata); They found that microgreens contained higher amounts of carotene 11.5 mg 100 g -1 FW. ...
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Microgreens strengthen the immune system with their intense vitamin, mineral, and antioxidant values; Scientific studies have proven that they are very effective in solving important health problems such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and cholesterol. In this study, the changes in photosynthetic pigment, antioxidant capacity, phenolic and flavonoid content, and ascorbic acid (vit C) contents of microgreens of some medicinal plant species (Echinacea purpurea, Calendula officinalis, and Silybum marianum) were investigated. At the same time, the accumulation of Ca, K, Mg, and Na, which have a direct impact on human health, was examined. The trial was designed according to the Randomized Plot Trial Design, in which the growth medium consisting of a mixture of peat, cocopeat, and perlite was used in a fully controlled climate cabin. In the results of working; While the best results in terms of photosynthetic pigment, total antioxidant substance, and flavonoid substance amount were obtained from the echinacea plant, it was determined that the phenolic substance content was higher in the thistle plant and there was no significant difference between the echinacea and thistle plant in terms of ascorbic acid content. In the study, Ca and Mg accumulation was determined to be higher in thistle, K in echinacea, and Na in calendula.
... In Chile, the cultivation of microgreens has markedly increased in recent years, especially in urban areas with a rising demand for fresh, nutritious products [3]. Recent reviews, such as [9], have highlighted the nutritional value of various microgreen species, emphasizing that their nutrient composition and content can significantly vary ...
... Also, it works as an important antioxidant that allows the maintenance of cellular metabolism [5]. This compound can be obtained abundantly in microgreens, implying that consuming these young plants can help prevent disorders and diseases, increasing the quality of life [9]. Therefore, an increase in beta-carotene levels is desired in microgreens. ...
... These three species have practically double the concentration of beta-carotene compared to the other species evaluated. Just like beta-carotene, the presence of minerals in species used for producing microgreens can benefit human health, allowing the natural replacement of minerals and avoiding problems related to their absence [9,25]. These characteristics make microgreens foods that promote human health and which, in the future, can be included in specific diets to reduce problems related to inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases and obesity, among others. ...
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Cultivating microgreens in central-southern Chile in unheated greenhouses offers a viable and productive alternative to growers. In 2023, two experiments were conducted in autumn and spring. These experiments involved the production of microgreens of eleven vegetable species. The tray system with the substrate was employed. Subsequently, agronomic, nutritional, and sensory perception variables were assessed. Despite notable fluctuations in external temperatures between these seasons, a diverse array of microgreens can be successfully cultivated, meeting local consumer preferences. Research indicates that microgreens grown under these conditions exhibit high nutritional quality, serving as a rich source of essential nutrients and bioactive compounds beneficial to human health. This nutritional value remains consistent across autumn and spring, establishing microgreens as a reliable and valuable food option. The observed acceptance and purchasing intentions among the surveyed population suggest a promising market opportunity for introducing these products regionally. Consumers appreciate microgreens’ quality and nutritional advantages, underscoring their potential.
... Microgreens are harvested as soon as their newest leaves emerge, while baby greens are often harvested at 5 to 10 cm in height or 15 to 40 days from seed germination (Figure 1). Microgreens and sprouts also differ in their chemical composition [7]. More than twenty studies have defined them with respect to their growth and harvest period [6]. ...
... The literature on microgreens has highlighted the importance of seed density due to its direct influence on microgreens' growth. Choe, Yu and Wang [7] explained a linear relationship between seed density and fresh weight yield. However, a decrease in individual shoot fresh weight shows an inter-species competition for limited resources. ...
... A study by Huang et al. [99] found notably higher concentration of glucosinolates in red cabbage microgreens than in their mature counterparts. In contrast, a previous study shows lower sugar concentrations in pepper cress and red amaranth microgreens than in mature plants [7]. In a study of 20 celery genotypes, macro-and micro-nutrients concentrations were compared, and it was found that concentrations of N, P, Na, Ca, and S were higher in microgreens, whereas K concentrations were higher in mature leaves [100]. ...
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An exponential growth in global population is expected to reach nine billion by 2050, demanding a 70% increase in agriculture productivity, thus illustrating the impact of global crop production on the environment and the importance of achieving greater agricultural yields. Globally, the variety of high-quality microgreens is increasing through indoor farming at both small and large scales. The major concept of Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) seeks to provide an alternative to traditional agricultural cultivation. Microgreens have become popular in the twenty-first century as a food in the salad category that can fulfil some nutrient requirements. Microgreens are young seedlings that offer a wide spectrum of colours, flavours, and textures, and are characterised as a “functional food” due to their nutraceutical properties. Extensive research has shown that the nutrient profile of microgreens can be desirably tailored by preharvest cultivation and postharvest practices. This study provides new insight into two major categories, (i) environmental and (ii) cultural, responsible for microgreens’ growth and aims to explore the various agronomical factors involved in microgreens production. In addition, the review summarises recent studies that show these factors have a significant influence on microgreens development and nutritional composition.
... However, the short growth cycle of microgreens prevents any significant reduction in the concentration of bioactive compounds. The study by the United States Department of Agriculture (2020) also supported that microgreens exhibit substantially greater concentrations of vitamins and carotenoids that are typically 30-40 times greater than those found in mature fruits and vegetables (Choe, Yu, & Wang, 2018). They are also rich sources of antioxidant phytochemicals, like phenols, carotenoids, vitamins (A, C, E), and minerals (Cu, Mg, and Zn) (Teng, Liao, & Wang, 2021). ...
... The use of microgreens by chefs started in the early 1980s in San Francisco, California, according to early records of the local industry. In that period, only a limited variety of microgreens such as arugula, beets, basil, cilantro, and kale were available (Choe et al., 2018). The word "microgreens" was only coined in the year 1998 in the USA. ...
... The consumption of microgreens has been linked to the prevention of various health issues, including deficiency disorders, osteoporosis, inflammation, indigestion, and obesity, owing to their functional and nutritional properties Xiao et al., 2015). Similarly, Choe et al. (2018) discussed the potential of microgreens as functional foods for the prevention of diet-related diseases. It is particularly beneficial for patients with conditions such as obesity, juvenile and adult-onset diabetes, cancer, and several cardiovascular diseases Table 1. ...
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Green leafy vegetables, especially microgreens are gaining popularity due to their high nutritional profiles, rich phytochemical content, and intense flavors. This review explores the growing commercial market for microgreens, especially in upscale dining and premium grocery outlets, highlighting consumer perceptions and their effect on market dynamics. Apart from these, the effect of modern agricultural methods that maximize the growth of microgreens is also examined. The value is anticipated to increase significantly, according to market predictions, from 1.7billionin2022to1.7 billion in 2022 to 2.61 billion by 2029. Positive consumer views on microgreens health benefits drive this growth, although challenges such as varying levels of consumer awareness and income disparities affect sales. The review underscores the need for targeted research and strategic initiatives to enhance consumer understanding and improve cultivation methods to support market expansion in upcoming years.
... All these nutritional and phytochemicals contents in the microgreens can also be enriched through biofortification methods such as soil and foliar fertilization (de Valença et al., 2017), light treatment (Sirtautas et al., 2012), temperature effect (Xiao et al., 2014), and preharvest spray (Kou et al., 2015;Lu et al., 2018) during the germination period. A growing body of evidence shows these edible microgreens have impressive biological activities i.e., anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, cardioprotective, antidiabetic, and anticancer, that may contribute to the low risk of certain serious diseases (Choe et al., 2018). Therefore, the present study aims to provide a review of scientific literature addressing the potential of microgreens in urban agriculture within the context of nutritional and health aspects. ...
... Microgreens are sprouts that have been left to grow for at least a week in an appropriate environment. Morphologically, microgreens contain a stem, and root system, more extensive than the sprout, and actual leaves (Choe et al., 2018). Microgreens do not have their roots or the lower part of the stems harvested compared to the sprouts. ...
... Today, the mature plants of this genus (except for its seeds) are not commonly eaten. Instead, its microgreens are among 21 st -century foods (Choe et al., 2018) The genus Lactuca, commonly known as lettuce, includes at least 147 species located mainly in temperate Eurasia (Singhal et al., 2018). The plants derived from the genus Lactuca are diverse, as they are annuals, biennials, perennials, and shrubs. ...
... Agriculture (Poľnohospodárstvo), 70, 2024 (2): 53 − 71 The increasing cognizance about the health benefits of microgreens has introduced them as a new class of nutrient-rich superfoods (Choe et al. 2018;Rizvi et al. 2023). Microgreens are immature seedlings of herbs, spices and other vegetable seeds that are harvested at the earliest stage, carrying a pair of cotyledonous leaves with a short delicate stem (Xiao et al. 2019;Rizvi et al. 2024). ...
... Bioactive phytochemicals associated with antioxidant activities, including polyphenols, anthocyanin, chlorophyll, glucosinolates, and other secondary metabolites, are also found in higher amounts in microgreens (Xiao et al. 2012;Paradiso et al. 2018;Zhang et al. 2021;Rizvi et al. 2023). The prominent profile of microgreens plays an essential role in conditions like haemolytic anaemia, thalassemia, and other chronic diseases like cardiovascular ailments, skin and age-related diseases, and cancers (Choe et al. 2018;Niroula et al. 2019a;Rizvi et al. 2023). The antioxidant activities possessed by ascorbic acid, polyphenols and pigments act against diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, and other pathways like carcinogenesis and mutagenesis (Niroula et al. 2019a;Niroula et al. 2019b). ...
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Microgreens are tiny plants with a pair of cotyledon leaves, a short stem, and roots. These are considered as sustainable superfoods that are easy to grow and rich in bioactive compounds. Among functional foods, microgreens are particularly noteworthy because they have enticing health-promoting properties due to their rich biochemical profiles which contribute to antioxidant activities. In this study, three varieties of microgreens, Beta vulgaris , Raphanus sativus and Brassica juncea , were studied to estimate phytochemicals such as total chlorophyll, carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenols. Additionally, the antioxidant potentials of methanolic extracts of these microgreens were determined by various assays such as 2, 2-diphenyl, 1-picrylhydrazyl and H 2 O 2 scavenging assay, total antioxidant capacity and reducing power assay. Moreover, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic fingerprinting was conducted to determine the functional groups associated with bioactive phytochemicals present in all microgreens. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopic studies were also conducted to explore the morphological and elemental profiling of each microgreen. The results revealed that the studied microgreens have rich phytochemical compositions and great antioxidant potential. Furthermore, the functional groups of bioactive compounds identified in each were extensively associated with antioxidant activities. Therefore, micro-greens can be recommended as promising superfoods that can be incorporated into the mainstream diet to improve human health.
