Building blue infrastructure: Assessing the key environmental issues and priority areas for ecological engineering initiatives in Australia's metropolitan embayments

Abstract

Ecological engineering principles are increasingly being applied to develop multifunctional artificial structures or rehabilitated habitats in coastal areas. Ecological engineering initiatives are primarily driven by marine scientists and coastal managers, but often the views of key user groups, which can strongly influence the success of projects, are not considered. We used an online survey and participatory mapping exercise to investigate differences in priority goals, sites and attitudes towards ecological engineering between marine scientists and coastal managers as compared to other stakeholders. The surveys were conducted across three Australian cities that varied in their level of urbanisation and environmental pressures. We tested the hypotheses that, relative to other stakeholders, marine scientists and coastal managers will: 1) be more supportive of ecological engineering; 2) be more likely to agree that enhancement of biodiversity and remediation of pollution are key priorities for ecological engineering; and 3) identify different priority areas and infrastructure or degraded habitats for ecological engineering. We also tested the hypothesis that 4) perceptions of ecological engineering would vary among locations, due to environmental and socio-economic differences. In all three harbours, marine scientists and coastal managers were more supportive of ecological engineering than other users. There was also greater support for ecological engineering in Sydney and Melbourne than Hobart. Most people identified transport infrastructure, in busy transport hubs (i.e. Circular Quay in Sydney, the Port in Melbourne and the Waterfront in Hobart) as priorities for ecological engineering, irrespective of their stakeholder group or location. There were, however, significant differences among locations in what people perceive as the key priorities for ecological engineering (i.e. biodiversity in Sydney and Melbourne vs. pollution in Hobart). Greater consideration of these location-specific differences is essential for effective management of artificial structures and rehabilitated habitats in urban embayments.

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Researcharticle
Buildingblueinfrastructure:AssessingthekeyenvironmentalissuesandpriorityareasforecologicalengineeringinitiativesinAustralia'smetropolitan
embayments
E.M.A.Straina,b,c,∗
beth.strain@unimelb.edu.au
R.L.Morrisc
M.J.Bishopa,d
E.Tannera,e
P.Steinberga,b
S.E.Swearerc
C.MacLeodf
K.A.Alexanderf,g
aSydneyInstituteofMarineScience,19ChowderBayRd,Mosman,NSW,2088,Australia
bCentreforMarineBio-Innovation,SchoolofBiological,EarthandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,NSW,2052,Australia
cNationalCentreforCoastsandClimateandSchoolofBioSciences,TheUniversityofMelbourne,Melbourne,VIC,3010,Australia
dDepartmentofBiologicalSciences,MacquarieUniversity,Sydney,NSW,2109,Australia
eSchoolofGeosciences,UniversityofSydney,Sydney,NSW,2006,Australia
fInstituteforMarineandAntarcticStudies,UniversityofTasmania,Hobart,TAS7001,Australia
gCentreforMarineSocioecology,UniversityofTasmania,Hobart,TAS7014,Australia
∗Correspondingauthor.SydneyInstituteofMarineScience,19ChowderBayRd,Mosman,NSW,2088,Australia.
Abstract
Ecologicalengineering principlesareincreasinglybeing appliedtodevelopmultifunctionalartificialstructuresorrehabilitatedhabitatsin coastalareas.Ecologicalengineeringinitiativesareprimarilydrivenbymarine
scientistsand coastalmanagers,butoften theviews ofkeyuser groups,whichcan stronglyinfluencethe success ofprojects,arenotconsidered.Weusedanonline surveyandparticipatorymapping exercisetoinvestigate
differencesinprioritygoals,sitesandattitudestowardsecologicalengineeringbetweenmarinescientists andcoastal managersas comparedto otherstakeholders.ThesurveyswereconductedacrossthreeAustralian cities
that varied in their level of urbanisati on and environmental pressures. We tested the hypotheses that, relative to other stakehold ers, marine scientists and coastal managers will: 1) be more sup portive of ecological
engineering; 2) be more likely to agr ee that enhancement of biodiversity and rem ediation of pollution are key priorities for eco logical engineering; and 3) identify different  priority areas and infrastructure or degrad ed
habitatsforecologicalengineering.Wealsotestedthehypothesisthat4)perceptionsofecologicalengineeringwouldvaryamonglocations,duetoenvironmentalandsocio-economicdifferences.Inallthreeharbours,marine
scientists and coastal managers we re more supportive of ecological engineering than oth er users. There was also greater supportsupport for eco logical engineering in Sydney and Melbourne than Hob art. Most people
identifiedtransport infrastructure,inbusytransporthubs(i.e.CircularQuayinSydney,thePortinMelbourneandtheWaterfrontin Hobart)asprioritiesfor ecologicalengineering,irrespective oftheir stakeholdergroupor
location. There were, however,significant differences among locationsin what people perceive as the key priorities for ecological engineering (i.e. biodiversity in Sydney and Melbourne vs. pollution in Hobart). Greater

1Introduction
Human population growth is accele rating and is forecast to reach 10 billion by 205 0 (Bloom,2011; Lutz and Sa mir, 2010). Muc h of the recent human population growth is in vulne rable coastal regions and this trend is
predictedtocontinue(Martínezetal.,2007;SmallandNicholls,2003).Currentestimates suggestthat>40%ofthe globalpopulationand60%ofitslargest cities(>5 millionpeople)are foundwithin100 kmofthecoast(Firth et al.,
2016).Coastalurbanisationhasbeen linkedwithextensivelossandfragmentationofnaturalhabitatsandspecies (McKinney,2008),theintroductionofpollutants, suchasheavymetals,nutrients,artificiallightand sound(Halpernet
al.,2008),andan increasing needforbuilt infrastructure (Daffornetal., 2015). Builtinfrastructureservesa diversity of purposes, suchascoastal defence (e.g. breakwaters, seawalls, groynes), transport orrecreation(e.g.marinas,
piers,ports),services(e.g.stormdrainsandcanals)orindustry(e.g.pipesandaquaculturecages),(Strainetal.,2018).
