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Learning to code or coding to learn? A systematic review
Abstract
The resurgence of computer programming in the school curriculum brings a promise of preparing students for the future that goes beyond just learning how to code. This study reviewed research to analyse educational outcomes for children learning to code at school. A systematic review was applied to identify relevant articles and a thematic analysis to synthesise the findings. Ten articles were included in the synthesis and an overarching model was developed which depicts the themes. The results demonstrate that although students are learning to code, a range of other educational outcomes can be learnt or practiced through the teaching of coding. These included mathematical problem-solving, critical thinking, social skills, self-management and academic skills. The review also identified the importance of instructional design for developing these educational outcomes through coding.
... Coding education provides students with more than just coding skills; it also facilitates learning mathematical concepts (Mamolo et al., 2023) and enhances their ability to apply these concepts to problem-solving (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Early exposure to coding enables children to develop digital competencies, preparing them to be consumers and producers in the digital world (Bers, 2020). ...
... Moreover, coding education promotes peer learning and positively influences social development by facilitating collaborative learning. It also encourages self-management skills as learners engage actively in the coding process, progressing at their own pace (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Coding supports the development of computational thinking and strategic problem-solving abilities (Bers, 2018). ...
... Coding supports the development of computational thinking and strategic problem-solving abilities (Bers, 2018). During coding activities, children test, evaluate, and refine their work, which aids in developing critical thinking skills (Popat & Starkey, 2019). ...
This study investigates ChatGPT’s perspectives on coding education for preschool children to provide a comprehensive understanding that is valuable for educators in early childhood education. An instrumental case study approach was employed, utilizing qualitative research design and case study methods. Data were gathered using a structured interview form containing 93 questions posed to ChatGPT version 3.5 to obtain in-depth insights into coding education during the preschool period. Content analysis examined ChatGPT’s responses, identifying key themes and codes. The findings indicate that coding practices equip children with coding skills and support their development in multiple domains. Furthermore, the study highlights that uncertainties surrounding the definition of coding, the skills it encompasses, and its integration into curricula are gradually diminishing, with more explicit frameworks emerging. While there are drawbacks to artificial intelligence tools, the study concludes that tools like ChatGPT have significant potential to contribute to the content development of teachers, offering valuable resources to enhance coding education in early childhood.
... Skill development was the most studied outcome variable (n = 16), which was also the biggest category in programming reviews. The studied skills were, for instance, cognitive skills, creative thinking (Hu, 2023;Scherer et al., 2019;Zhang & Zhu, 2022), metacognition, spatial skills, mathematical skills, literacy, and school achievement in domains other than mathematical skills and literacy (Scherer et al., 2019), programming knowledge and skills (Scherer et al., 2020;Sun et al., 2022;Xu, 2019) or computational thinking Xu et al., 2023) and learning outcomes (Lee, 2020;Popat & Starkey, 2019). ...
... Enhanced problem-solving emerged as the most discussed benefit of programming across the corpus, with Xu et al. (2023) finding that scaffolding and problem-solving activities were the most effective teaching methods to build computational thinking skills. Popat and Starkey (2019) argued that programming activities can foster self-management and active learning by allowing students to proceed at their own pace, monitor their progress, discuss and plan their tasks, and reflect an active approach to learning. However, a number of reviews suggest that effective self-management and active learning require carefully designed pedagogical approaches (e.g., . ...
... Although programming and robotics have the potential to motivate students, enhance active learning, and facilitate transfer learning, their effectiveness is not guaranteed; pedagogical design plays a crucial role in successful programming and robotics education (Uslu et al., 2022, Xu et al., 2019. highlighted the importance of well-designed instructional strategies, particularly in the context of robotics, emphasizing the need for operationally skilful, relevant, and realistic tasks, as well as the critical role of teacher acceptance and understanding of robotics in education (Popat & Starkey, 2019). also emphasised that comprehensive guidance throughout the course, as well as timely feedback from teachers, are essential for effective learning. ...
This meta-scoping review explores the nature and scope of evidence syntheses on programming and robotics in primary and secondary education, aiming to identify benefits, challenges, and directions for future research, as well as to appraise the quality of evidence syntheses being conducted. A systematic search was conducted in the Web of Science, Scopus, EBSCOHost, ERIC, and OpenAlex. After screening, 49 relevant evidence syntheses published between 2012 and 2023 were identified, and the Quality of Evidence Synthesis Tool (QuEST) was employed to assess methodological rigor. Systematic reviews dominate evidence syntheses in programming and robotics education, with a recent rise in meta-analyses, and publications were spread across 37 journals indicating interdisciplinary interest. Authors are mainly from Europe and Asia, with mostly domestic collaborations, and the overall medium quality of syntheses points to a need for more robust methodological standards. While programming and robotics education offer benefits such as enhanced cognitive development and creativity, challenges persist including resource limitations, teacher training, and cognitive load. The review calls for high-quality, internationally collaborative research on effective pedagogical practices, cognitive load management, and the integration of AI in education.
... That is why focusing on higher-order EFs could be more suitable in the domain of coding education since coding would touch upon multiple EFs simultaneously rather than focusing on single EFs components. Furthermore, prior evidence has shown that learning to code can lead to improvements in various cognitive skills, including problem-solving, computational thinking, collaboration, and creativity, all of which are closely linked to EFs (Barr et al., 2011;Moreno-León & Robles, 2016;Popat & Starkey, 2019;Scherer et al., 2019;Wing, 2006). Through coding, children actively engage in practices such as problem analysis, planning potential solutions, testing proposed approaches, and making necessary revisions based on outcomes (Blume & Schoen, 1988;Buitrago Flórez et al., 2017;Chevalier et al., 2020;Siegle, 2017). ...