... Microgreens are edible shoots of various crops with a height of 5-12 cm, differing from traditional crops in their delicate consistency, pronounced taste, aromatic characteristics, and a higher content of biologically active compounds than customary analogs. Microgreens also contain enhanced physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and photosynthetic pigments, surpassing traditional analogs for polyphenol content (Sun et al., 2013;Choe et al., 2018). ...
... Microgreens are also several times superior to mature leaves in micronutrient content (Yadav et al., 2019). From facts by Pinto et al. (2015), Huang et al. (2016), Choe et al. (2018), andEbert (2022), microgreens have the highest nutrient status and are a 'superfood.' Introducing them into people's diets will help improve the situation of vitamin and nutritional deficiencies worldwide. In microgreens, the type, variety, and technology producing them influence their nutritious values and biologically active substances. ...
... They are several centimeters long. Depending on the species, harvesting often occurs 7-21 days after germination [1,2]. There is an enormous variety of species that can be produced as microgreens. ...
... These nutrient-rich plants may provide health-promoting effects related to their ability to prevent the development of a wide range of chronic inflammatory diseases. Microgreens may be a promising new food source to satisfy consumer interest in healthy eating [2,6]. Microgreens are low in sugar and abundant in organic acids, carotenoids, and chlorophylls. ...
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Microgreens are young plants grown from vegetables, grain, or herb seeds in a controlled environment with artificial lighting. LED modules are the preferred option for indoor and vertical farming. Light intensity (LI) is crucial for plant growth and the synthesis of phytochemicals. The study aimed to assess whether growing microgreens under low light intensity but with the addition of algae would produce plants with similar parameters (biometric, active compound content) to those grown under higher light intensity. The experiment evaluated LED white light at two intensity levels: 115 µmol m−2 s−1 (low light, LL) and 230 µmol m−2 s−1 (high light, HL). Pea seeds were soaked in a 10% solution of Chlorella vulgaris algae or water before sowing, and the plants were watered or sprayed during growth with the same solutions. The results showed no positive effect of algae on plant biometric traits. However, plants treated with algae had a significantly higher chlorophyll and carotenoid content index. Light significantly influenced pea growth, with plants grown under high light (HL) showing greater weight, height, and plant area. Additionally, changes in the photosynthetic apparatus and light stress were observed in microgreens watered with water (AW and WW) under high light during the vegetative phase. Raman spectra also indicated changes in the chemical composition of microgreens’ leaves based on light intensity and treatment. Microgreens treated with algae solution during seed soaking and water during the vegetative phase produced much more carotenoids compared to other variants.
... Grown in a greenhouse under controlled conditions, or mostly in a soilless system under artificial light, improves the growth, yield, quality, and bioactive substances accumulation of the plant, without being limited by light conditions [93,94]. In the commercial cultivation of micro-vegetables, one of the most critical challenges is the choice of growing medium [93], lighting, and light spectrum composition [94] to influence photosynthesis, plant growth and phytonutrients level [95]. ...
... It has been shown that the broccoli micro-vegetable, harvested 10 days after sowing, has a higher vitamin C and vitamin E content than the mature plant [96,97]. Harvesting of plants differs depending on the growing medium: radish micro-vegetables were harvested 7 days after sowing [98], broccoli after 10 days, red cabbage after 11 days [95,99], and spinach after 17-18 days [100]. The shelf life of micro-vegetables varies depending on the variety and growing medium. ...
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With the global population projected to reach 8.6 billion by 2050 and urbanization on the rise, sustainable food production in cities becomes imperative. Vertical farming presents a promising solution to meet this challenge by utilizing space-efficient, controlled-environment agriculture techniques. In a vertical farming system, high quality, high nutritional value products can be produced with minimum water consumption, using LEDs as energy-efficient light sources. Microgreens are a new market category of vegetables among sprouts and baby leaf greens. The most critical challenge in their cultivation is the choice of growing medium, lighting, and light spectrum, which affect photosynthesis, plant growth, and yield. This review explores various cultivation methods, including hydroponics, within the context of vertical farming. Using current research, it investigates the effect of LED lighting on the physiological properties and growth of microgreens and baby leaf lettuce, but further research is needed to determine the response of the varieties and the optimal light spectrum ratios to meet their needs.
... Out of 300 g of veggies per day, the ICMR advises consuming 125 g of leafy gree ns dai ly . I n pl an ts, the l evel s of phytonutrients often decrease from the seedling stage to the fully developed stage (Choe et al., 2018). Microgreens are tender immature greens mostly growing to two inches of height and harvested at 7-14 days after germination without root. ...
... Apart from co nsidering i ts h igh n utri ti onal valu e, microgreens are considered as functional foods as they have health promoting and disease preventing properties (Wojdylo et al., 2020). In comparison to mature plants, microgreens ofte n had hi gh l eve ls o f vi tami ns and carotenoids that were around five times higher (Choe et al., 2018). Amaranth, sunflower, green basil, lemon balm, broccoli, etc. are popular microgreens (Wojdylo et al., 2020). ...
... Experiment-based studies have consistently shown that diets high in plant-based foods have positive health effects. There is evidence that the edible parts of plants in the families of Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Apiaceae, and Amaranthaceae contain compounds that are physiologically active and have health-promoting qualities [3][4][5][6]. While it's well-established that humans benefit Microgreens have been defined as salad crop shoots harvested for consumption within 10 to 20 days of seedling emergence. ...
... Researchers have focused on vitamin C (VC), phytochemicals (such as carotenoids and phenolics), and a few minerals (copper, zinc, and selenium) for their ability to neutralize free radicals and limit the damage from oxidative stress (Se). Microgreens have been compared to their fully developed counterparts in terms of antioxidant capacity and content [3,99]. VC, also known as ascorbic acid, is an effective antioxidant because of its role in collagen synthesis, immune system regulation, and wound healing [101]. ...
... The primary distinction between sprouts, baby greens, and microgreens lies in the timing of harvest. Baby greens are typically harvested when they reach a height of 2 to 4 inches and have been growing for 15 to 40 days, whereas microgreens are harvested immediately after their youngest leaves emerge [23]. Furthermore, sprouts can be distinguished from microgreens by their composition; sprouts include the seed, root, and stem, while microgreens are harvested without the roots [5]. ...
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Today, the paramount concern for individuals revolves around their well-being; indeed, without good health, little else holds genuine significance. The advent of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has significantly altered people's perspectives, fostering a resolute determination to approach dietary choices with heightened awareness and precaution. Microgreens, nutrient-dense seedlings, have garnered significant attention for their potential health benefits. This review delves into the intricate relationship between microgreens, their endogenous enzymes, and naturally occurring inhibitors. We explore the diverse array of enzymes present in microgreens and their catalytic roles in various biochemical processes. Furthermore, we examine the role of enzyme inhibitors within these tiny powerhouses and their potential implications for human health. By understanding the enzymatic landscape of microgreens, we aim to elucidate their impact on key physiological functions, including digestion, metabolism, and antioxidant defense. In a world where science and technology continually set new benchmarks, it becomes our responsibility to prioritize and sustain better health practices, thereby paving the way for improved well-being for future generations. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge and highlights potential avenues for future research to unlock the full therapeutic potential of microgreens.
... 6 Additionally, due to their generally higher quantities of phytochemicals than their mature counterparts, microgreens have been promoted as healthful foods, 7 According to a recent assessment, microgreens are a new diet for the twenty-first century and may have anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic and anti-obesogenic, properties. 8 Because of this, new applications for various kinds of seeds and microgreens are being discovered every day. Literature shows that, Seeds of Linum usitatissimum L. (Flax), Salvia hispanica L. (Chia), and Helianthus annuus L. (Sunflower) and their microgreens show promising Pharmacological effect due to the presence of unique bioactive compounds like ascorbic acid, tocopherol, carotenoids, folate, tocotrienols, anthocyanins, Flavonoids, glucosinolates and phylloquinones etc. ...
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Background: Microgreens, the early developmental stage of edible plants, have gained prominence for their dense nutrient composition. Yet the variations in quercetin content among different microgreen species remain insufficiently explored. Aim: The aim of this research was to use HPTLC to compare the quercetin content of commercial flax, chia, and sunflower seeds as well as the comparable microgreens. Materials and Methods: Toluene, ethyl acetate, and formic acid were used as the mobile phase at a ratio of 5:4:0.2 (%v/v/v) for the chromatographic analysis, which was conducted using aluminum-backed silica gel 60F 254 plates. To ensure that the results were precise, accurate, and reproducible, rigorous technique validation processes were carried out. Results: Total Flavonoid content in the three seeds and microgreens studied, and the highest value was 38.92±0.4 and 76.36±0.4gm QE/100g. Well separated and compact spots (R f) of quercetin (0.41±0.03) were detected. The regression equation obtained was y=0.0002x + 0.0001, with a correlation coefficient (R 2) of 0.9833. The linearity range (µg/ spots) was 20-100. The LOD/ LOQ (ng/spot) were 37.66/114.15. Salvia hispanica L Seeds and microgreens (0.84±0.01 and 0.88±0.005% W/W) contained maximum amount of quercetin compared to Linus usitatissimum L. and Helianthus annus L. in ethanolic extract. Conclusion: The study revealed that the Salvia hispanica L. microgreen possess the highest quercetin content among the studied seeds and microgreens, while microgreens of all three plants are promising sources of quercetin, showcasing a remarkable increase compared to their seeds. Highlighting their potential as dietary sources rich in quercetin.
... Although micro-greens have been declared with many nutritionally beneficial, there is still limited scientific information available as to its accurate phytochemical content analysis. Some studies have shown that some young growth seedlings have higher vitamins, minerals and other health-giving phytonutrients than the older and mature leaves Choe et al., (2018). Microscale vegetables are now becoming popular for home-made food preparations subjected to various food preparation testing with higher interest in producing readyto-eat market including the industry of dietary supplements. ...