Builtinfrastructure impactsonnaturalecosystemsinavarietyofways,includinglossofnatural habitats(Heeryetal.,2017),andthemodificationofecologicalconnectivity (Bishopetal.,2017),ecosystemfunctioning(Mayer-
Pintoetal.,2015Mayer-Pintoetal. ,2018 (Mayer-Pintoetal.,2018) (Mayer-PintoM,Co leVJ,JohnstonEL,BugnotA,HurstH,Airoldi L,GlasbyTM,DaffornKA.Functionaland structuralresponsestomarineurbanisa tion.EnvironmentalResearchLetters.
2018Jan5;13(1):014009.))andservices(Airoldietal.,2015),aswellasthephysico-chemicalenvironment(Hinkeletal.,2014;KittingerandAyers,2010).Inresponse,thereis growinginterestin‘ecologicalengineering’,the application
ofecologicalprinciplesto mitigate the negative impacts ofbuiltinfrastructure(ChapmanandUnderwood,2011;FrancisandLorimer,2011;Mitsch,2012).Ecologicalengineeringapproaches include: (1)modifying theattributesof
neworexistingbuiltinfrastructurebyaddingstructuralcomplexity,buildingwithmoreeco-friendlymaterials,orseedingwithhabitat-formingorganisms(termed‘hard’ ecologicalengineering;ChapmanandUnderwood,2011,Firthet
al., 2016 Firth et al., 2014 (Firth et al., 20 14))(Firth LB, Thompson RC, Bohn K, Abbiati M, Airoldi L, Bouma TJ, Bozzeda F, Ceccherelli VU,Colang elo MA, Evans A, Ferrario F. Between a rock and a hard plac e: environmental and engineering
considerations when designing coasta l defence structures. Coastal Engineering . 2014 May 1;87:122-35.); (2) replacing built infrastructure withrestored or created habitats such as saltmarshes, mangroves or oyster reefs(‘soft’ecological
engineering;Temmerman,Meireetal.,2013;Morris,Konlechneretal.,2018);and(3)combining restoredor createdhabitatswithbuiltinfrastructure,forexampleplanted wetlandsbehindarocksill(‘hybrid’ecological engineering,
ChapmanandUnderwood,2011).Althoughthe ecologicalobjectivesandtypeofenvironmentwillinfluencethechoiceofapproach,theoverall objectiveisthesame:tobuildmulti-functionalinfrastructureorrestoredegradedhabitats
tothebenefitofbothhumansandnature(Mitsch,2012).
Ecologicalengineeringprojectsareoftendrivenbymarinescientistsandcoastalmanagers,however,marineprofessionalshavesignificantlydifferentperceptionsonenvironmentalissuescomparedtootherstakeholdergroups
(Easmanetal., 2018). Responsesofstakeholders to new policies or conservation projectscanvarydepending on a range of socio-economic factors,suchaseducation, occupation or income (Derkzen et al., 2017). The uptake, and
thereforethe success ofecologicalengineeringinitiativesis dependent ongainingbroadstakeholdersupportsupport(Gelcichet al.,2008).For example, anecologicalengineering projectdrivenbymarine scientists/coastalmanagers
that fails to get social licenceis unlikely to be implemented at multiple sites. Conversely, a project that proceeds without input from marine scientists andcoastal managers may lackthe expert knowledge required for successful
implementation.TheLivingBreakwatersproject, which couplescoastalprotectionwith habitat creation, andis to beimplementedon Staten Island,USAin 2020, hasgainedwidespreadsupportsupportfromthe local community asa
resultofits extensive consultationprocesswith marine scientistsand other user groups, and has stimulated interest in implementation of similar projects asfarawayasEurope(rebuildbydesign.org/our-work/all-proposals/winning-
projects/ny-living-breakwaters).Withinecologicalengineeringprojects however,thereis relativelylittleresearch onhow theperceptionsand prioritiesofmarine andcoastalmanagers differfromthose ofother stakeholders, orwhat
thefactorsarethatinfluencetheviewsofthedifferentstakeholdergroups(Evansetal.,2017;Grayetal.,2017;Kienkeretal.,2018;Morrisetal.,2016bMor risetal.,2016 (correcttoMorrisetal.,2016)).
Thelevel ofsupportsupportforecologicalengineeringcan also differ between geographic locations (Morris etal.,2016b (Correctto Morris et al., 2016);Morrisetal.,2016;Evanset al., 2017; Kienker et al., 2018). Forexample,
recentresearchin Australia,NewZealand andtheUK hasdemonstratedthatmost peoplesurveyedwereinterestedintheconceptofecologicalengineering(Morriset al.,2016b; Morris etal.,2016;Evansetal.,2017; Kienker et al.,
2018).However,residents from moremodifiedembayments(>50%of harbour covered byseawall),in Sydney and Aucklandweremoresupportiveof ecological engineering inthemarine environment than residents inlessmodified
embayments (<40% of harbourcovered by seawalls) in Hobart and Tauranga(Kienker et al., 2018). People in more urbanised locations could be moreinterested in the concept of ecological engineering becauseof greater public
exposurethrough mediaandresearch(Morris etal.,2016aMorrisetal .,2016 (CorrecttoMorris etal.,2016)),increased connectionwithitswaterways(Kienkeretal.,2018),or highersocio-economicstatus(Ambrosius andGilderbloom,
2015;Berengueret al., 2005). Alternatively, the views of residents from different locationscouldbeinfluencedbythepopulation density,citysizeand/or other environmental pressures (Madureiraet al., 2015, 2018). Interestingly,
Kienkeretal.(2018)showedthatmostpeopleagreedthatecologicalengineeringwasimportantforimprovingbiodiversity,nurseryhabitat,waterquality,stabilisingtheshoreline,limitingdamagetoexistinghabitatsandreducingthe
abundancesof invasivespecies,irrespective oftheir locationorstakeholder group.However,Kienkeretal.(2018) didnotdetermine whether therewereany differencesamongstakeholdergroups orlocations,in theirperceptionsof
considerationoftheselocation-specificdifferencesisessentialforeffectivemanagementofartificialstructuresandrehabilitatedhabitatsinurbanembayments.