... We then reviewed the systematic reviews on the topic of programming education and cognitive skills to gain insights from the previous studies. A systematic review explored the effects of learning to code on child outcomes, incorporating ten studies published between 1988 and 2017 (Popat & Starkey, 2019). This review covered a broad range of skills, such as social and problem-solving skills, suggesting that learning to code can positively impact various domains. ...
... randomized trial), as outlined in Table 1. (("executive function*" OR "reasoning" OR "fluid intelligence" OR "fluid-intelligence" OR "planning" OR "problem-solving" OR "problem solving" OR "sequencing") AND ("coding" OR "programming" OR "robot*" OR "computer programming" OR "robotics") AND (primary school OR elementary school OR middle school OR high school OR secondary education) AND (training OR intervention OR effectiveness OR trial OR control OR pretest OR randomized OR post-test OR pretest OR post-test)) Additionally, the bibliographies of an existing meta-analysis by Scherer et al. (2019) and two reviews by Moreno-León and Robles (2016) and Popat and Starkey (2019) were scrutinized to identify remaining papers. The study selection process comprised of two primary steps. ...
... In turn, in the stages of early childhood and primary education, there is a convergence between solving problems related to computing, coding, or programming and the use of fundamental mathematical skills [16]. This similarity manifests itself when applying mathematical strategies to approach and solve tasks of this nature. ...
... The planning of the intervention carried out in this study with the experimental group was based on well-founded theoretical models [16,29], justified instructional approaches [18], and coherent contexts [11,13]. It involved methodologies and materials that have been shown to be effective at different educational stages [21][22][23][24][25][26][27], considering the students' prior knowledge in computer science, programming, and coding [13] and taking into account the attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral factors of teachers in training [4]. ...
... Furthermore, the results obtained in this intervention differ from those observed in [25][26][27], where the use of a gamified methodology favored the development of computational thinking. Additionally, the use of theoretical models by Palts and Pedaste [29], Popat and Starkey [16], and Peel, Sadler, and Friedrichsen [18] also have not favored significant development of computational thinking. ...
Computational thinking is recognized as a critical competency in contemporary education, preparing individuals to tackle complex challenges in a digitally pervasive world. In this quasi-experimental design study with pretest and post-test measures, the possibility of developing computational thinking from the field of didactics of mathematics in higher education students was investigated. This was performed via a problem-based learning (PBL) methodology using problem solving in the experimental group or, alternatively, focused on the analysis of solved problems in the control group. After the intervention, the control group experienced a statistically significant improvement in the scores obtained in the post-test measure. Thus, PBL and problem solving did not lead to an improvement in the students’ computational thinking, whereas the analysis of solved problems approach did. Therefore, the results suggested the potential benefits of this latter methodology for teaching computational thinking.
... These efforts have also accelerated classroom practices and research in this field. However, the studies focus on children's coding and computational thinking skills (Macrides et al., 2022;Papadakis et al., 2016;Popat & Starkey, 2019). However, Papert (1980) stated that children's building using technology and writing code is a new way of thinking for children and that children develop many skills while writing code. ...
... However, Macrides et al. (2022) and Papadakis et al. (2016) revealed that these studies were primarily aimed at supporting coding and IS skills. Popat and Starkey (2019) stated that the revival of coding in the school curriculum promises to prepare students for the future beyond just learning to code. In their review, Popat and Starkey (2019) found that various other educational outcomes, such as problemsolving, critical thinking, social skills, self-management, and academic skills, can also be learned through teaching coding. ...
... Popat and Starkey (2019) stated that the revival of coding in the school curriculum promises to prepare students for the future beyond just learning to code. In their review, Popat and Starkey (2019) found that various other educational outcomes, such as problemsolving, critical thinking, social skills, self-management, and academic skills, can also be learned through teaching coding. ...
The growing significance of coding in 21st-century early childhood education extends beyond technical proficiency, encompassing cognitive development, problem-solving, and creativity. Coding is being integrated globally into educational curricula to prepare students for the digital era. This research examines coding’s potential impact on cognitive and socio-emotional development and emphasizes the need for evidence-based analysis. A meta-thematic analysis synthesizes qualitative data from various studies in a study on coding’s effects on preschool children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development. It focuses on two themes: cognitive contributions and socio-emotional contributions. Thirteen suitable studies were identified from 942 visualized using the PRISMA flow diagram. Coding education enhances cognitive and socio-emotional skills in preschoolers, with implications for curriculum integration. In summary, coding’s holistic benefits in early childhood education are explored, and a meta-thematic analysis investigates its influence on cognitive and socio-emotional domains in preschoolers, emphasizing the need for rigorous evidence-based research.
... By highlighting syntax mistakes, SEDM helps students improve their coding accuracy, which is foundational for building reliable and functional programs. Drawing on best practices in code structure [31], [36], SBCAM evaluates the organization of students' code, including readability, modularity, and the appropriate use of functions. Focusing on code organization encourages students to write readable, maintainable code-a critical skill in professional software development. ...
... Several comprehensive reviews of automated grading tools have been conducted to identify gaps in feedback quality and adaptability. Paiva et al. [27] highlighted areas for improvement, such as providing more in-depth feedback and supporting diverse learning needs, while Popat and Starkey [31] suggested integrating adaptive learning to support foundational programming concepts. ...