Article
Background: Microgreens is defined as young seedlings of edible vegetables and herbs which are used to add spiciness and sweetness to foods. In the market it is usually products of certain herb and vegetable species; but there were limited published research study that corn is grown as Microgreens especially in the Philippines. This significantly aims to test the acceptability of corn varieties of University of Southern Mindanao Philippines as potential food for microgreens. Methods: A study was conducted to explore the potential of corn microgreens as culinary ingredient, to assess consumers’ acceptability on different varieties of corn to be prepared as microgreens and to evaluate specific harvesting stage and light response which are ideal in microgreen production. In study 1, response of six corn varieties produced in Southern Philippines were tested, namely: ‘Sweet’ corn and glutinous corn as the commercial checks and four USM varieties (USM vars 6, 10 and 24 and USMARC NCH-33). For study 2, different harvesting stages of “Sweet Corn” seed subjected to light and without light responses were evaluated at 6 and 8 days after sowing (DAS). Result: Results of the sensory evaluation revealed high consumers’ acceptability on the three USM varieties, namely: USM Vars 6, 10 and 24 and Sweet Corn which were harvested at 6 DAS with or without light exposure. With these, it can be concluded that corn seeds can also be grown and produced as microgreen products aside from its benefit as staple crop.
... Microgreens, which include various vegetables, medicinal plants, and herbaceous plants characterized by thin structures, cotyledon leaves, and early harvesting, are highly diverse in terms of color, structure, and flavor (Bhatt and Sharma, 2018). These plants possess delicate tissues and can be incorporated into a variety of dishes such as salads, soups, and sandwiches (Choe et al., 2018). The cultivation of microgreens can be a profitable business opportunity when a market demand exists. ...
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The term “microgreen” describes tiny seedlings of edible plants that have cotyledon leaves that form in the first 1-2 weeks after planting. Microgreen is a new topic in vegetable growing and has the potential to provide significant profits in a short time if marketing opportunities are found. For this reason, it is an important issue to compare microgreens with their mature forms and evaluate them in terms of their contribution to our health. In this study, mature parsley plants, parsley microgreens and primed parsley micro greens were compared in terms of yield and some biochemical properties. The study was carried out in greenhouse conditions at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Agriculture, Dardanos Farm in spring and summer of 2023. Seeds of a standard parsley variety (Petroselinum hortense cv. Toros) were used as plant material in the experiment. In the study, ascorbic acid (mg/100g), pH, Titratable Acidity (TEA), water soluble dry matter (WSDM), apigenin amount and yield (g/m2) parameters were examined. At the first harvest, parsley microgreens had more yield in a shorter time compared to mature parsley plants. The yield has increased especially with the priming application. The amount of ascorbic acid was found to be statistically (P
... Because of the low content of bisamide insecticides in complex food substrates, it is difficult to directly detect bisamide insecticides in food samples. Samples should be pre-treated to eliminate as much interference as possible [4]. Bisamide insecticides are soluble in both water and organic solvents due to the presence of amide groups and benzene rings. ...
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Polymeric high internal phase emulsions decorated with covalent organic frameworks (polyHIPEs-COFs) were synthesized and used as the sorbent for cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole. Pickering high internal phase emulsions stabilized by covalent organic frameworks solid particles and liquid surfactants (Span80 and polyvinylpyrrolidone) endow the composites with open-cell structures and superwettability. The amphiphilicity and open-cell structures enable rapid adsorption and desorption for cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole, and the solid-phase extraction process can be completed in 5 min. The adsorption efficiencies of polyHIPEs-COFs for cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole are above 85.19%, but lower than 10% for fenvalerate, anti-aphid, and chlorpyrifos, demonstrating the good adsorption selectivity for cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole. The adsorption efficiencies of cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole using a same polyHIPEs-COFs and five different batches of polyHIPEs-COFs range from 94.25 to 100.00%, revealing the good reproducibility of the sorbent. In addition, the polyHIPEs-COF-based solid-phase extraction combined with high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detector (HPLC–UV) was developed for determination of bisamide insecticides in vegetable (eggplants, tomatoes, and peppers) samples. Results showed that the method was feasible to determine the cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole in real vegetable samples with a linear range of 0.012–1.2 μg/kg and limits of detection of 0.0075–0.0090 μg/kg. The recoveries of cyantraniliprole and chlorantraniliprole spiked in vegetable samples ranged from 85.00 to 100.00% with relative standard deviations less than 3.52%. The study indicates the feasibility of amphiphilic polyHIPEs-COFs in extraction and enrichment of bisamide insecticides from vegetable samples for HPLC–UV analysis. Graphical Abstract
... They are easy to produce and can be used in various culinary applications such as sandwiches, salads, soups, desserts, and beverages. Their delicate texture, vibrant colors, and high palatability further enhance their culinary value (Wojdyło et al. 2020;Choe, Yu, and Wang 2018). ...
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This study investigates the therapeutic and nutritional potential of fenugreek sprouts from 30 diverse genotypes sourced from various regions. The aim was to characterize and compare their therapeutic attributes, including antioxidant capacity, antidiabetic, and anti‐cholinesterase activities, along with their nutritional compositions, particularly minerals, and protein content. Results revealed significant variations among the genotypes in terms of their therapeutic properties. China genotypes exhibited notable α‐amylase inhibition 64.57%, suggesting potential antidiabetic properties, while South Sudan genotypes demonstrated significant acetylcholinesterase (14.44%) and butyrylcholinesterase inhibitions, indicating possible cognitive health benefits. The Morocco and Konya/Türkiye genotypes exhibited noteworthy antioxidant effects, with showing DPPH• scavenging activities of 7.79% and 7.23%, and ABTS•+ activities of 27.87% and 27.31%, respectively. Mineral analysis revealed considerable differences across genotypes. Israel genotypes had the highest iron content (43.18 mg/100 g), Sivas/Türkiye genotype had the highest potassium levels (2259.87 mg/100 g), and Kayseri/Türkiye genotype had the highest sodium content (616.91 mg/100 g). Ukraine genotypes contained the most magnesium (266.61 mg/100 g), while Israel genotypes also had the highest zinc content (54.44 mg/100 g). The protein content of the fenugreek sprouts varied significantly, with Corum/Türkiye showing the highest protein content at 5.75/100 g. Principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted the relationships among the mineral nutrients and protein content, revealing distinct groupings of genotypes based on their mineral compositions. Correlation analysis further elucidated the associations between various minerals and protein content. In conclusion, this study underscores the potential therapeutic and nutritional significance of fenugreek sprouts.
... These tender greens are harvested from the seeds of various plants, typically just 7 to 14 days after germination (Lester et al., 2013). They feature two fully developed cotyledon leaves and may sometimes exhibit the first signs of true leaves emerging (Choe et al., 2018). Despite their small size, microgreens pack a punch in both flavour and nutritional value. ...
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In this comprehensive review, we delve into the multifaceted world of nutrient-rich microgreens, with a particular emphasis on their significance in urban agriculture. By exploring their nutritional composition, culinary applications and cultivation techniques, we aim to shed light on the transformative potential of microgreens in promoting sustainable urban food systems. Through an interdisciplinary lens encompassing agronomy, nutrition and urban planning, we uncover the myriad benefits of microgreens cultivation and highlight the critical role they play in shaping the future of urban agriculture.
... They are rich in enzymes and amino acids, which provide a rapid nutrient uptake [1]. Microgreens, harvested slightly later, contain concentrated amounts of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, and vitamins [2,3]. They thrive in substrates with balanced water retention and aeration, making soilless systems ideal for their cultivation. ...
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Sprouts, microgreens, and baby leaves are plant-based functional foods that have recently gained popularity for use in human diets as novel foods due to their high nutraceutical value. Microgreens, harvested shortly after germination with one true leaf, include vitamins and minerals with potential health benefits. Achieving high yields, robust growth, and maximum nutrient accumulation requires optimal cultivation, especially when selecting the appropriate growing medium. This study assessed the effectiveness of six different growing media for the cultivation of microgreens, specifically black radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger), broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), and red beet (Beta vulgaris L.). The growing media tested included vermiculite, perlite, a peat-based medium, filter paper, cotton textile, and agril. The results revealed that vermiculite and the peat-based medium led to the highest yields. The phenolic content ranged from 110.77 mg GA·100 g−1 FW in red beet to 169.96 mg GA·100 g−1 FW in broccoli. The flavonoid content varied between 17.99 mg RU·100 g−1 FW in black radish and 120.36 mg RU·100 g−1 FW in red beet. Agril and filter paper media yielded the highest SPAD–chlorophyll values (47.34 and 44.36, respectively). The protein content peaked at 3.03 g·100 g−1 FW in black radish grown on filter paper, while the vitamin C content reached a maximum of 29.75 mg·100 g−1 FW in black radish grown in agril. The findings suggest that while the optimal conditions vary by species, the choice of growing medium plays a crucial role in determining microgreens’ quality and nutrient content.
... late 1980s in California (Wright and Holden, 2018). They are differentiated by being larger than sprouts, but smaller than baby leaves, being grown in the light and harvested less than a month after germination, usually when they are about five centimeters tall and when the first true leaves, which are born after the cotyledons, begin to emerge (Choe, Yu and Wang, 2018;Katsenios et al., 2021;Turner, Luo and Buchanan, 2020;Xiao et al., 2014;Wright and Holden, 2018). ...
Article
Microgreens are easy to produce due to their small space requirements, short growing period, low nutrient and growth medium requirements. For their production, light energy is considered one of the main factors in plant development. The aim of this study was to evaluate the development and quality of radish and arugula microgreens under different exposure times to light-emitting diode (LED) lighting. Pigment levels were determined: chlorophylls, carotenoids, flavonoids and anthocyanins. Chlorophylls a and b decreased with the increase in photoperiod and had higher levels over the days of growth. Total chlorophyll also increased as the microgreens grew. The carotenoid content was negatively affected by the increase in photoperiod in relation to the days. There was a tendency for flavonoids to accumulate as the days passed and the photoperiod increased. A reduction in anthocyanins was observed with increasing exposure time to LED light for radish microgreens, the opposite of what was observed for arugula. In general, the recommended exposure time to LED light for producing radish and arugula microgreens was 16 hours and harvesting on the 6th DAP.