Keywords:Marineurbandevelopment;Eco-engineering;Spatialplanning;Artificialstructures;Coastalandmarinehabitats

thekeyenvironmentalissuesthatcouldbeaddressedusingecologicalengineering.
Participatorymapping is an approach that canbe used to represent the spatial knowledge of local communities (Sletto et al., 2009). It is usedin land- and sea-scape planningas well as conservation and natural resource
management (Sletto et al., 2009). Participatory mapping h as been applied to conservation in a wide range o f contexts including incorporation of local knowl edge (Aswani and Lauer,2006) , identifying conflicts between use and
conservation(Alexanderetal.,2012)andidentifyingcommunityvaluesandaspirations(BrownandWeber,2012;KlainandChan,2012;Raymondet al.,2009).Studieshavealsousedparticipatorymapping toidentifypriorityareasfor
terrestrialgreeningprogramsinurbancities(DeRidderetal.,2004;Tyrväinenetal.,2007;VandenBerg etal.,2007).Todate, however,nostudies haveused thistechniqueto identifythepriority sitesfordifferent stakeholders and
locationsinvolvedinmarineecologicalengineeringprojects.Thisinformationisimportantforensuringthesuccessofanyfutureecologicalengineeringinitiatives.
Inthisstudyweusedanonlinesurveyandparticipatorymappingexerciseto:(1)examinedifferencesintheperceptionsofmarinescientists/coastalmanagers,versusotherstakeholderstowardsmarineecologicalengineering;
and(2) identify anydifferencesinthe objectives and sitesforecologicalengineeringthesetwo groups would liketo see prioritised. The studywasreplicatedacross three Australian metropolitan embayments (Sydney Harbour,Port
PhillipBayandtheDerwentEstuary)thathavedifferentlevelsofmodification bybuiltinfrastructureandotherenvironmentalpressures (TableS1).Wehypothesizedthat comparedtootherstakeholders,marine scientistsandcoastal
managers would be more suppor tive of ecological engineering, be more likel y to consider biodiversity and remediation o f pollution as key issues for ecological engin eering, and identify different priority areas  and structures for
ecologicalengineering.Wealso predicted thatperceptionsandpriorities for ecologicalengineeringwoulddifferbetween thethreelocationsbecause of differencesinurbanisation,environmentalpressuresand othersocio-economic
factors. We discuss how the information provided by differe nt stakeholder groups through such participatory exercis es might be integrated in to environmental decision making . We then use the inform ation generated by this
participatorymappingexercisetoidentifypotentialecologicalengineeringoptionsforeachofthelocations.
2Methods
2.1Studysites
ThesurveywasundertakeninthreeAustraliancities(Sydney,MelbourneandHobart),eachofwhichissituatedonamajorestuaryorembayment.Thesecitiesdifferintheirphysicalandhumanpopulationsize,theirhistoryof
harbourdevelopmentanduse,presentdayindustry,theenvironmentalpressurestheyexertonestuarine ecosystems,aswellastheir populationdemographics(TableS1).Thesurveysweredistributedtorespondentslivingin,working
inorvisitingareaswithintwokilometresoftheforeshoretotargetpeoplewhoactivelyuseditswaterways(Kienkeretal.,2018).
2.2Studydesign
Thisstudyusednon-probabilisticsampling,includingpurposivesamplingformarinescientistsandcoastalmanagersandconveniencesamplingforotherstakeholderswhoareeasiertoreach(Blairetal.,2013).Anonline survey
andamappingexercisewereopentothepublicforfivemonthsbetween25Mayand22December2017.Wechosetouseaninternet-basedsurveyandmappingtooltoreachasbroadanaudienceaspossible.Allparticipantsanswered
thequestionsthroughSurveyMonkey(www.surveymonkey.com)andenteredthespatialdatadirectlyintothemappingtoolMaptionnaire(maptionnaire.com/).Participantswererecruitedthroughadvertisementsoncommunityboards,
businesscards,emails, socialmedia,newsletters,mailing lists,andin-personusing face-to-face surveysin four suburbs(twolower socioeconomic andtwohigher socio-economic suburbs) alongeachharbour foreshore (Kienker etal.,
2018).Specificusergroups (i.e.harbourmanagersandmarine scientists)werefurthertargetedthroughdirectemailsandface-to-facesurveysatmeetings,and socialevents (Kienkeret al.,2018). Allrespondentswere provided witha
participantinformationsheet(ethicsapprovalreferencenumber
H16175)
beforeagreeingtoundertakethesurvey(Fig.S2).
Theparticipantswereshownexamplesofecologicalengineeringinitiatives(Fig.S3),andasked iftheyweresupportiveoftheconcept(yesorno).Theyindicated whethertheywereamarinescientistor acoastalmanager(yes
or no) and then added point marker s indicating specific locations in which they  would like ecological engineering to be appl ied to online maps of Sydney Harbour (Sydn ey), PortPh illip Bay (Melbourne), or the Derwent Estua ry
(Hobart).Theparticipantscouldplacemultiplemarkers. Foreach point, they were asked to name thearea,thetypeof structure or degraded habitat (e.g. beaches, oyster reefs, mangrovessaltmarshes,seeTable S4forfulllist), to
which ecological engineering shou ld be applied. For each m arker, participants were asked to provi de reasons as to why they would like ecological engineering to occur th ere. The phrases “enhancement of biodiversity” and
“remediationofpollution” were provided to participantstoexplore any differences in perceptionbetween key stakeholders. However,the question was left open-ended tocapture further insights and complexityofresponses from
participants.