Programming skills are essential in nearly every job today. To prepare students for the growing demand for programming expertise, they must be proficient in coding. This poses a challenge for educators who must ensure students are well-equipped to meet these demands. In Today’s time, most of the schools and universities have introduced advanced curricula and syllabi with programming courses, thus an effective and conventional model to evaluate the codes submitted by students in a timely manner is very much required. Traditional grading systems were often slow, biased, and lacked the ability to provide meaningful feedback, which is crucial for student improvement. This study proposes an extensive automated code assessment and feedback model that addresses these issues and provides timely feedback to students. The model evaluates different aspects of the codes like originality, accuracy, structure, and syntax. By using the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) analysis for code structure, plagiarism detection, and syntax error identification, the model offers an improved approach to evaluating student’s coding skills. To evaluate the model, a group of 60 engineering students participated, and the model demonstrated a 40% increase in grading efficiency, reducing grading time while maintaining quality. The feedback on scores provided students with valuable insights about their understanding of programming concepts. This model not only supports skill development through actionable feedback but also promotes larger educational goals of accessibility and inclusivity by offering a sustainable solution for quality learning.
... Researchers have found that young children should acquire CT to enable them to solve technological and even real-life problems (Bers et al., 2019(Bers et al., , 2022Zhang et al., 2024). Evidence has demonstrated that early-year CT experiences closely link with twenty-first-century skills, STEM subject learning, cognitive skills, and future career paths (Chen et al., 2017;Montuori et al., 2024;Popat & Starkey, 2019). Therefore, fostering young children's CT in preschool education is imperative. ...
... Previous literature has confirmed that programming is an effective means to develop children's CT Popat & Starkey, 2019;Xu et al., 2022;Zhang et al., 2024). In addition, when engaging in programming activities, children draw upon principles of computer science to think computationally and solve problems, which can also benefit their cognitive skills related to problemsolving, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility of EFs (Arfé et al., 2020;Di Lieto, 2017;Robertson et al., 2020). ...
Background
In the digital age, fostering young children’s computational thinking (CT) and executive functions (EFs) through programming has emerged as a significant research issue. While unplugged programming activities are commonly adopted in preschools, robot programming activities have recently gained attention for the potential to enhance both CT and EFs. Preschoolers are at a pivotal stage for developing CT and EFs. However, there is a dearth of empirical evidence comparing robot programming and unplugged programming activities on preschoolers’ CT and EFs development. Therefore, the current research designed a randomized controlled trial to compare the impact of robot programming and unplugged programming activities on 198 5- to 6 year-old preschoolers’ CT and EFs (including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility). Children were randomly allocated to either the robot programming group, the unplugged programming group, or the business-as-usual control group.
Results
After a 12-week intervention, results revealed that: (1) the robot programming and unplugged programming groups both outperformed the conventional kindergarten group in CT, with the robot programming group having superior effects in CT over time; (2) the robot programming group outperformed the unplugged programming and conventional kindergarten group on inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility of EFs over time; and (3) most preschoolers in the robot programming group had positive perceptions of programmable robots.
Conclusions
The present research demonstrated that robot programming had a more significant and sustained impact on preschoolers’ CT and EFs than unplugged programming and conventional kindergarten activities. Accordingly, these findings offered valuable implications for introducing effective programming activities to develop preschoolers’ CT and EFs.
... According to Papert (1980), one of the pioneers of computing education, coding can help provide children with a generalisable and valuable intellectual structure for lifelong learning and development. In a rapidly changing digital society, coding enables children to develop CT (Chou, 2020;Kazakoff and Bers, 2014), mathematical thinking (Goldenberg and Carter, 2021), literacy (Hassenfeld et al., 2020), and meta -and lower-order thinking skills (Popat and Starkey, 2019). In addition, teaching coding skills at an early age facilitates children's language skills, visual memory, and the teaching of abstract concepts in mathematics and contributes to children's ability to find appropriate solutions to problems, establish cause-and-effect relationships, and sort (Anzoategui et al., 2017;Dağ et al., 2023;Nam et al., 2019;Shumway et al., 2021). ...
... For young children (3 to 8 years old), the research on coding education is still in its infancy (Ching et al., 2018;García-Peñalvo, 2017;Mangina et al., 2023). Early coding education introduces young children to basic computer programming concepts and skills such as logic, sequencing, problem-solving and creativity (Goldenberg and Carter, 2021;Hassenfeld et al., 2020;Popat and Starkey, 2019). Coding education can have a positive impact on children's cognitive, social and emotional development (Anzoategui et al., 2017;Dağ et al., 2023;Nam et al. 2019;Shumway et al., 2021) and on their future academic and career prospects (Burke and Mattis, 2007;Reynolds et al., 2011). ...
... With the arrival of the sixth information technology revolution marked by artificial intelligence, mastering coding has become the core competitiveness of contemporary human resources. Students, especially younger students, are eager to master basic digital skills as soon as possible to cope with the development of the information society (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Coding provided children with the opportunity to "communicate" with computers and enables them to master new symbolic languages (Bers, 2018;Wang et al., 2021). ...
... Early childhood (5-8 years old) is the initiation stage of students' learning and an important period for the development of thinking skills (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009). Numerous studies have found that young children are well receptive to the teaching of coding and demonstrate good inclusiveness and learning (Popat & Starkey, 2019). For example, coding learning can provide new ways of teaching young children about the development of planning skills and emotional inhibition (Arfé et al., 2020). ...