... These bioactive compounds are linked to a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. The antioxidant levels in microgreens often exceed those in mature plants, providing potent protection against oxidative stress 6 , while mature plants continue to play an important role in providing dietary fiber and bulk. ...
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Understanding the influence of light spectra on plant growth and antioxidant activities is crucial for optimizing cultivation practices and enhancing crop quality. In this study, we investigated the effects of different light treatments on growth parameters and antioxidant activities in five plant species: peppermint, Thai basil, cumin, lemon basil, and green holy basil. Our results revealed distinct responses to varying light spectra, with green light consistently promoting taller plant heights across all species. Additionally, blue light induced notable increases in plant width for certain species. Analysis of antioxidant activities demonstrated dynamic fluctuations in Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Flavonoid Content (TFC) among different light treatments and plant species. While white and red light generally promoted higher TPC levels, blue light unexpectedly exhibited the highest TPC levels at specific time points. Moreover, investigation into DPPH Radical Scavenging activity revealed diverse temporal responses to light spectra, with blue light demonstrating exceptional activity at early stages and white and red light showing heightened activity at later time points. These findings underscore the importance of tailored light regimes in optimizing growth parameters and enhancing antioxidant activities in cultivated plants, thereby offering promising avenues for sustainable agriculture and food production practices.
... The production of microgreens is more scarcely studied as a functional food based on Se-biofortified Allium species [131]. At present, Allium microgreen production is achieved on leek, A. cepa, A. fistulosum, and A. schoenoprasum [132], though to date, Se biofortification has been carried out only in A. fistulosum seedlings [133]. ...
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Allium species have great potential in the production of functional food via selenium biofortification. This review is devoted to the specificity of Allium plant biofortification with Se, including the genetic peculiarities, effect of the chemical form of the microelement, methods of supply, sulfur and AMF effects, and hormonal regulation. The biosynthesis of methylated Se amino acids and the beneficial effect of Se treatment on secondary metabolite accumulation and plant yield are discussed. Special attention is paid to the production of functional foods based on Allium plants enriched in different ways: bread with leek leaf powder, Allium microgreens and seedlings, and ‘Black garlic’ biofortified with Se. Further focus is provided to the high variability of Allium crop yield and quality under Se supply governed by genetic factors and environmental stresses, and to the need for plant growth technology optimization to obtain the predicted nutritional characteristics of the derived functional product with high anti-carcinogenic activity.
... An increasing number of review papers highlight the growing recognition of microgreens and their importance for health [33][34][35][36][37][38][39]. Microgreens are young, edible plants that are often more nutrient-dense than their fully mature versions. ...
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The aim of this study was to compare the concentration of phenolic compounds, glucosinolates, proteins, sugars and vitamin C between kohlrabi (Brassica oleracea var. acephala gongylodes), Savoy cabbage (B. oleracea sabauda), Brussels sprouts (B. oleracea gemmifera), cauliflower (B. oleracea botrytis), radish (Raphanus sativus) and garden cress (Lepidium sativum) microgreens for their antioxidant and hypoglycemic potential. In addition, we applied an in vitro-simulated system of human digestion in order to track the bioaccessibility of the selected phenolic representatives, and the stability of the microgreens’ antioxidant and hypoglycemic potential in terms of α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition after each digestion phase. Using spectrophotometric and RP-HPLC methods with statistical analyses, we found that garden cress had the lowest soluble sugar content, while Savoy cabbage and Brussels sprouts had the highest glucosinolate levels (76.21 ± 4.17 mg SinE/g dm and 77.73 ± 3.33 mg SinE/g dm, respectively). Brussels sprouts were the most effective at inhibiting protein glycation (37.98 ± 2.30% inhibition). A very high positive correlation (r = 0.830) between antiglycation potential and conjugated sinapic acid was recorded. For the first time, the antidiabetic potential of microgreens after in vitro digestion was studied. Kohlrabi microgreens best inhibited α-amylase in both initial and intestinal digestion (60.51 ± 3.65% inhibition and 62.96 ± 3.39% inhibition, respectively), and also showed the strongest inhibition of α-glucosidase post-digestion (19.22 ± 0.08% inhibition). Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and radish had less stable α-glucosidase than α-amylase inhibitors during digestion. Kohlrabi, Savoy cabbage, and garden cress retained inhibition of both enzymes after digestion. Kohlrabi antioxidant capacity remained unchanged after digestion. The greatest variability was seen in the original samples, while the intestinal phase resulted in the most convergence, indicating that digestion reduced differences between the samples. In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of various microgreens as sources of bioactive compounds with antidiabetic and antiglycation properties. Notably, kohlrabi microgreens demonstrated significant enzyme inhibition after digestion, suggesting their promise in managing carbohydrate metabolism and supporting metabolic health.
... their relatively low price, widespread use, high production speed, possibility of production in all seasons of the year, and the higher bioavailability of micronutrients compared to the seeds are a valuable biofortification target to confront malnutrition and hidden hunger. Lentils, mung beans, soybeans, and alfalfa are the most commonly used species in sprout production 9,10 . In our previous study, we confirmed the capability of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in to remarkably increase the Zn content of mung bean seedlings 8 . ...
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This study aimed to evaluate the potential of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in the biofortification of lentil seedlings and subsequently improve the Zn status in rats. In the first phase of the study, the effects of various ZnO NPs concentrations (0, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 ppm) on the lentil growth, Zn accumulation, and other physiological parameters were investigated. Subsequently, the rats were fed ZnO NP-biofortified lentil seedlings (20 and 160 ppm) to assess their impact on animal health and Zn status. The results highlighted a concentration-dependent response of lentil seedlings to ZnO NPs, with optimal growth observed at 20 ppm, whereas higher concentrations inhibited lentil growth. Pigment and biochemical analyses revealed a complex interplay between chlorophyll, carotenoids, soluble sugars, and proteins with distinct responses to nanoparticle concentrations. Elevated levels of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde of lentil seedlings at high concentrations of ZnO NPs suggest oxidative stress, countered by the upregulation of antioxidant enzymes and increased phenolic compounds. On the other hand. animal studies have showed that ZnO NP-biofortified lentil seedlings enhance serum zinc and magnesium levels in rats without affecting body weight. While serum triglyceride levels of rats decreased in both treatment groups, an elevation in creatinine and a marked increase in aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels were observed at a higher ZnO NP concentration (160 ppm), indicative of potential kidney and liver stress. Paradoxically, serum iron levels were lower in all groups consuming lentil seedlings than in the control group, suggesting a potential interaction between lentil components and iron metabolism. These findings suggest that ZnO NP-biofortified lentils may be a promising approach to enhance Zn nutrition; however, further investigation is needed to optimize ZnO NPs concentration and assess long-term safety.
... For example, compared to mature red cabbage leaves, its microgreens had 40 times more vitamin E and 6 times more vitamin C. Likewise, cilantro microgreens contained three times as much beta-carotene than the mature cilantro. been compared with their mature counterparts [11,12]. ...
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Microgreens are tender shoots of edible vegetables or herbs that are used to enhance the colour, texture, or flavour of salads and main dishes. They are usually about 2-4 inches long and need quite little time to grow, generally ready to harvest within 1-3 weeks after germination compared to 8-10 weeks of time needed for their mature counterparts. Microgreens are newly arising specialty vegetable that can be grown conveniently at home, outdoor, indoor and even on your windowsill from the seeds of vegetables, condiments, grains or even from some wild species. Microgreens are typically falling somewhere between a sprout and baby green. Microgreens are becoming more and more popular among consumers because of their distinct sensory qualities and high nutritional content. Certain vegetable species including broccoli, kale and red cabbage, contain high concentrations of sulforaphane that has been scientifically demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. Microgreens have a stronger flavour, so a small amount can significantly improve a dish. Due to their high-water content, microgreens are usually consumed as raw, so no chance of loss or degradation of thermolabile micronutrients through food processing. When choosing a microgreen, experimenters say to look for the most intensively colored bones, which will be the most nutritional. Tiny microgreens are not only a common garnish in many culinary arts but also extremely nutritious and should be eaten daily in conjunction with a balanced diet. Keywords: Microgreens, Nutritional value, Antioxidants, Vitamins, Salads
... Mesmo sendo vegetais consumidos imaturos, eles se distinguem de outros considerados na mesma categoria como os brotos e baby greens que geralmente são colhidos ao ponto de colheita dos microverdes, entre 15 e 40 dias, com cotilédones senescentes ou até mesmo já ausentes. No caso dos brotos, sua época de colheita é anterior a dos microverdes, formado por semente caule e raiz (CHOE et al., 2018). ...
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Os microverdes ou microgreens são hortaliças imaturas, colhidas entre 7 e 14 dias após a germinação. Uma hortaliça que pode ser utilizada no cultivo de microverdes é a couve manteiga que é um vegetal de rápida germinação, fácil obtenção além dos ótimos conteúdos de compostos nutracêuticos. Para o cultivo dessa hortaliça, os substratos devem possuir as propriedades físicas, químicas e biológicas necessárias para proporcionar o crescimento saudável, atendendo aos requisitos práticos do sistema de produção. Diversos materiais podem ser utilizados como recipiente, desde que apresentem baixa profundidade (rasos), sejam leves, móveis, resistentes, de baixo custo e de fácil acesso ao produtor. Dessa forma, o objetivo neste trabalho foi avaliar a influência de diferentes substratos e recipientes no cultivo e pós-colheita de microverdes de couve manteiga. Utilizou-se delineamento inteiramente casualizado, em esquema bifatorial 3 x 4 (três substratos x quatro recipientes), formado por quatro repetições, sendo cada uma representada por um recipiente com 50 sementes. Foi utilizado uma mistura com húmus de minhoca, substrato comercial de fibra de coco e solo. Foram utilizados como recipientes bandeja de poliestireno expandido (EPS), bandeja de alumínio, caixa de papel kraft e caixa de MDF. As avaliações realizadas foram: percentual de germinação, ciclo em dias, altura, diâmetro, massa fresca e massa seca, sólidos solúveis, pH, acidez titulável e fenóis totais. Dentre os substratos o húmus de minhoca mostrou-se como o mais adequado para o cultivo de microverdes.
... Some of the important advantages of microgreens are that they can be grown in a short time and can be produced in a relatively small area.Microgreens had delicate tissues. Microgreens can be included in salads, soups, and sandwiches (Choe et al., 2018). ...