2.3Dataanalysis
Participantsidentified36 differenttypesofstructureordegradedhabitatsastargetsforecologicalengineering,which wereclassifiedintosix categories(transport,industry,coastaldefence, service,degradedhabitatorreef)
forthe purposesof the analyses (TableS4). Using generalisedlinearmodels,wetestedfor effects of stakeholder type (marine scientistsand coastalmanagersvsothers)on: supportsupportforecological engineering (yes or no), the

typesofstructuresidentifiedassitesforecologicalengineering (transport, industry,coastal defence, service, degraded habitat or reef), and the purpose of ecological engineering as enhancing biodiversity (yes or no) or mitigating
pollution/remediation of water quality (yes or no). These effects were compared across the three locations (Sydney,Melbourne and Hobart,fixedfactor = 3levels).For all analyses, we tested and found no effects of over-dispersion
usingtheAERlibrary.AllanalyseswereconductedinR(www.R-project.org).
Wecross-checkedthatthe locationsnamedbyparticipantsastargets forecological engineeringwereconsistentwiththelocation ofpointstheyhadplacedonthe maps.Where therewereinconsistenciesthepointwas moved
tothecentreofthelocationgivenbyname.Thesenamedpoints,aswellasthosethatwereun-namedweremarkedandusedtoproduceheatmaps.Pointdataaddedtothemapsbythepublichavebeenshowntoaccumulatebetween
3and6 km,soacircularsearchradiusandfixeddistancebandof5 kmwere usedfortheanalysesinthispaper.Kerneldensitiesareinfluencedbythenumberofpointsadded,sodensityanalyseswerestandardisedbysubtractingthe
meangriddensityanddividingbythegridstandarddeviation.Kerneldensitieswereplottedin5natural(jenks)breaksintervalbandsforthehotspotheatmaps.AllanalyseswereperformedinArcGIS10.2(ESRI,RedlandsCA,USA).
3Results
3.1Respondents
Intotal,606peoplecompletedthesurvey(217inSydney,157inMelbourneand232inHobart)and421peoplecompletedthemappingexercise(153inSydney,100inMelbourneandin168Hobart).Thisnumberofresponses
iscomparabletoother,similar,publicperceptionstudies(Evansetal.,2017;Morrisetal.,2016bM orrisetal.,2016 (CorrecttoMorrisetal.,2016)).
3.2SupportSupportforecologicalengineering
Thesurveyindicatedmostrespondents(>70%)supportedsupportedecologicalengineering.Inallthreelocations,marinescientistsandcoastal managerswere,however,moresupportiveoftheconceptofecologicalengineering
thanpeopleintheotherusergroups(Fig.1,Table1).TherewasalsogreatersupportsupportforecologicalengineeringinSydneyandMelbournethanHobart(Fig.1,Table1).
Table1Resultsofgeneralisedlinearmodellingtestingfordifferencesbetweenstakeholdergroups(marinescientists/managersvsothers)andlocations(SydneyvsMelbournevsHobart)inparticipantsupportfor
ecologicalengineering(yes/no).Significantp-values(<0.05)areindicatedinbold-print.
alt-text:Table1
Factor df Deviance Residualdf ResidualDeviance P-value
Null 606 295.75
Location 3 544.35 603 295.75 <0.001
Stakeholder 1 8.16 602 287.58 0.005
Fig.1Percentageofmarinescientists/coastalmanag ersandotherusersthatsupportedecol ogicalengineeringofbuiltstructuresor degradedhabitatsina)Sydney,b)Melbourneandc)Hobart.
alt-text:Fig.1

3.3Keylocationsidentifiedforecologicalengineering
Theareas mostfrequentlyidentifiedbythe789 pointsassitesforecologicalengineering werecentraltransporthubs. Thispatternwasseenacross allrespondents,aswellasfor marinescientists/managers.Thesetransport
hubsincluded Circular QuayinSydney (whichaccountedfor 18.6% ofall marked points,and33.33% ofpointsfrom marinescientists/managers), thePort ofMelbournein Melbourne(10.86%of allmarkedpoints;24.12% formarine
scientists/managers) and the WaterfrontinHobart (20.71% of all marked points; 37.25% for marinescientists/managers (Fig. 2, TableS5). The other areasof interest for the participantswere Blackwattle Bay (9.75% ofallmarked
points)inSydney,StKildabeach(9.14%ofallmarkedpoints)inMelbourneandtheZincworks(7.77%ofallmarkedpoints)inHobart,(Fig.2,TableS5).
3.4Priorityinfrastructureidentifiedforecologicalengineering
Thepointdata showedthattransportinfrastructure(jetties,terminals,ferry,piers,wharves,marinas, docks,ports,shipyardsandyachtclubs)wasconsistentlyidentifiedbymarinescientists/coastal managersandotherusers,
inallthreelocations,astheprioritystructuresforecologicalengineering(Fig.3,Table2).ThiswasfollowedbycoastaldefenceinfrastructureinSydneyandHobartanddegradedhabitatsinMelbourne.