Coding ability has become an essential digital skill for young children. The graphical programming environment is valuable carrier for cultivating children's coding ability. The purpose of this study is to develop a coding ability test for children, to conduct a graphic coding intervention, and to further explore the impact of multiple factors on children's coding ability in ScratchJr intervention. First, the coding ability test for ScratchJr environment was developed based on Item Response Theory to measure kindergarten students' coding ability. The result showed that there are good reliability, content, and structural validity of the test question. Secondly, we conducted a 12-week ScratchJr coding activity teaching experiment on 162 kindergarten students. The analysis of the treated group and the control group showed that coding activity teaching can effectively improve the students' coding ability. Finally, this study analyzed the differences in children's coding ability in coding interest, and coding experience. The results showed that the coding ability was affected by coding experience and coding interest. More interestingly, it was found partial mediation effect among coding ability, coding experience and coding interest. Moreover, ScratchJr coding intervention can influence the direct effect of coding experience on coding ability by improving children's coding interest.
... Despite the growing interest in CT-STEM (Li et al., 2020b;Tekdal, 2021), recent reviews indicate a focus on theoretical interpretations Weintrop et al., 2016), instructional strategies (Hutchins et al., 2020a;Ma et al., 2021;Rachmatullah & Wiebe, 2022), and assessment targets (Bortz et al., 2020;Román-González et al., 2017). Although previous meta-analyses have shown CT-STEM's positive impact on students meeting learning outcomes (Cheng et al., 2023), there is a gap in systematically analyzing its benefits, particularly in differentiating student learning via transfer effects (Popat & Starkey, 2019;Ye et al., 2022). Transfer, a key educational concept categorized as near and far transfer based on the theory of "common elements" (Perkins & Salomon, 1992), is crucial for understanding and evaluating CT-STEM's utility and developing effective pedagogies. ...
... They identified positive skill transfers from learning programming to areas such as creative thinking, mathematical abilities, and spatial skills. Beyond cognitive benefits, Popat and Starkey (2019) and Melro et al. (2023) indicate that learning programming also contributes to noncognitive benefits like collaboration and communication. ...
Background
Integrating computational thinking (CT) into STEM education has recently drawn significant attention, strengthened by the premise that CT and STEM are mutually reinforcing. Previous CT-STEM studies have examined theoretical interpretations, instructional strategies, and assessment targets. However, few have endeavored to delineate the transfer effects of CT-STEM on the development of cognitive and noncognitive benefits. Given this research gap, we conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis to provide deeper insights.
Results
We analyzed results from 37 studies involving 7,832 students with 96 effect sizes. Our key findings include: (i) identification of 36 benefits; (ii) a moderate overall transfer effect, with moderate effects also observed for both near and far transfers; (iii) a stronger effect on cognitive benefits compared to noncognitive benefits, regardless of the transfer type; (iv) significant moderation by educational level, sample size, instructional strategies, and intervention duration on overall and near-transfer effects, with only educational level and sample size being significant moderators for far-transfer effects.
Conclusions
This study analyzes the cognitive and noncognitive benefits arising from CT-STEM’s transfer effects, providing new insights to foster more effective STEM classroom teaching.
... student collaboration, encouraging students to collaborate to develop solutions and share knowledge (Pozos et al., 2022). This collaborative approach enhances problem-solving skills and promotes effective communication, teamwork, and social interaction (Popat & Starkey, 2018). ...
Purpose
This study examines how model-eliciting activities (MEAs) help students in a private school with middle-income high school students elicit computational thinking (CT) in an unplugged activity. The focus is on equitable participation across diverse academic backgrounds in resource-limited settings.
Design/methodology/approach
The research employed epistemic network analysis (ENA) to analyze video-recorded conversations of two three-student teams solving an unplugged tic-tac-toe MEA. Participants represented varied academic tracks, programming experience levels and socioeconomic backgrounds. The researchers coded the conversations for computational thinking constructs: decomposition, pattern recognition, abstraction and algorithms.
Findings
ENA revealed similar network structures between teams and participants despite their different compositions. Both teams demonstrated robust connections across all four computational thinking constructs. The unplugged MEA format enabled equitable participation regardless of prior programming experience or academic background, with balanced engagement observed across all team members.
Originality/value
This study uniquely applies ENA to examine computational thinking development through unplugged MEAs in Mexico’s educational context. It provides empirical evidence for MEAs as tools for democratizing access to computational thinking education in resource-limited settings while introducing a methodological framework for analyzing cognitive development in collaborative learning environments.
... General-purpose code refers to a set of program instructions written in formal languages such as Python, C++, or Java, and is widely applied across diverse tasks including data processing, network communication, and algorithm implementation [1,2]. Through programming, users translate logical intentions into executable tasks on computers [3]. ...
Geospatial code generation is emerging as a key direction in the integration of artificial intelligence and geoscientific analysis. However, there remains a lack of standardized tools for automatic evaluation in this domain. To address this gap, we propose AutoGEEval, the first multimodal, unit-level automated evaluation framework for geospatial code generation tasks on the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform powered by large language models (LLMs). Built upon the GEE Python API, AutoGEEval establishes a benchmark suite (AutoGEEval-Bench) comprising 1325 test cases that span 26 GEE data types. The framework integrates both question generation and answer verification components to enable an end-to-end automated evaluation pipeline-from function invocation to execution validation. AutoGEEval supports multidimensional quantitative analysis of model outputs in terms of accuracy, resource consumption, execution efficiency, and error types. We evaluate 18 state-of-the-art LLMs-including general-purpose, reasoning-augmented, code-centric, and geoscience-specialized models-revealing their performance characteristics and potential optimization pathways in GEE code generation. This work provides a unified protocol and foundational resource for the development and assessment of geospatial code generation models, advancing the frontier of automated natural language to domain-specific code translation.