... Within the motor and emerging/declining themes quadrants, there are no distinct clusters but rather overlapping ones. In the motor and basic quadrants, there are terms associated with bioactive compounds, including antioxidant activity (39), phenolic compounds (28), and bioactive compounds (22). Conversely, in the basic and emerging theme quadrants, there are terms related to safety, such as inactivation (9), microbial population (5), and survival (5). ...
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This article presents a general overview of scientific publications in the field of microgreens using bibliometric tools. Data were collected from the Web of Science database (from Clarivate Analytics) in the period from 2004 to 2023, covering 20 years of scientific publications. The results are presented in the form of tables, graphs, and charts to analyze the development of microgreens publications. The countries with the greatest influence on the microgreens topic are the USA, Italy, and India, which have the highest number of publications in the analyzed period with 133, 76, and 38 publications, respectively. On the other hand, the authors with the highest number of publications are Raphael, Y. (University Naples Federico II-Italy), De Pascale, S. (University Naples Federico II-Italy), and Luo, Y. (ARS, Food Quality Laboratory, Environmental Microbial & Food Safety Lab, USDA-USA). The journals with the highest productivity in microgreens are HortScience (American Society of Horticultural Science), Horticulturae (MDPI), and Foods (MDPI), with publication numbers of 49, 27, and 23, respectively. Regarding the relationship of the documents in this study with United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the large majority of documents can be linked to SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), followed by SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 3 (Good Health and Well Being). As a final remark, the mapping, trends, and findings in this work can help to establish logical paths for researchers in the field of microgreens.
... In the Asian market, a variety of food products based on microgreens and germinated seeds in powder form or as additives to alcoholic beverages, juices, and teas have gained traction (Wojdylo et al., 2020). Furthermore, they are available throughout the year, even during the winter when fresh fruits and vegetables may be scarce (Choe, Yu, & Wang, 2018). However, evidence regarding their nutritional composition remains limited, especially microgreens compared to their precursors in the form of germinated seeds. ...
... In view of this and other benefits (Johnson, 2018;Li et al., 2022;Lyles et al., 2021), CVs have been recommended by the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines to consume each day because the daily CV ingestion is evidenced to make their health-promoting effects more pronounced and long-lasting (Choe, Yu, & Wang, 2018). Before ingested, CVs are often cooked in different ways such as boiling, blanching, steaming and stir-frying, where the heating process is inevitable (Barnum, Cho, Markel, & Shih, 2024). ...
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Cruciferous vegetables (CVs) are globally consumed with some health benefits believed to arise from indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a labile phytochemical liberated from indole glucosinolates, but few reports describe the effect of cooking on I3C reactions. Here, we present heat-promoted direct conversions of I3C in broccoli florets into indole derivatives, which are unique in the N-indolylmethylation and -hydroxymethylation of indole nuclei by 3-methyleneindole and formaldehyde formed in situ from the I3C dehydration and the dimerization of I3C to 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM), respectively. Such N-substituted indoles were found in a range of 0.4–4.6 μg per gram of steamed broccoli florets, with a novel compound N-(indol-3-ylmethyl)-3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM-1) bio-evaluated to inhibit A375 cells with an IC50 value of 1.87 μM. In aggregation, the investigation discloses the promoting effect of heating on the I3C transformation in CVs and identifies DIM-1 as an anti-cancer drug candidate, and thus updates the knowledge of I3C and bioactive derivatives thereof.
... Microgreens are emerging edible young vegetables harvested 10-14 days after sowing (Riggio 2019). Despite their small size, microgreens are enriched in health-promoting compounds, including soluble sugars, soluble proteins, phenolic compounds, and glucosinolates (GLs) (Choe et al. 2018;Xiao et al. 2012). Microgreens have become increasingly popular as a new specialty innovative functional food in recent years owing to their reported protective effects against inflammation, cancer, and obesity (Murphy and Pill 2015). ...
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Broccoli microgreens represent a novel type of vegetable characterized by high levels of bioactive compounds. Here, we investigated the effects of light-emitting diode (LED) light quality on the development and nutritional uptake of broccoli microgreens. The plants were exposed to five distinct light treatments: white, single red, and red: blue at 5:1, 5:3, and 5:5 ratios. The soluble sugars, nutrients, and secondary metabolites of broccoli sprout extracts were examined using high-performance liquid chromatography and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry under various light-quality conditions. In addition, the expression levels of genes encoding important enzymes in the glucosinolates (GLs) biosynthesis pathway were examined using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Overall, the findings demonstrated that mixed red-blue light, especially the 5:1 red: blue ratio, was beneficial for broccoli microgreens in terms of their hypocotyl length, fresh weight, edible rate, soluble proteins, vitamin C, total phenolics, total flavonoids, and GLs. Our findings provide a foundation and reference point for selecting the most appropriate LED light ratio in microgreens production.
Article
The hospitality industry today strives for innovation and creativity, and one of the trends that has attracted attention is the use of microgreens in professional kitchens. Microgreens, young plants with exceptionally high nutrient content, are becoming increasingly popular ingredients, making their use one of the key competitive advantages of many restaurants. The aim of this paper is to explore the knowledge and experiences of employees in the hospitality kitchens of Novi Sad regarding the use and understanding of microgreens. The research involved a survey of 150 employees working in Novi Sad's hospitality kitchens, and the results showed that, although there is basic knowledge of the benefits of using microgreens and familiarity with their application, practical implementation varies and is generally not at a high level. This paper provides insight into current practices and potential directions for future improvement in the use of microgreens in Novi Sad's gastronomy.
Chapter
Microgreens are tiny seedling of plants (vegetables, oil-seeds, culinary and medicinal herbs) that have become incredibly popular in recent years because of their remarkable nutritional profile and flavor. Microgreens are harvested at a tender age of just 2–3 weeks after germination and are rich in antioxidants, vitamins and minerals (iron, calcium, magnesium). However, microgreens are functional foods that not only provide essential nutrition, but also contain additional components such as bioactive compounds or phytochemicals that enhance certain aspects of health. Bioactive compound may improve immunity, inflammation, digestion and even risk of certain life-threatening ailments like cancer, diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases at some extent. Therefore, microgreens are considered as live functional food that support the immune system through increasing its ability to fight against infections and diseases. These little greens are easy to grow in soil or hydroponic system and incredibly rich in macro as well as micro nutrients and packed full of bioactive compounds like carotenoids, phenols, glucosinolates. Interestingly, microgreens may be biofortified with desirable minerals through nanotechnology to treat the target diseases. They serve as a nutritious addition to daily diets, supplements and explored as medicine in pharmaceutical field as validated through in vitro and in vivo research due to their antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and antidiabetic properties. Moreover, microgreens are considered as space food for sustainable food production under climate-vulnerable area. Due to less awareness of microgreen properties, marketing strategies and commercialization approaches need to be addressed in societies. Therefore, good marketing approaches, business processes and models has also been explained to establish the microgreen nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industry as nascent employment field.
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Microgreen cultivation has gained significant attention in the agricultural sector due to its potential as a nutrient-dense, flavourful, and visually appealing food source. However, the conventional practices of microgreen production often pose challenges in terms of sustainability and productivity. To address these challenges, a new era in sustainable microgreen cultivation has emerged through the application of microbial consortia. Microbial consortia represent a novel approach that leverages the synergistic interactions between diverse microbial species, including bacteria, fungi, and algae. These microbial consortia help to optimize nutrient uptake, improve plant growth, and enhance resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Through strategic manipulation of microbial communities, sustainable microgreen cultivation can be achieved. The application of microbial consortia minimizes the reliance on synthetic fertilizers and agrochemicals and promotes ecological balance and soil health. They open new avenues for the development of eco-friendly and resource-efficient farming practices, which fosters a more resilient and robust agricultural ecosystem. The present chapter discusses the fundamental mechanisms underlying the efficacy of microbial consortia in promoting sustainable microgreen cultivation. It highlights the intricate interplay between microbial diversity, plant-microbe interactions, and the physiological responses of microgreens. Furthermore, the chapter emphasizes the multifunctional role of microbial consortia as well as the interaction of microbes with each other within the consortium. Overall, the adoption of microbial consortia represents a transformative shift towards a greener and sustainable approach to microgreen production, heralding a promising future for the agricultural industry.
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Leguminous microgreens, an emerging superfood which is developed from various commercial legume food crops, such as alfalfa, clover, lentil, chickpea, pea, mung bean, blackgram, cowpea, pigeon pea, fenugreek, horsegram etc. consist of developed cotyledons along with partially expanded true leaves and are harvested within 7–21 days based on legume crop. High levels of protein, carbohydrates, and dietary fibres along with secondary metabolites, including antioxidants, flavonoids, carotenoids, and chlorophyll concentration, have made legumes a high-energy food source on a global scale. Furthermore, compared to their mature counterparts, microgreens might have higher concentrations of vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. These nutrient-dense microgreens are thought to be the “superfoods” of the future since they enhance palatability and address nutritional inadequacies. While a plethora of research has been published on the bioactive and antioxidant characteristics of cereals, relatively little is known about leguminous microgreens. These chapter, therefore mainly focuses on the nutritional aspect of leguminous microgeens as well as studying the nutritional value and phytochemicals present at various growth stages of leguminous microgreens and discover underutilized leguminous crops which have the potential to be the future crop for microgreens to combat the food and nutritional security along with the study of sensory and consumer acceptance of the leguminous microgeens.
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Sustainable agriculture is the need to of the hour to address critical challenges like food shortage and environmental degradation. Soilless microgreen farming is emerging as an appropriate sustainable agricultural solution to alleviate these global problems. This review explores the multifaceted applications of nanotechnology in microgreen cultivation, ranging from health benefits to pest management and shelf-life extension. Microgreens, with their short growth period and nutrient-rich composition, offer significant advantages over fully grown counterparts. Nanomaterials play a crucial role in enhancing soilless farming practices by improving nutrient management, monitoring, and control through nanosensors, and optimizing nutrient delivery. Furthermore, nanoparticles can aid seed priming by enhancing seed performance and stress tolerance. In pest and disease management, nanoparticles exhibit antimicrobial and antiviral properties, offering novel solutions for crop protection. Nano packaging materials enhance the shelf life of harvested microgreens by mitigating quality deterioration and microbial growth. Overall, the integration of nanotechnology into microgreen cultivation represents a cutting-edge approach to sustainable agriculture, revolutionizing crop production, quality, and safety.