Fig.2Heapmapsshowingprioritysite sidentifiedbymarinescientists/coastalm anagersandotherusersforecological engineeringofartificialstructuresorreh abilitatedhabitatsina)SydneyHarbou r,b)PortPhillipBayandc)DerwentEstuary.Reddotsarepointsfrommarine
scientists/coastalmanagers.Numbered pointsonthemapcorrespondtothena mesinTableS5.(Forinterpretationofthereferencestocolourinthisfigureleg end,thereaderisreferredtotheWebversionofthisarticle.)
alt-text:Fig.2

Table2Resultsofgeneralisedlinearmodellingtestingfordifferencesbetweenstakeholdergroups(marinescientists/managersvsothers)andlocations(Sydneyvs.Melbournevs.Hobart)inthetypesofbuilt
structures/degradedhabitats(transport,vs.coastalvs.industrialvs.reefsvs.degradedhabitats,vs.services)identifiedforecologicalengineering.Significantp-values(<0.05)areindicatedinbold-print.
alt-text:Table2
Factor df Deviance Residualdf ResidualDeviance P-value
Null 662 2503.37
Location 3 1822.84 659 690.53 <0.001
Stakeholder 1 1.94 658 678.59 >0.05
3.5Environmentalprioritiesforecologicalengineering
Thepointdataalsoindicated that the priorities for ecological engineeringdifferedbetween locations but not users (Fig. 4, Table3). In both Sydney and Melbourne, all the participants identified that increasing biodiversity
shouldbethepriorityforecologicalengineering,whereasinHobartmorepeoplewantedtoreducepollutionorincreasewaterquality(Fig.4,Table3)(seeFig.5 (Incorrectcitation)).
Fig.3Thedominantartificialstructures ordegradedhabitatsforecologicaleng ineeringidentifiedbyparticipantsina)S ydney,b)Melbourneandc)Hobart.
alt-text:Fig.3
Fig.4Wordcloudshowingtheparticipantsprioritiesforeco logicalengineeringina)Sydney,b)Melbourneandc)Hobart.
alt-text:Fig.4

Table3Resultsofgeneralisedlinearmodelstestingfordifferencesbetweenstakeholdergroups(marinescientists/managersvsothers)andlocations(SydneyvsMelbournevsHobart)inconsiderationof
“enhancementofbiodiversity”(yes/no)and“remediationofpollutionorincreasewaterquality”(yes/no)askeyprioritiesforecologicalengineering.Significantp-values(<0.05)areindicatedinbold-print.
alt-text:Table3
Factor Df Deviance Residualdf ResidualDeviance P-value
Biodiversity
Null 730 1011.99
Location 3 343.67 727 668.32 <0.001
Stakeholder 1 1.13 726 677.19 >0.05
Pollution
Null 730 1011.99
Location 3 185.14 727 826.86 <0.001
Stakeholder 1 1.15 726 814.71 >0.05
4Discussion
4.1Perceptions,keyenvironmentalissuesandsitesidentifiedbystakeholdersforecologicalengineering
Thereisincreasinginterestin combiningscientificknowledgeandpublicperceptionsto guide urban greening or ecological engineering initiativesin both terrestrial and marine environments (Goddard et al., 2010; Janse and
Konijnendijk,2007;RocaandVillares, 2008;Warrenetal.,2005). Weprovide the firstempiricalevidence,thatdespitethe differences in prior knowledge between stakeholder groups whose professions areactivelyengagedinecological
engineering (i.e. marine scientists  and coastal managers) and those that are not, both groups identifie d the same priority infrastructure, environmental issues and loca tions for ecological engineering initiatives in the marine
environment.Foreachofthree Australian embayments surveyed, mostpeople(>70%) were supportive ofecologicalengineering,however,supportsupportwas positively influenced bypriorknowledgeand differed between locations,
consistentwithotherstudies(Evansetal.,2017;Kienkeretal.,2018).Similarly,acrossthethreelocations,bothgroupsidentifiedtransportinfrastructure(jetties,wharves,marinas,piersandyachtclubs,quays)asthehighestpriorityfor
Fig.5Ecologicalengineeringsolutions proposedforSydneyHarbour,PortPhillipBayandtheDerwentEstuarya)hardso lutionsfortransportandcoastalinfrast ructureinexposedandmodifiedsites,b )hybridsolutionsforcoastalinfrastructu reinmoderatelyexposedandmodified
sitesandc)softsolutionsfordegradedh abitatsforshelteredandlessmodifiedsites. (MoveFig.5under Table4)
alt-text:Fig.5

ecological engineering. This was c losely followed by coastal infrastructure (seawalls, groynes a nd breakwaters) in Sydney and Hobart and degraded habitats  (beaches, saltmarshes, mangroves, seagrasses and oyster r eefs) in
Melbourne.Thisconsensusisvitalforpreventingthefailureofecologicalengineeringproject(Lietal.,2012).
Incontrast, across all three locations, therewere distinct differences in the environmental issues defined by respondentsaskeyobjectives for ecological engineeringinitiatives in the marine environment.Enhancement of
biodiversitywasa greaterpriorityfor peopleinSydney andMelbournethanHobart, where respondents expressedstrongerconcernfor pollutionremediationorincreasingwater quality.Thesetrends coulddemonstratestronglinks
betweenthepeoplesurveyedandtheirknowledge oftheir environment(WalmsleyandLewis,2014). Forexample,studiesinsouth-easternAustraliahavedemonstratedthattransportinfrastructureisassociatedwithsignificantlylower
biodiversity relative to other infras tructure, because of heavy metal and bioci de run-off from the anti-fouling paint couple d with elevated sediment and turbidity leve ls (Dafforn et al., 2012;Fowles et al., 2018). Similarly,survey s of
pollutionlevelshaveshownthatdespitetheirsimilaritiesinindustryanddevelopment,theDerwentEstuaryhadmuchhigherlevels(>10timetheconcentrations)ofheavymetalsinsedimentthaneitherSydneyHarbourorPortPhillip
Bay(Lingetal.,2018).Alternatively,theviewsofresidentsfromdifferentlocationscouldbeinfluencedbytheirexposuretotheconceptsorothersocio-economicfactors(Madureiraetal.,2015,2018).