... 2022;European Commission, 2022). More specifically, it is assumed that teaching programming from early childhood can support the development and enhancement of a variety of educationally relevant skills, including cognitive skills, fine motor skills, and social skills (e.g., Bers et al., 2013;Popat & Starkey, 2019). Recent systematic reviews and meta-analyses confirmed the effectiveness of programming interventions to enhance domain-specific knowledge and cognitive skills for school and university students, that is, children, adolescents, and young adults enrolled in formal education from primary school onwards (e.g., Louka, 2022;Scherer et al., 2018;Scherer et al., 2021). ...
While recent meta-analyses confirm the positive effects of programming interventions in school and university students, it is still unclear whether teaching programming in early childhood settings is similarly effective. Our meta-analysis clarifies this issue by synthesizing the effects of programming interventions for 3- to 7-year-old children. Moreover, we propose and employ a taxonomy for instructional approaches commonly used in programming interventions to systematically analyze the relevance of instructional design. The results from 25 early childhood studies and 82 effect sizes showed a medium overall effect of d = +0.73, 95% CI [0.51, 0.96]. Programming interventions effectively enhanced programming knowledge, computational thinking, mathematics knowledge, and cognitive skills. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of unplugged over screen-based activities and interventions, including robotics, over those using other program outputs. The results provide educators with valuable information about instructional methods. The taxonomy can guide researchers and educators in implementing instructional strategies when teaching programming.
... Teaching practices have been enriched with innovative technological tools and aim to foster students' new range of skills [61]. One of them is coding literacy which is an ability that many countries have included in their school curricula [62]. Hence, it may be useful to explore the coding assessment tools that are available at our disposal in educational settings to evaluate students' coding ability. ...
In recent years, coding has become a useful component of education at all levels, leading to the emergence of various programmable devices and platforms, such as Arduino. These tools offer students opportunities to enhance their coding skills through hands‐on experiences or graphical simulations. However, the literature lacks a comprehensive instrument for evaluating code skills via such technologies. To address this gap, this study introduces the “Assessing Arduino Basics in Coding” (AABC) tool. This tool was validated and refined with 151 university students, who completed three experimental exercises followed by coding‐related questions. Students were divided into two groups. The first group implemented the experiments with physical–tangible boards, while the second used graphical interfaces in a virtual environment. The analysis of questionnaire scores underwent four steps. Initially, Item Response Theory was employed to discard questions resulting in unscaled scores. Subsequently, Exploratory Factor Analysis identified three factors corresponding to the three exercises. Additionally, Confirmatory Factor Analysis confirmed the questionnaire's structure, indicating high reliability (χ ² [74] = 74.5, p = 0.463, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.00612, SRMR = 0.0625). Lastly, measurement invariance testing demonstrated that AABC is unaffected by the user interface, suggesting its usability for evaluating Arduino coding skills regardless of the interface used. Overall, the AABC tool provides a reliable method for evaluating coding skills in basic Arduino circuits, contributing to advancements in coding education.
... The integration of computational thinking and mathematics education holds immense promise, yet it is not without its share of challenges that warrant careful consideration (Bulut & Ferri, 2023;Popat & Starkey, 2019). These challenges encompass aspects such as aligning curricula, devising appropriate assessment methods, and ensuring equitable access to resources for all students. ...
... The ability to program computers is increasingly recognised as a critical 21st-century skill, as it is essential for both personal development and professional practice in a wide range of knowledge fields (Popat and Starkey 2019). This growing need to learn computer programming has encouraged the creation of numerous resources aimed at such learning; for example, in engineering academic programmes, it is generally introduced as part of the curriculum through specific subjects (Loksa and Ko 2016). ...
This study investigates the self‐regulated learning strategies employed by students in computer programming courses. Utilising the Questionnaire on Learning Strategies in Computer Programming (CEAPC), the research aims to identify specific strategies used by students. The findings reveal a variety of effective learning strategies, including problem‐solving, knowledge acquisition and study environment management in the context of computer programming learning. However, difficulties in idea organisation were noted, suggesting a need for enhanced support in structuring and documenting thought processes and code. The study also highlights the interdependence of learning strategies, particularly the role of metacognition in conjunction with practice, problem‐solving and time management. Differences in strategy use across course levels and gender were observed, with advanced courses prompting more complex strategies and female students excelling in structured and collaborative learning. These insights provide educators with valuable guidance for developing targeted interventions to improve students' self‐regulated learning abilities in programming education.
... In addition, related studies also support the promotion of computational thinking education. For example, Popat and Starkey (2019) indicated that computational thinking skills can enhance students' mathematical problem-solving, critical thinking, social, self-management, and academic skills. The most common way to develop computational thinking ability is coding (Parmar, Babu, Lin, Jörg, D'Souza, Leonard, & Daily, 2016). ...
Education on computational thinking skills has been a focus in many countries. Previous studies have investigated educational board games based on computational thinking skills. However, there is a lack of research on the cognitive behaviors and cognitive styles promoted by these educational board games. Therefore, in this study, educational board games are adopted as a tool to explore the learning effectiveness and behavioral patterns of students with different cognitive styles. A total of 74 students participated in this study, and the educational board game used was a set of coding poker cards. The results showed that educational board games contribute to students’ computational thinking skills, especially regarding operators. For students with different cognitive styles, holist-style students experience greater learning effectiveness when using educational board games than serialist-style students. In addition, it is found that students need to analyze the choices and arrangements of cards while playing educational board games, which improves their thinking in terms of problem solving. Furthermore, through cognitive behaviors, students can use the concepts of computational thinking skills and then achieve the learning goals of computational thinking skills. Finally, suggestions for teaching and future research are proposed based on the results of this study.