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Microgreens, young edible greens harvested at the cotyledon or first true leaf stage, have gained popularity due to their high nutritional content, concentrated flavors and vibrant colors. Among microgreens, leguminous varieties offer unique health benefits attributed to their rich protein and phytochemical profiles. This chapter delves into the advancements in cultivation substrates and methods including optimization of growth substrates, encompassing organic materials, hydroponic systems, vertical farming techniques, biofortification and novel blends, tailored to enhance the nutritional quality and production efficiency of leguminous microgreens. Furthermore, the chapter explores the influence of environmental factors including light intensity, photoperiod, and temperature on the growth and phytochemical accumulation of leguminous microgreens. By leveraging controlled environment agriculture (CEA) technologies, such as LED lighting and climate control systems, precise environmental conditions can be maintained to promote optimal growth and nutritional enrichment. The findings suggest that tailored cultivation substrates and innovative production methods can significantly elevate the nutritional quality and yield of leguminous microgreens. These advancements not only offer opportunities for sustainable food production but also contribute to promoting health-conscious dietary choices in modern gastronomy.
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Microgreens are considered as a new class of functional foods and are known for their nutritional values. These are tiny seedlings with a pair of cotyledonous leaves and a delicate stem developed from the seeds of legumes, spices, vegetables, cereals and herbs. Microgreens are reported to carry numerous phytochemicals like β-carotene, flavonoids, chlorophyll, vitamins and minerals. A plethora of bioactive components are also present in microgreens including, phenols, glucosinolates, flavonoids, carotenoids and others. The nutritional proficiency of microgreens has made it a superfood for human health promotions owing to its anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. Among a diverse range of microgreen varieties, the leguminous microgreens are comparatively the least studied ones so far. This chapter is basically based on leguminous microgreens covering almost all the aspects of legumes right from the growth conditions, nutritional characterization, therapeutic potential and commercial prospects. An effort is made to popularize the augmentation of leguminous microgreens in the main stream of human diet along with other microgreens for year around availability of superfood to ensure better health.
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In the era of growing industries, people have less time to cook food, and they rely on junk food, which does not provide sufficient nutrients and creates many health problems. Microgreens have been introduced as a solution to address this problem. Due to their short growth cycle and high nutritional content, microgreens are microscale vegetables perfect for indoor farming. Leguminous microgreens are among the most significant varieties of microgreens. Leguminous microgreens, comprising young seedlings of legume plants, have gained increasing attention in recent years as a sustainable source of essential nutrients. They harvest microgreens between 7 and 21 days after germination, during the emergence of the first true leaves. The genetic trait of microgreens is entirely different from that of mature plants. They enrich themselves with secondary metabolites, and they have anti-oxidant potential. They also use them for garnishing due to their brighter colors, appearance, and textures—leguminous microgreens, including peas, beans, and lentils containing high polyamine content. Leguminous microgreen production distinguishes itself by its quick development, economical use of resources, and low environmental impact. Additionally, these microgreens are suited for hydroponics farming and vertical agriculture, offering versatile solutions for modern food production systems. Microgreens are rich in ascorbic acid, flavonoids, carotenoids, isothiocyanates, chlorophylls, dietary fibers, ά– tocopherols, and β-carotene. Microgreens act as functional foods as they have disease-resistant properties. Microgreens scavenge reactive oxygen species, thus neutralizing oxidative stress and preventing harmful diseases. The present study focuses on the nutritional qualities of leguminous microgreens, how they can support sustainable agriculture, and how they can help with dietary issues and global food security.
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With the drastically changing climate and increasing population, the requirement of new methods and technologies for enabling the production of high nutritional and high-yielding crops has become very crucial. To overcome global nutrient deficiency, microgreens have emerged as superfoods with enriched nutrient content, phytoactive compounds, and nutrients like magnesium, calcium, phosphorous, and potassium. Legumes have been widely exploited as microgreens for their high nutritional value. Several farming methods and techniques are currently in use for the improvement of the world’s nutritional quotient such as nanotechnology, hydroponics, and genetic engineering. Recent advances in biotechnology have given birth to a whole new branch called nanotechnology. Advanced nano-engineering technologies have enabled researchers to carry out processes such as site-directed delivery of fertilizers, pesticides, and nutrients in a controlled manner with minimized losses which helps in increased production and nutritional value. Furthermore, Fe2O3, ZnO, SiO2 and Se-nanoparticles were explored in Spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.), Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), Maize (Zea mays L.) and Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) respectively to increase growth rate, biomass, amino acid content, phenols, proline, antioxidants, germination, chlorophyll content, fresh and dry weight of shoots and roots under hydroponics conditions. In addition to nanotechnology, different methods, including hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics, have also been adopted by the agricultural industry in order to produce high-yielding, better nutritional quality, and less energy-consuming microgreens. Moreover, advanced techniques such as genetic engineering have also been in use in the agricultural industry for the past few decades for harnessing the advantage of modification of traits directly by manipulating genetic material through artificial means. Having the potential to become a future functional food, the microgreens industry yet fails to fulfill the requirements of the population in terms of yield. Shorter shelf life and less yield are some important obstacles faced by the microgreen industry that require special attention. With these advancements in new-era methods and technologies, this chapter focuses on potential applications of hydroponics, nano-engineering, and genetic engineering techniques in improving and enhancing microgreens’ nutritional quality as well as increasing their shelf life.
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Microgreens are tender, and immature green vegetables which are emerging as a superfood of the twenty-first century. They are widely known for their vivid colours and unique texture, making them a popular garnish in culinary practices. Apart from their decorative use, microgreens are also nutritionally rich as compared to their mature counterparts. The production of microgreens requires minimum space, water and labour which, aligns well with sustainable agricultural practices. Likewise, legumes are a widely known source of protein and fibre which form a crucial component of vegetarian diets. Their nutritional superiority also makes them a valuable source of protein in developing countries where a regular consumption of meat is not economically feasible for most people. Therefore, leguminous microgreens hold the potential to be a new and improved source of protein while promoting sustainability. In this chapter we discuss the nutritional benefits of leguminous microgreens over their mature counterparts. We also discuss the potential of various technologies like hydroponics, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology in increasing the production of leguminous microgreens.
Article
The biometric growth and productivity variables of coriander seeded on coconut powder substrate and covered or not by the same after sowing and irrigated with nutrient solutions were evaluated. The experiment was conducted in a randomized block design (RBD), with four replicates/blocks, in a 2 × 3 factorial scheme, with two forms of seed placement on the substrate (covered seeds, i.e., substrate-seed-substrate or uncovered seeds, substrate-seed) combined with three different ionic strength levels of nutrient solution (distilled water and solution with 25% and 50% ionic strength), totaling six treatments. At 14 days after sowing, the plants were harvested and the biometric variables of growth and productivity were evaluated. The values of the hypocotyl diameter, cotyledon length and specific leaf area of plants from seeds covered with substrate were higher. The fresh weight of the aerial part and the productivity of plants, originated from seeds covered and irrigated with nutrient solution of 25% and 50% ionic strength, were higher. Covering the seeds after sowing, combined with the application of Arnon and Hoagland nutrient solution 25% or 50% ionic strength, provided the best development of coriander microgreens. However, for reasons of production costs, the solution with the lowest ionic strength (25%), that is, with the lowest concentration of minerals, can be considered more efficient for growing indoor microgreens.
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Amaç: Bu çalışma, Salvia türlerinin bazı biyokimyasal parametreleri ile makro besin elementi içeriklerini tespit etmek amacıyla yürütülmüştür. Konu ile ilgili daha önceden yapılmış bir çalışmanın olmaması, ilk olma özelliği taşıması bu çalışmaya ayrı bir özgün değer katmaktadır. Dolayısıyla, literatüre katkı sağlayacağı öngörülmektedir. Materyal ve Yöntem: Çalışmada, materyal olarak Salvia hispanica L. (Chia), Salvia sclarea (Misk adaçayı), Salvia dichroantha Stapf. (Kutnu), Salvia officinalis L. (Tıbbi adaçayı), Salvia microstegia Boiss. & Bal. (Yağlambaç) ve Salvia verticulata ssp. verticulata (Dadırak) türlerinin mikrofiliz olarak değerlendirilme potansiyeli araştırılmıştır. Ticari bir şirketten temin edilen steril torf, hindistan cevizi kabuğu (cocopeat) ve perlit karışımından oluşan büyüme ortamı 500 cc’lik plastik şalelerin içerisine konulmuş hafif bastırıldıktan sonra tohum ekimleri yapılmıştır. Tohumların üzeri tohum çapının 2 katı olacak şekilde toprak ile kapatılmış ve spreyleme şeklinde sulama yapılmıştır. Deneme, Tesadüf Parselleri Deneme Deseni’ ne göre 4 tekrarlamalı olarak düzenlenmiş ve tam kontrollü iklim kabinine 16/8, aydınlık/ karanlık periyotta kalacak şekilde yerleştirilmiştir. Araştırma Bulguları: Çalışma sonucunda; en yüksek toplam klorofil içeriği (23.61 µg/g TA), Salvia hispanica türünden, toplam antioksidan aktivite kapasite (285.8 µmol TE/g), flavonoid madde (16.62 mg QE/100g) ve askorbik asit miktarı (63.85 mg LAA/100g) Salvia dichroantha Stapf. türünden, fenolik madde miktarı (210.3 mg GAE/ g) Salvia sclarea türünden elde edilmiştir. Makro besinler bakımından en yüksek Ca, Mg ve Na birikimi Salvia sclarea, en fazla K birikimi Salvia dichroantha Stapf. türünden elde edilmiştir. Sonuç: Bu çalışma ile incelenen Salvia türlerinin mikroyeşillik olarak tüketilebilme potansiyelleri ortaya konulmuş polifenoller bakımdan zengin içeriğe sahip olan adaçayına obsiyonel bir tüketim alanı kazandırılmıştır.