Inthisstudy,wecombined twotypesofnon-probability sampling– purposiveandconvenience, toprovide crucialinsightsintohowdifferentstakeholdergroupsviewecologicalengineering,acrossthreelocations. Thistype of
samplingcanprovidevaluableinformationforearlystagesofdecision-making,raisingawarenessofthemarineenvironment,andidentifyingkeystakeholderperspectives(BrownandKyttä,2014;Jarvisetal.,2015) however,therecanbe
some problems in gettinga representative sample (Blair et al., 2013). To address these potential limitations, within each harbour location, we sa mpled respondents in a variety of places in cluding foreshore areas, street locations,
shoppingmallsandprivatebusinesses.Inallthreelocations,wealso sampledacrossfourareas withdifferent socio-economicstatus(Kienkeretal.,2018). Overall,we suggestthisapproachallowedustocaptureimportantinformation
aboutthekeyprioritiesandlocationsforfutureecologicalengineeringprojectsinSydney,MelbourneandHobart.
4.2Integrationofparticipatoryplanningintoecologicalengineeringprojects
Weproposethatthemethodsusedinthisstudycouldguidebestpractiseforplanningandmanagingfutureecologicalengineeringinitiatives.Theseprojectsshouldconsiderthegoalsandviewsofthemainstakeholdergroups
suchasmarinescientists/coastalmanagersandotherprivateandpublicusers(Yepsenetal.,2016).Manyframeworksandmethodsforparticipatoryplanninghavebeendevelopedwhichmayassistwiththis,forexamplefor,tidalenergy
arrays(Alexanderetal.,2012),marineprotectedareas(BrownandWeber,2011;Jarvisetal.,2015)terrestrialgreenroofs(JanseandKonijnendijk,2007),tonameafewexamples.However,todate,thesehaverarelybeenappliedtoecological
engineeringprojects.Inthefollowing sectionweshow howthepriority objectivesandsites identifiedthroughparticipatorymapping mightbeusedtodevelop ecologicalengineeringoptionsfor threeAustralianembayments,Sydney
Harbour,PortPhillipBayandtheDerwentEstuary.
4.3EcologicalengineeringoptionsforthethreeAustralianestuaries
In Sydney Harbour,the key  areas of interest for ecological engineerin g to enhance the native biodiversity were Cir cular Quay and Blackwattle Bay (Fig. 5, Table 4 (Fig.5 , Table4)). In both locati ons, the positive effects of
ecologicalengineeringinterventions biodiversityneedtobe temperedbypotentiallynegativeeffects ofthe interventionsonthelongevityoftheinfrastructureandonusers(Fig.5, (Fig. 5,Table4)Table4).Boating infrastructureblocks
lightwhichcan negativelyaffectthegrowthandsurvivorship ofprimaryproducerssuchasmacroalgaeandseagrasses,andmayinsteadfavourthe colonisationof non-nativemarineinvertebrates(ConnellandGlasby,1999;Marzinelli et
al.,2011).Thehard ecologicalengineeringinterventionswhichcouldbeappliedtoboatinginfrastructureincludetheadditionofLEDlights whichpromoteseaweedgrowthinaquaculturepractices,andprevent invertebratefoulingon
ships(Rabbette,1992), or skylights fins andotherenhancementsaddedtoseawallsto provide habitat for fishandinvertebrates(Munsch etal.,2017) and/or the incorporation of soft rope structure to create fishhabitat(HairandBell,
1992).Atthesesitesthebiodiversityonnearbycoastalinfrastructurecanalsobeenhancedbyretrofittingtileswithcreviceandridges(Strainetal.,2018)andflowerpots(whichserveassurrogaterock-pools;Browne&Chapman2014).
Interventionsoncoastalinfrastructurealsohastheadvantagethat,ifplacedintheintertidal,theywillbevisiblefromtheshoreline,creatingpublicinterest.
Table4Ecologicalengineeringsolutionsproposedbymarinescientiststoaddressenvironmentalissuesin,SydneyHarbour,PortPhillipBayandDerwentEstuary.
alt-text:Table4
Site Environmentalpriority Additional
Issues Infrastructure Solution
CircularQuay,SydneyHarbour Biodiversity Publicaccess,safety,exposure
Jetties/Wharves
Pontoons
Seawalls
LEDlights,skylightssoft
Crevice/Ridges,Flowerpots
Biodiversity NA Jetties/Wharves
Pontoons Skylights

BlackwatttleBay,SydneyHarbour Degradedhabitat Mangroves/Saltmarshhybrid
Oysterreef
Seawall Crevices/Ridges,Flowerpots
PortofMelbourne,PortPhillipBay Biodiversity Shipping Piers,Wharves,Pontoon Seedingwithbivalves
StKilda,PortPhillipBay Biodiversity Publicaccess
Piers
Seawalls,Breakwaters
Degradedhabitats
Seedingwithnativeorganismsor
Addingmicrohabitats,Seedingandplanting
Oysterormusselreefs
Waterfront,DerwentEstuary (Extensiveformattingissues.Redo)
Zincworks,DerwentEstuary
Pollution
Pollution
Publicaccess,exposure
Shipping,exposure
Piers,wharves,pontoons,
Seawalls
Piers,wharves,pontoons,
Seawalls
Seedingandplanting
Seedingandplanting
Seedingandplanting
InPortPhillipBay,theareathatreceivedmostinterestasasiteforecologicalengineeringwasatransportationhub,thewerethePortofMelbourne,withbiodiversityenhancementandwaterqualityimprovementidentifiedas
key goals (Fig. 5, Table4)(Fig. 5, Table4). The Port of Melbou rne is the largest container and general car go port in Australasia, therefore any ecolo gical engineering solutions must be sensi tive to maintaining these extensive port
operations.Shippingactivities inPortPhillipBayhave causedconsiderableecologicalimpacts,including theintroductionof >100invasivespeciesthrough transportoforganismsonhullsand inballastwater (Hewitt etal., 1999),the
spreadof which could thenbeexacerbatedbythe extensive artificial structures along theportshoreline(Airoldi etal.,2015). Ecological engineeringstrategiesthatenhancenative organisms,whileexcludinginvasivespecies,would
therefore be beneficial forthe local biodiversity (Dafforn et al., 2012). A promising har d ecological engineering approach cou ld be the seeding of structures with muss els (
Mytilusgalloprovincialis
), a native habitat-forming organism
(Paalvastetal.,2012;Strainetal.,2018).Musselbedscreatefoodandshelterfornumerousothermarineorganisms,whiletakingupspacethatcouldotherwisebecolonisedbynon-nativespecies(Coenetal.,2007).Further,musselscan
improvewaterqualitythroughthefiltrationoflargevolumesofwaterandsuspendedparticles(Denisetal.,1999).