... Problem-solving, critical thinking, and design thinking have been identified as key 21 st -century skills that students develop through programming (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Turtle Graphics, a visual programming tool in Python, offers an accessible way to introduce students to coding and geometric visualization. ...
... Many countries have reflected this in their education policies and have created curricula and courses to bring computer programming education to students from an early age (Raptopoulou, 2021;Williamson et al., 2019). Computer programming education has attracted the attention of schools, teachers, and families (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Although computer programming education is considered important, it is known that it is a difficult and complex process. ...
Task complexity emerges as one of the factors affecting the computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) process, group dynamics, and processes. Upon reviewing the literature, it becomes apparent that there are conflicting results regarding the impact of escalating task complexity on group dynamics and collaboration processes. The lack of clear findings in the literature on how task complexity affects group processes in CSCL makes instructors uncertain about how to adjust the level of task complexity in CSCL processes. This uncertainty may lead to the negative effects of assigning tasks that are too difficult or too easy on group processes. The starting point of this research is whether giving complex tasks in CSCL improves group dynamics and collaboration. This study aimed to explore the effects of task complexity on group atmosphere, group cohesion, and the group’s transactive memory system in CSCL. One distinctive feature of this research within the educational context is the utilization of Zoom as the platform for CSCL. Although Zoom is used extensively for cooperative learning, especially after the pandemic, less research is examining its use in terms of CSCL. Zoom has been widely used due to its ease of use, high speed, and capacity, and CSCL features such as a whiteboard. However, there is a need for research in the literature regarding the collaborative learning process and outcomes using Zoom as a CSCL tool. The research was conducted on 166 university students studying in the field of computer science education. The analysis was carried out in the programming education course, which was taught with the CSCL method. Self-report scales of perceived task complexity, group atmosphere, group cohesion, and transactive memory were used in the research. Path analysis was performed in the study of the data. Research findings show that perceived task complexity greatly influences the transactive memory system. As task complexity decreases, the group's transactive memory system develops. It was seen that the transactive memory system had no effect on group cohesion, and group cohesion had a significant effect on the group atmosphere. Depending on the increase in group cohesion, the group atmosphere develops. Based on the research findings, several recommendations were provided for researchers and educators to manage the structure and processes of CSCL groups and to adjust task complexity.
... Additionally, Tikva and Tambouris (2021) developed a "conceptual model" (consisting of 6 CT domains: Knowledge Base, Learning Strategies, Assessment, Tools, Factors, and Capacity Building) based on their review study mapping CT through programming in K-12 education. In addition, Popat and Starkey (2019) reviewed the research to analyze the educational outcomes for students who learn to code in school, while Da Cruz Alves, Gresse Von Wangenheim and Hauck (2019) conducted a systematic review study focused on analyzing the "code created" by the students to infer CT skills related to algorithms and programming. ...
This study consists of a 17-year (2006-2021) systematic literature review on the effective instructional strategies for developing Computational Thinking (CT) in primary school students (K-5). The aim of this paper is to identify instructional strategies that have been implemented and evaluated by means of a pre- and post-test, with the aim of developing CT as a thinking process (i.e. going beyond the mere acquisition of CS concepts). The analysis considers the overall pedagogical approach, with the intention of overcoming both the archetypal approaches to coding and the assessment tools used to measure CT acquisition.
The results show that there is a strong difference between K-3 and 4-5 classes, the former being more the context for educational robotics or unplugged activities; they also show that a task-based approach is prevalent, whose effectiveness is limited to the first access to CS activities, namely improving self-efficacy and reducing learning anxiety. Nevertheless, this study also identifies some interesting models of problem solving (such as IGGIA or CPS) that go beyond the puzzle-based approach, as well as two significant teaching strategies (IDC and DBL) that try to promote more meaningful learning (typically including elements of constructionism), while enabling curricular learning objectives.
... Aktoprak and Hursen (2022) carried out a bibliometric analysis of research on critical thinking in primary education, identifying trends, without specific emphasis on assessment in computing education. Popat and Starkey (2019) reviewed research to analyze the educational outcomes of children learning to program, including critical thinking skills, but did not delve into assessment methods. While these studies provide important findings, there remains a gap in the literature regarding a comprehensive review of assessment approaches for critical thinking specifically within K-12 computing education. ...
Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for 21st-century citizens, and it should be promoted from elementary school and developed in computing education. However, assessing the development of critical thinking in educational contexts presents unique challenges. In this study, a systematic mapping was carried out to investigate how to assess the development of critical thinking, or some of its skills, in K-12 computing teaching. The results indicate that primary studies on the development of critical thinking in K-12 computing education are concentrated in Asian countries, mainly focusing on teaching concepts such as algorithms and programming. Moreover, the studies do not present a fixed set of critical thinking skills assessed, and the skills are selected according to specific teaching and research needs. Most of the studies adopted student self-assessment using instruments that are well-known in the literature for assessing critical thinking. Many studies measured the quality of instruments for their research, obtaining favorable results and demonstrating consistency. However, the research points to a need for more diversity in assessment methods beyond student self-assessment. The findings suggest a need for more comprehensive and diverse critical thinking assessments in K-12 computing education, covering different educational stages and computing education concepts. This research aims to guide educators and researchers in developing more effective critical thinking assessments for K-12 computing education.