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With striking similarity to their adaptive T helper cell counterparts, innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) represent an emerging family of cell types that express signature transcription factors, including T-bet⁺ Eomes⁺ natural killer cells, T-bet⁺ Eomes⁻ group 1 ILCs, GATA3⁺ group 2 ILCs, RORγt⁺ group 3 ILCs, and newly identified Id3⁺ regulatory ILC. ILCs are abundantly present in barrier tissues of the host (e.g., the lung, gut, and skin) at the interface of host–environment interactions. Active research has been conducted to elucidate molecular mechanisms underlying the development and function of ILCs. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr) is a ligand-dependent transcription factor, best known to mediate the effects of xenobiotic environmental toxins and endogenous microbial and dietary metabolites. Here, we review recent progresses regarding Ahr function in ILCs. We focus on the Ahr-mediated cross talk between ILCs and other immune/non-immune cells in host tissues especially in the gut. We discuss the molecular mechanisms of the action of Ahr expression and activity in regulation of ILCs in immunity and inflammation, and the interaction between Ahr and other pathways/transcription factors in ILC development and function with their implication in disease.
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Genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of immune-mediated diseases. While numerous genetic factors contributing to autoimmunity have been identified in recent years, our knowledge on environmental factors contributing to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and the mechanisms involved is still limited. In this context, the diet, geographical location, environmental pollutants, as well as microbial metabolites have been shown to modulate autoimmune disease development. These environmental factors interact with cellular components of the immune system in distinct and defined ways and are capable of influencing immune responses at the transcriptional and protein level. Moreover, endogenous metabolites generated from basic cellular processes such as glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation also contribute to the shaping of the immune response. In this review, we highlight recent progress in our understanding of the modulation of the immune response by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a ligand-activated transcription factor whose activity is regulated by small molecules provided by the diet, the commensal flora, environmental pollutants and the metabolism. We will focus on the role of AhR in integrating signals from the diet and the intestinal flora to modulate ongoing inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS), while we will also discuss the potential therapeutic value of AhR agonists for MS and other autoimmune diseases.
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Current malnourishment statistics are high and are exacerbated by contemporary agricultural practices that damage the very environments on which the production of nutritious food depends. As the World’s population grows at an unprecedented rate, food systems must be revised to provide adequate nutrition while minimizing environmental impacts. One specific nutritional problem that needs attention is mineral (e.g., Fe and Zn) malnutrition, which impacts over two-thirds of the World’s people living in countries of every economic status. Microgreens, the edible cotyledons of many vegetables, herbs, and flowers, is a newly emerging crop that may be a dense source of nutrition and has the potential to be produced in just about any locale. This study examined the mineral concentration of broccoli microgreens produced using compost-based and hydroponic growing methods that are easily implemented in one’s own home. The nutritional value of the resulting microgreens was quantitatively compared to published nutritional data for the mature vegetable. Nutritional data were also considered in the context of the resource demands (i.e., water, fertilizer, and energy) of producing microgreens in order to gain insights into the potential for local microgreen production to diversify food systems, particularly for urban areas, while minimizing the overall environmental impacts of broccoli farming. Regardless of how they were grown, microgreens had larger quantities of Mg, Mn, Cu, and Zn than the vegetable. However, compost-grown (C) microgreens had higher P, K, Mg, Mn, Zn, Fe, Ca, Na, and Cu concentrations than the vegetable. For eight nutritionally important minerals (P, K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, and Na), the average C microgreen:vegetable nutrient ratio was 1.73. Extrapolation from experimental data presented here indicates that broccoli microgreens would require 158–236 times less water than it does to grow a nutritionally equivalent amount of mature vegetable in the fields of California’s Central Valley in 93–95% less time and without the need for fertilizer, pesticides, or energy-demanding transport from farm to table. The results of this study suggest that broccoli microgreens have the potential to be a rich source of minerals that can be produced by individuals, even in urban settings, providing better access to adequate nutrition.
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The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor known for mediating xenobiotic toxicity, is expressed in B cells, which are known targets for environmental pollutants. However, it is unclear what the physiological functions of AhR in B cells are. We show here that expression of Ahr in B cells is up-regulated upon B-cell receptor (BCR) engagement and IL-4 treatment. Addition of a natural ligand of AhR, FICZ, induces AhR translocation to the nucleus and transcription of the AhR target gene Cyp1a1, showing that the AhR pathway is functional in B cells. AhR-deficient (Ahr(-/-)) B cells proliferate less than AhR-sufficient (Ahr(+/+)) cells following in vitro BCR stimulation and in vivo adoptive transfer models confirmed that Ahr(-/-) B cells are outcompeted by Ahr(+/+) cells. Transcriptome comparison of AhR-deficient and AhR-sufficient B cells identified cyclin O (Ccno), a direct target of AhR, as a top candidate affected by AhR deficiency.
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Long-term dietary intake influences the structure and activity of the trillions of microorganisms residing in the human gut, but it remains unclear how rapidly and reproducibly the human gut microbiome responds to short-term macronutrient change. Here we show that the short-term consumption of diets composed entirely of animal or plant products alters microbial community structure and overwhelms inter-individual differences in microbial gene expression. The animal-based diet increased the abundance of bile-tolerant microorganisms (Alistipes, Bilophila and Bacteroides) and decreased the levels of Firmicutes that metabolize dietary plant polysaccharides (Roseburia, Eubacterium rectale and Ruminococcus bromii). Microbial activity mirrored differences between herbivorous and carnivorous mammals, reflecting trade-offs between carbohydrate and protein fermentation. Foodborne microbes from both diets transiently colonized the gut, including bacteria, fungi and even viruses. Finally, increases in the abundance and activity of Bilophila wadsworthia on the animal-based diet support a link between dietary fat, bile acids and the outgrowth of microorganisms capable of triggering inflammatory bowel disease. In concert, these results demonstrate that the gut microbiome can rapidly respond to altered diet, potentially facilitating the diversity of human dietary lifestyles.
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How the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) regulates dendritic-cell (DC) differentiation is unknown. We show that activation of AhR by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) caused enhanced differentiation from immature DCs (IDCs) to mature DCs (MDCs) in the bone-marrow-derived DCs (BMDC) from B6 wild-type mice but not in the BMDCs from AhR-null mice as indicated by the expression of CD11c and class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Enhanced maturation of BMDCs was associated with elevated levels of CD86 and an increased AhR-dependent nuclear accumulation of nuclear factor-kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cell (NF-κB) member RelB in BMDCs. The expression of interleukin (IL) 10 and chemokine DC-CK1 was suppressed, whereas that of CXCL2, CXCL3 and IL-22 was significantly increased in AhR-activated BMDCs. Furthermore, TCDD induced expression of the regulatory enzymes indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-like 1 (IDO2). Increased expression of IDO2 was associated with coexpression of the cell-surface marker CCR6. Interestingly, mRNA expression of the chemokine receptor CCR6 was drastically decreased in AhR-null IDCs and MDCs. Overall, these data demonstrate that AhR modifies the maturation of BMDCs associated with the induction of the regulatory enzyme IDO and altered expression of cytokine, chemokines and DC-specific surface markers and receptors.Immunology and Cell Biology advance online publication, 3 September 2013; doi:10.1038/icb.2013.43.
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The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor historically studied for its role in environmental chemical-mediated toxicity and carcinogenicity. In the last 5 years, however, it has become clear that the AhR, presumably activated by endogenous ligand(s), plays an important role in immune system development and function. Other articles in this edition summarize AhR function during T cell and antigen-presenting cell development and function, including the effects of AhR activation on dendritic cell function, T cell skewing, inflammation, and autoimmune disease. Here, we focus on AhR expression and function during B cell differentiation. Studies exploiting immunosuppressive environmental chemicals to probe the role of the AhR in humoral immunity are also reviewed to illustrate the multiple levels at which a "nominally activated" AhR could control B cell differentiation from the hematopoietic stem cell through the pro-B cell, mature B cell, and antibody-secreting plasma cell stages. Finally, a putative role for the AhR in the basic biology of B cell malignancies, many of which have been associated with exposure to environmental AhR ligands, is discussed.
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Inflammation is viewed as the major cause for the development of different diseases like cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, osteoporosis, RA, IBD, COPD, asthma, and CNS relate diseases such as depression, parkinson's disease and this fervent phenomenon provides space for understanding different inflammatory markers. Increasing evidence has declared the outcome of inflammatory pathways dysregulation resulting in many symptoms of chronic diseases. The detection of transcription factors such as NF-κB, STAT and their gene products such as COX-2, cytokines, chemokines and chemokine receptors have laid molecular foundation for the important role of inflammation in chronic diseases in which the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) is reported as a major mediator which makes possible way for the development of new therapeutic approaches using synthetic and natural compounds that might eventually decrease the prevalence of these diseases. Even if many inflammatory markers like TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, IL-8 and C-reactive protein (CRP) are reported to be the major key factors with proved efficacy in several inflammatory diseases ,IL-1 and TNF-α are the important cytokines that can induce the expression of NF-kB which is the potential target in these inflammatory diseases. This review aims to explore how some drugs and natural compounds show their modulatary activity on inflammatory pathways, and chronic inflammatory markers in these inflammatory diseases.
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Flavonoids, polyphenolic compounds that exist widely in plants, inhibit cell proliferation and increase cell differentiation in many cancerous and noncancerous cell lines. Because terminal differentiation of preadipocytes to adipocytes depends on proliferation of both pre- and postconfluent preadipocytes, we predicted that flavonoids would inhibit adipogenesis in the 3T3-L1 preadipocyte cell line. The flavonoids genistein and naringenin inhibited proliferation of preconfluent preadipocytes in a time- and dose-dependent manner. When added to 2-day postconfluent preadipocytes at the induction of differentiation, genistein inhibited mitotic clonal expansion, triglyceride accumulation, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma expression, but naringenin had no effect. The antiadipogenic effect of genistein was not due to inhibition of insulin receptor subtrate-1 tyrosine phosphorylation. When added 3 days after induction of differentiation, neither flavonoid inhibited differentiation. In fully differentiated adipocytes, genistein increased basal and epinephrine-induced lipolysis, but naringenin had no significant effects. These data demonstrate that genistein and naringenin, despite structural similarity, have differential effects on adipogenesis and adipocyte lipid metabolism.