Theother area that received highinterest for ecological engineering interventions in Port Phillip Bay wasthe foreshore of St Kilda,which contains both transportand coastal infrastructure (Fi g. 5, Table4 (Fig. 5, Table 4)).
DespitetheirconcernsStKildabreakwaterisawildlifemanagementcooperativeareaduearesidentcolonyoflittlepenguins.Volunteershavebeen“greening”thebreakwatersinceitwasrefurbishedthroughre-plantingvegetationto
providesuitablehabitattosustainthepenguincolony(earthcarestkilda.org.au).Furtherbenefitscouldalsobeprovidedbyintegratingnativeorganismsand/orincreasinghabitatcomplexitythroughaddingmicrohabitats(Chapmanand
Underwood, 2011;Strainet al., 2018). Melbournediffered from Sydney and Hobartinthatdegraded habitats were identifiedas a high priority for ecological engineering (Fig. 3). At this site, the rehabilitation ofshellfish reefs could
providewaveattenuationandshorelinestabilisation,whiledeliveringotherecosystemserviceco-benefits(Scyphersetal.,2011).
Inthe Derwent Estuary,the keyareaswhererespondentsfeltecologicalengineeringwouldbe most beneficial were for improvement of waterqualityandreductionof pollution at the Waterfrontand near theZincWorks at
Lutana(Fig.5,Table4 (Fig.5,Table4)).Intheseareas,hard ecologicalengineeringsolutionsthroughseedingwith nativemusselsoroysters(McCayetal.,2003),andtransplantingseaweeds(Fariaset al.,2017) couldbeused toincrease
filtration capacity and nutrient uptak e to improve water quality around some transport infrastructure (e.g . pilings, pontoons and wharves) and coastal defence infrastructure ( i.e. seawalls). It is important that any ecological
engineeringinterventionsdonotenhancetheabundancesofinvasivespeciessuchasthepredatorJapaneseseastar(
Asteriasamurensis
)whichconsumesbivalves(LockhartandRitz,2001).
Themain concern, however atbothsites intheDerwentEstuary is heavymetalpollution,particularlyzinc, lead, cadmium(DerwentEstuaryProgram, 2016), whichaccumulateinthe sediment but are remobilised inthewater
columnthrough resuspension fromboatwakeandwaves. Therearelimited ecologicalengineeringoptionsfordealingwith heavymetalcontamination.Species thattake metalsoutofthesystem (e.g.bivalves,seaweeds, saltmarshes
and wetlands) are likely to bio-accumulate and/or bio-magnifythe pollutant. The only wayto remove the contaminantswould be to harvest the species, which may be counterproductive for biodiversity endpoints. Forspecies that
remaininthesystem,managementwould needtobecertainthatanyattempttoremovecontaminants throughenhancementofnativespeciesdoesnotinadvertentlyreintroducetheminto thefood chain.Iftheaimistoreduceheavy
metalcontamination,thenecologicalengineeringstrategiesfortheDerwentEstuarywillbenefitfromfacilitatingtheproductionoffastgrowingspecies,withlowpalatability,thatcanberemovedfromthesystemwithoutimpactingon
thebiodiversity(Fariasetal.,2017).
5Conclusion
Understandingtheattitudes,perceptions andvaluesofkeystakeholdergroupstourbanconservationinitiativesisvitalfordevelopingholisticmanagementstrategies.Wefoundthataclearmajorityofbothstakeholdergroups
(marinescientists/coastalmanagersvs.others)at allthreelocations weresupportiveof ecologicalengineering.Bothgroups similarlyidentifiedinterventionsthat targetenhancementof biodiversityormitigation ofpollutantsaround
transportinfrastructure as akeypriorityforecological engineering, creating a strong supportsupport base with which to moveforwardinthedevelopment of potential interventions. The ecologicalengineering options identified by

marinescientistsforthesehigh waveenergyand heavilymodifiedlocations includehardoptionsthatalterabiotic andbioticconditions toenhancebiodiversity,andseeding ortransplantingnativehabitat-formingspecies toenhance
biodiversityandimprove water quality (Table5).The costs of these interventions, is relatively low,rangingbetweenAUD$50to300 per m2 (Table5), particularly when compared with built infrastructure (Morris, Konlechner et al.
2018).However,further investmentwouldbe requiredformonitoringto ensurethe ecological engineering interventionshavethe desiredbenefits.Ecologicalengineeringprojects thatincorporatingthe viewsofmultiple stakeholder
groupscanprovidepeoplewithgreaterpublicaccesstothemarineenvironment,increasetourismandculturalactivities,andareimportantforscientificresearchandeducation(Yepsenetal.,2016).