... Some consider coding and computational thinking skills a new 21st-century literacy that all individuals should acquire in the early years. (Korkmaz et al., 2018;Manches & Plowman, 2017;Popat & Starkey, 2019;Román-González et al., 2017;Wing, 2006Wing, , 2008. Coding and computational thinking skills include the basic skills of computer science and are seen as closely related. ...
The domain of early childhood education has witnessed an increasing emphasis on developing coding and computational thinking (CT) abilities. Scholarly investigations have delved into appropriate approaches for enhancing these proficiencies within early childhood classrooms. The present study aims to investigate the impact of a digital story design program, or Design-Based Digital Story Program (DBDS), on the coding and CT skills of 5-year-old children. Specifically designed for children aged 3–6, the DBDS program aligns with constructivism principles, which promote experiential learning. Employing a case–control quasi-experimental design, the study employed pre-intervention and post-intervention assessments and a follow-up retest after one month. The intervention involved implementing the digital story design program over 11 weeks, with three sessions per week, each lasting between 60 to 90 min, targeting five-year-old participants. The findings reveal that the DBDS program significantly enhances CT and coding skills compared to a control group. Moreover, female participants exhibited more significant improvements in CT skills post-intervention than their male counterparts, while no significant gender-based effects were observed in coding skills. These findings suggest that the DBDS program effectively supports the cultivation of coding and CT abilities among young children, warranting further exploration in diverse educational settings and across various grade levels.
... However, after some classes and exercises, some of them usually get increasingly frustrated by their mistakes until they give up on the exercise they are doing, lose motivation, and eventually give up on the course itself [6,75,91]. Additionally, frustration can lead to dropouts and failures, which can be seen in many programming courses [9,14,23]. This situation generates intense concern for researchers and practitioners, seeking to understand and face this problem [8,29,53]. ...
Despite recent high interest among researchers and practitioners in learning programming, even the most dedicated learners can struggle to find motivation for studying and practicing programming. Therefore, in recent years, several strategies ( e.g. , educational games, flipped classrooms, and visual programming languages) have been employed to increase students’ engagement in programming studies. However, despite these efforts, no approach has proven efficient enough to sufficiently motivate these learners, and the community continues to search for novel strategies to enhance programming learners’ motivation. Building upon this, our study explores the use of unplugged gamification ( i.e. , gamification implemented without digital technology) combined with challenge-based learning during a programming workshop. Using Grounded Theory methods and data collected from focus groups, we analyzed and interpreted the perceptions of 24 programming learners regarding the gamified workshop. Learners reported experiencing collaboration while learning, with some indicating increased effort to obtain rewards, while others seemed to forget about the rewards altogether. Our findings provide valuable insights for computing teachers and researchers into how unplugged gamification combined with challenge-based learning is perceived by programming learners.
... Programming is an essential skill in the present digital world , and learning to code is becoming more common across educational settings (Popat & Starkey, 2019). Despite its significant importance in problem-solving and computational thinking skills , novice programmers often encounter a steep learning curve as they grapple with the complex nature of programming (Lahtinen et al., 2005). ...
The study investigates the potential of anxiety clusters in predicting programming performance in two distinct coding environments. Participants comprised 83 second-year programming students who were randomly assigned to either a block-based or a text-based group. Anxiety-induced behaviors were assessed using physiological measures (Apple Watch and Electrocardiogram machine), behavioral observation, and self-report. Utilizing the Hidden Markov Model and Optimal Matching algorithm, we found three representative clusters in each group. In the block-based group, clusters were designated as follows: "stay calm" (students allocating more of their time to a calm state), "stay hesitant" (students allocating more of their time to a hesitant state), and "to-calm" (those allocating minimal time to a hesitant and anxious state but displaying a pronounced propensity to transition to a calm state). In contrast, clusters in the text-based group were labeled as: "to-hesitant" (exhibiting a higher propensity to transition to a hesitant state), "stay hesitant" (allocating significant time to a hesitant state), and "stay anxious" (remaining persistently anxious in a majority of the coding time). Additionally, our results indicate that novice programmers are more likely to experience anxiety during text-based coding. We discussed the findings and highlighted the policy implications of the study.
... Within the programming context, there has been consistent research evidence reporting the close association between programming and computational thinking (CT) [5][6][7][8][9]. In the process, teachers and researchers have put continuous effort toward developing and integrating BPM and TPM into programming education to improve learners' CT skills [2,10,11]. On an overarching level, CT encompasses a large intellectual foundation required to provide knowledge and understanding of the computational world, and the ability to employ such knowledge in problem-solving across different disciplines [12][13][14]. The recent advancement in CT research has reported numerous learning benefits to school-age children, including the ability to solve real-world problems systematically [15,16]. ...