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Kale (Brassica oleracea L. and other species) is considered a rich source of important minerals. Kale at the early stage of leaf development is assumed to contain higher levels of minerals than at maturity. However, literature supporting this assumption is scarce. In this study, the concentrations of macronutrients [potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P)] and micronutrients [sodium (Na), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu)] either essential to plant growth and development, or important to human health, were determined. Three kale cultivars (green leaf ‘Dwarf Blue Curled’ and red leaf ‘Scarlet’ in B. oleracea, and green leaf with purple midvein ‘Red Russian’ in Brassica napus) were evaluated at five different leaf developmental stages; cotyledon [microgreen 1 (MG1)], two true leaf [microgreen 2 (MG2)], four true leaf [baby leaf 1 (BL1)], six true leaf [baby leaf 2 (BL2)], and adult. As kale matured, total mineral (ash) decreased from 14.6–19.1% at the microgreen stages to 3.9–6.4% at the adult stage, on a dry weight (DW) basis. Microgreen kale contained higher concentrations of most minerals than adult kale, on a DW basis, in all cultivars. On a fresh weight (FW) (as consumed) basis, the highest level of total mineral concentration was detected at baby leaf stage 1 (1.3–1.7%) and there was no difference between microgreen and adult stages. Fresh microgreens generally contained lower K, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Zn than fresh baby leaves, and lower concentrations of Ca and Mg and higher Na compared with fresh adult kale. Overall, water content deceased from 95.1% at MG1 stage to 80.0% at adult stage. The variation in water content and mineral accumulation during leaf development might contribute to the discrepancy. In addition, fresh leaves of ‘Scarlet’ contained higher concentration of total minerals than that of ‘Dwarf Blue Curled’ or ‘Red Russian’. Although ‘Dwarf Blue Curled’ and ‘Red Russian’ are different species, their mineral content profile during leaf development was similar. Together, cultivar and leaf developmental stage influenced mineral content in kale. © 2017, American Society for Horticultural Science. All rights reserved.
Article
Mustard, beet and parsley were grown to harvest time under selected LEDs: 638 + 660 + 731 + 0% 445 nm; 638 + 660 + 731 + 8% 445 nm; 638 + 660 + 731 + 16% 445 nm; 638 + 660 + 731 + 25% 445 nm; 638 + 660 + 731 + 33% 445 nm. From 1.2 to 4.3 times higher concentrations of chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids, α- and β-carotenes, lutein, violaxanthin and zeaxanthin was found under blue 33% treatment in comparison to lower blue light dosages. Meanwhile, the accumulation of metabolites, which were not directly connected with light reactions, such as tocopherols, was more influenced by lower (16%) blue light dosage, increasing about 1.3 times. Thus, microgreen enrichment of carotenoid and xanthophyll pigments may be achieved using higher (16–33%) blue light intensities. Changes in metabolite quantities were not the result of changes of other carotenoid concentration, but were more influenced by light treatment and depended on the species. Significant quantitative changes in response to blue light percentage were obtained for both directly and not directly light-dependent metabolite groups.
Book
Fruits, Vegetables, and Herbs: Bioactive Foods in Health Promotion brings together experts from around the world working on the cutting edge of research on fruit, vegetables, and herbs in health promotion. Offering a timely, concise, scientific appraisal of the efficacy of key foods to prevent disease and improve the quality of life, Fruits, Vegetables, and Herbs: Bioactive Foods in Health Promotion provides valuable evidence-based conclusions and recommendations. This reference text will encourage further research on the potential benefits of fruits and vegetables in health and disease prevention, providing a basis for possible dietary modifications by the government and the public. Provides insight on bioactive constituents found in fruits and vegetables that can be further studied to improve health and disease resistance or incorporated into other food products and used as alternative medicines and dietary supplements Includes valuable information on how fruits are important sources of bioflavonoids and nonnutritive bioactives that modify body functions Offers a conclusion or summary of evidence at the end of each chapter to enhance understanding of new approaches in the field.
Article
The impact of flavonoids has been discussed on the relative viability of bacterial groups in human microbiota. This study was aimed to compare the modulation of various flavonoids, including quercetin, catechin and puerarin, on gut microbiota culture in vitro, and analyze the interactions between bacterial species using fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS) as carbon source under the stress of flavonoids. Three plant flavonoids, quercetin, catechin, and puerarin, were added into multispecies culture to ferment for 24 h, respectively. The bacterial 16S rDNA amplicons were sequenced, and the composition of microbiota community was analyzed. The results revealed that the tested flavonoids, quercetin, catechin, and puerarin, presented different activities of regulating gut microbiota; flavonoid aglycones, but not glycosides, may inhibit growth of certain species. Quercetin and catechin shaped unique biological webs. Bifidobacterium spp. was the center of the biological web constructed in this study.
Chapter
Among all the carotenoids which are present in the photosynthetic membranes of higher plants, only three undergo rapid, light-induced changes in their concentration. These are the three xanthophylls of the xanthophyll cycle and they undergo intercon versions induced by changes in light intensity. Furthermore, the acclimation of photosynthetic organs to high light involves a strong increase in the total sum of these three xanthophylls. Both the interconversions among the components of the xanthophyll cycle and the increase of the size of the total xanthophyll cycle pool occur in response to light stress. Plants are subjected to light stress in the field in high light habitats, as well as in habitats where they encounter other environmental stress factors in combination with light. The characteristics of the xanthophyll cycle are discussed here in relation to its specific association with high light stress and its recently described function in a photoprotective process of fundamental importance.
Article
Microgreens are specialty leafy crops harvested just above the roots after the first true leaves have emerged and are consumed fresh. Broccoli (Brassica oleacea var. italica) microgreens can accumulate significant concentrations of cancer-fighting glucosinolates as well as being a rich source of other antioxidant phytochemicals. Lightemitting diodes (LEDs) now provide the ability to measure impacts of narrow-band wavelengths of light on seedling physiology. The carotenoid zeaxanthin has been hypothesized to be a blue light receptor in plant physiology. The objective of this study was to measure the impact of short-duration blue light on phytochemical compounds, which impart the nutritional quality of sprouting broccoli microgreens. Broccoli microgreens were grown in a controlled environment under LEDs using growing pads. Seeds were cultured on the pads submerged in deionized water and grown under a 24-hour photoperiod using red (627 nm)/blue (470 nm) LEDs (350 μmol.m -2.s-1) at an air temperature of 23 0C. On emergence of the first true leaf, a complete nutrient solution with 42 mg.L-1 of nitrogen (N) was used to submerge the growing pads. At 13 days after sowing, broccoli plantlets were grown under either: 1) red and blue LED light (350 μmol.m -2.s -1); or 2) blue LED light (41 μmol.m-2.s -1) treatments for 5 days before harvest. The experiment was repeated three times. Frozen shoot tissues were freeze-dried and measured for carotenoids, chlorophylls, glucosinolates, and mineral elements. Comparing the two LED light treatments revealed the shortduration blue LED treatment before harvest significantly increased shoot tissue β-carotene (P ≤ 0.05), violaxanthin (P ≤ 0.01), total xanthophyll cycle pigments (P ≤ 0.05), glucoraphanin (P ≤ 0.05), epiprogoitrin (P ≤ 0.05), aliphatic glucosinolates (P ≤ 0.05), essential micronutrients of copper (Cu) (P = 0.02), iron (Fe) (P ≤ 0.01), boron (B), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), sodium (Na), zinc (Zn) (P ≤ 0.001), and the essential macronutrients of calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) (P ≤ 0.001). Results demonstrate management of LED lighting technology through preharvest, short-duration blue light acted to increase important phytochemical compounds influencing the nutritional value of broccoli microgreens.
Article
Polyphenols are the most abundant phytochemicals in fruits, vegetables and plant-derived beverages. Recent findings suggest that polyphenols display the ability to reverse adverse epigenetic regulation involved in pathological conditions, such as obesity, metabolic disorder, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases and various forms of cancer. Epigenetics, defined as heritable changes to the transcriptome, independent from those occurring in the genome, includes DNA methylation, histone modifications, and post transcriptional gene regulation by non-coding RNAs. Sinergistically and cooperatively these processes regulate gene expression by changing chromatin organization and DNA accessibility. Such induced epigenetic changes can be inherited during cell division, resulting in permanent maintenance of the acquired phenotype, but they may also occur throughout an individual life-course and may ultimately influence phenotypic outcomes (health and disease risk). In the last decade, a number of studies have shown that nutrients can affect metabolic traits by altering the structure of chromatin and directly regulate both transcription and translational processes. In this context, dietary polyphenol-targeted epigenetics becomes an attractive approach for disease prevention and intervention. Here, we will review how polyphenols, including flavonoids, curcuminoids and stilbenes, modulate the establishment and maintenance of key epigenetic marks, thereby influencing gene expression and, hence, disease risk and health.
Chapter
In photosynthetic systems, carotenoids act as light-harvesting molecules and provide photoprotection of the plant and bacterial species (Cogdell and Frank 1987; Siefermann-Harms 1985). In many cases, themanner in which aparticular carotenoid functions depends on its photochemical properties. Carotenoids participate in an abundance of photochemical reactions including singlet-singlet energy transfer, triplet-triplet energy transfer, oxidation, reduction and isomerisation. Carotenoid molecules are capable of reporting information about the course of these reactions from readily observable changes in many of their molecular spectroscopic properties.
Article
The kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1)-nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling axis serves as a "master regulator" in response to oxidative/electrophilic stresses and chemical insults through the coordinated induction of a wide array of cytoprotective genes. Therefore, activation of Nrf2 is considered to be an important approach for preventing chronic diseases triggered by stresses and toxins, including cancer. Despite extensive studies suggested that the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway is subject to multiple layers of regulation at the transcriptional, translational, and post-translational levels, the potential epigenetic regulation of Nrf2 and Keap1 has begun to be recognized only in recent years. Epigenetic modifications, heritable alterations in gene expression that occur without changes in the primary DNA sequence, have been reported to be profoundly involved in oxidative stress responses. In this review, we discuss the latest findings regarding the epigenetic regulation of Keap1-Nrf2 signaling by DNA methylation, histone modification, and microRNAs. The crosstalk among these epigenetic modifications in the regulation of Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathways is also discussed. Studies of the epigenetic modification of Nrf2 and Keap1 have not only enhanced our understanding of this complex cellular defense system but have also provided potential new therapeutic targets for the prevention of certain diseases. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Inc.