Table5CostandbenefitsofcurrentecologicalengineeringsolutionsappliedinSydneyHarbour,PortPhillipBayandDerwentEstuary.
alt-text:Table5
Ecologicalengineeringoption Cost(AU$;perm2) Benefit Infrastructure Location Reference
Tilewithcrevicesandridges $150 Biodiversity Coastaldefence SydneyHarbour Strainetal.(2018)
Flowerpots $300 Biodiversity Coastaldefence SydneyHarbour Browne&Chapman(2014)
Softropestructure Unknown Biodiversity Transport SydneyHarbour HairandBell(1992)
Integratingmusselsontopilings $120 Unknown Transport PlannedtrialforPortPhillipBay Notyettrialled
Seedingmusselsonartificialreefs $50(notincludingcostsofartificialreef) Unknown Coastaldefence PlannedtrialforPortPhillipBay Notyettrialled
Transplantingmussels/oysters $50 Improvedwaterquality Coastaldefence/Transport DerwentEstuary NA
Transplantingseaweeds Unknown Improvedwaterquality Coastaldefence/Transport DerwentEstuary Notyettrialled
Ethics
Thiswork complied with the National Statement on EthicalConduct in Human Research (2007). The study wasapproved by the Human Research Ethics CommitteeattheUniversity of New South Walesunder application
referenceH16175.
Acknowledgments
WethanktheTheIanPotter Foundation(grantgrant number NA), HardingMillerFoundation (grantgrant numberNA),TheNew South Wales Government Office of Science and Research(grantgrant number NA) an d
ResearchCoastalProcesses andResponsesNodeoftheNSWOfficeofEnvironment andHeritage Adaptation Hub (grantgrant number NA) for theirfinancialsupportfinancial support. Special thanks to Sarah Kienker,Chris
Seito,DominicMcAfeeandStephanieBagalafortheirhelpwiththefieldwork.ThisstudywaspartoftheWorldHarbourProject.
AppendixA.Supplementarydata
Supplementarydatatothisarticlecanbefoundonlineathttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.09.047.
Uncitedreference
VictorianStateGovernmentandEnvironment,2017.(Delete)
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AppendixA.Supplementarydata
ThefollowingistheSupplementarydatatothisarticle:
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Highlights

QueriesandAnswers
Query:Ofthetwosetofauthorgroupwithaffiliationswereprovided.Hence,weusedtheauthorgroupwithaffiliationsprovidedalongwith“Mapping_RevisedPDSMJB2RMKASS_spl_KAagain
_spl_MBagain”.Pleasecheck,andcorrectifnecessary.
Answer:Correct
Query:Pleasecheckwhetherthedesignatedcorrespondingauthoriscorrect,andamendifnecessary.
Answer:Correct
Query:Pleasechecktheaddressforthecorrespondingauthorthathasbeenaddedhere,andcorrectifnecessary.
Answer:Correct
Query:Thecitations“Mayer-Pintoetal.,2017;Firthetal.2014;Strainetal.2017;Strain,Morrisetal.(2017)”havebeenchangedtomatchtheauthorname/yearinthereferencelist.Pleasecheck
hereandinsubsequentoccurrences.
Answer:CitationshavebeencorrectedtoMayer-Pintoetal.,2018andFirthetal.,2014
Query:Pleasenotethat“Fig.5”wasnotcitedinthetext.Pleasecheckthatthecitationsuggestedbythecopyeditorareintheappropriateplace,andcorrectifnecessary.
Answer:Citationscorrected.Fig.5shouldbemovedafterTable4
Query:Refs.Browne&Chapman2014;Meireetal.,2013;Morris,Konlechneretal.,2018;Paalvastetal.,2012arecitedinthetextbutnotprovidedinthereferencelist.Pleaseprovidetheminthe
referencelistordeletethiscitationfromthetext.
Answer:BrowneMA,ChapmanMG.Mitigatingagainstthelossofspeciesbyaddingartificialintertidalpoolstoexistingseawalls.MarineEcologyProgressSeries.2014Feb5;497:119-29.Temmerman
S,MeireP,BoumaTJ,HermanPM,YsebaertT,DeVriendHJ.Ecosystem-basedcoastaldefenceinthefaceofglobalchange.Nature.2013Dec;504(7478):79.PaalvastP,vanWesenbeeckBK,vander
VeldeG,deVriesMB.Poleandpontoonhulas:Aneffectivewayofecologicalengineeringtoincreaseproductivityandbiodiversityinthehard-substrateenvironmentoftheportofRotterdam.Ecological
engineering.2012Jul1;44:199-209.
Query:Havewecorrectlyinterpretedthefollowingfundingsource(s)andcountrynamesyoucitedinyourarticle:IanPotterFoundation,Australia?
Answer:Correct
Query:Uncitedreference:Thissectioncomprisesreferencethatoccurinthereferencelistbutnotinthebodyofthetext.Pleasepositioneachreferenceinthetextor,alternatively,deleteit.Any
referencenotdealtwithwillberetainedinthissection.Thankyou.
Answer:Thereferenceiscitedinthesupplementarysection.
Query:Pleaseconfirmthatgivennamesandsurnameshavebeenidentifiedcorrectlyandarepresentedinthedesiredorderandpleasecarefullyverifythespellingofallauthors’names.
Answer:Correct
•Marineecologicalengineeringprojectsrequiregreaterconsiderationofsocialvalues.
•Mostusers(>70%)aresupportiveofecologicalengineering.
•Boatinginfrastructureinbusytransporthubsarekeyprioritiesforecologicalengineering.
•ResidentsinSydneyandMelbournefocusedonimprovingbiodiversity.
•ResidentsinHobartweremoreconcernedaboutremediatingpollution.

Query:Yourarticleisregisteredasaregularitemandisbeingprocessedforinclusioninaregularissueofthejournal.IfthisisNOTcorrectandyourarticlebelongstoaSpecialIssue/Collectionplease
contactp.sivakumar@elsevier.comimmediatelypriortoreturningyourcorrections.
Answer:Correct