The recent advancement in computational thinking (CT) research has reported numerous learning benefits to school-age children. The long-standing perceived difficulty of computer programming has challenged the acquisition of CT skills from programming education. Several block-based programming environments (BBPEs) have been developed to reduce this difficulty and enhance active engagement in computational-related activities. Although numerous studies have examined students’ level of interactions during block-based programming modality (BPM) activities, a major gap in the literature is the paucity of research evidence reporting the association between these interactions and CT. This study, therefore, investigates the association between interaction patterns during BPM activities and CT skills. The present study employed a longitudinal approach where the same participants were observed over eight weeks. Thirty-five, second-year-level computer science and computer education students (mean age: 19.8; male = 23, female = 12) from a research university in Nigeria were recruited. Their computational activities over the study periods were video-recorded. The participants’ CT skills were collected using the computational thinking test and the computational thinking scale. Findings indicate four interaction patterns: learner–learner, learner–content, learner–teacher, and learner–distractor. Learner–learner and learner–content were prevalent. The interaction patterns significantly predict CT skills although significant differences exist across gender, cognitive load, spatial ability, and programming proficiency. The research has provided opportunities for educators to integrate BBPEs in learning programming and CT concepts. Although such integration is likely to occur with the help of strong educational policies, teachers are encouraged to cultivate the spirit of collaboration in students during programming activities.
... Besides problem-solving, CT is associated with several educational and social benefits like collaboration, critical thinking, selfmanagement, confidence, mathematical thinking, natural language literacy, reasoning, creativity, metacognition, communication and positive attitudes (Denner et al., 2019;Popat & Starkey, 2019;Scherer et al., 2019). Wing's (2006) viewpoint likened the importance of CT with time-honoured literacies of reading, writing and arithmetic. ...
Background
Computational thinking is derived from arguments that the underlying practices in computer science augment problem‐solving. Most studies investigated computational thinking development as a function of learners' factors, instructional strategies and learning environment. However, the influence of the wider community such as educational policies on computational thinking remains unclear.
Objectives
This study examines the impact of basic and technology‐related educational policies on the development of computational thinking.
Methods
Using supervised machine learning, the computational thinking achievements of 31,823 eighth graders across nine countries were analysed. Seven rule‐based and tree‐based classification models were generated and triangulated to determine how educational policies predicted students' computational thinking.
Results and conclusions
Predictions show that students have a higher propensity to develop computational thinking skills when schools exercise full autonomy in governance and explicitly embed computational thinking in their curriculum. Plans to support students, teachers and schools with technology or introduce 1:1 computing have no discernible predicted influence on students' computational thinking achievement.
Implications
Although predictions deduced from these attributes are not generalizable, traces of how educational policies affect computational thinking exist to articulate more fronts for future research on the influence of educational policies on computational thinking.
... In addition to predictors, the present study also contributes to broadening the scope of assessing problem-solving from domain-specific programming tasks towards a domain-independent context. This is aligned with emerging educational movements, including computer science unplugged, computational thinking, and block-based programming environments, which advocate that learning programming tends to foster general problem-solving skills [120]. ...
Programming is acknowledged widely as a cornerstone skill in Computer Science education. Despite significant efforts to refine teaching methodologies, a segment of students is still at risk of failing programming courses. It is crucial to identify potentially struggling students at risk of underperforming or academic failure. This study explores the predictive potential of students’ problem-solving skills through dynamic, domain-independent, complex problem-solving assessment. To evaluate the predictive potential of complex problem-solving empirically, a case study with 122 participants was conducted in the undergraduate Introductory Programming Course at the University of Maribor, Slovenia. A latent variable approach was employed to examine the associations. The study results showed that complex problem-solving has a strong positive effect on performance in Introductory Programming Courses. According to the results of structural equation modeling, 64% of the variance in programming performance is explained by complex problem-solving ability. Our findings indicate that complex problem-solving performance could serve as a significant, cognitive, dynamic predictor, applicable to the Introductory Programming Course. Moreover, we present evidence that the demonstrated approach could also be used to predict success in the broader computing education community, including K-12, and the wider education landscape. Apart from predictive potential, our results suggest that valid and reliable instruments for assessing complex problem-solving could also be used for assessing general-purpose, domain-independent problem-solving skills in computing education. Likewise, the results confirmed the positive effect of previous programming experience on programming performance. On the other hand, there was no significant direct effect of performance in High School mathematics on Introductory Programming.
... Moreover, as programming becomes more widespread, learning to code has emerged as a popular trend. Coding basics are now being incorporated into K-12 education in many countries [6,7], with Microsoft founder Bill Gates advocating coding as a "basic skill that every student should learn in the 21st century" [8], leading to an expanding demographic of learners. However, learning to code is challenging [9,10], with beginners often struggling with complex logic and tedious fundamentals, spending considerable time and effort. ...
The application of artificial intelligence (AI) in programming assistance has garnered researchers’ attention for its potential to reduce learning costs for users, increase work efficiency, and decrease repetitive coding tasks. However, given the novelty of AI Coding Assistant Tools (AICATs), user acceptance is currently limited, and the factors influencing this phenomenon are unclear. This study proposes an expanded model based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that incorporates the characteristics of AICAT users to explore the key factors affecting college students’ willingness to use AICATs. Utilizing a survey methodology, 303 Chinese participants completed the questionnaire. Factor analysis and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) results indicate that users’ dependence worry (DW) about AICATs positively affects perceived risk (PR), which in turn negatively impacts perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU), thus reducing user willingness to use. Dependence concerns also negatively impact perceived trust (PT), while PT positively affects PU and PEOU, thereby enhancing willingness to use. Additionally, a user’s self-efficacy (SE) negatively impacts DW and positively affects PEOU. This study discusses the potential significance of these findings and offers suggestions for AICAT developers to foster and promote widespread use.
... There are examples where coding is less beneficial for enhancing learning (Hayes & Stewart, 2016), and as Popat and Starkey (2019) write, "if the academic aim is for students to learn mathematical problem solving, teaching these skills directly is more effective than learning these through coding" (p. 371). ...
The growing use of programming in mathematics classrooms presents a challenge linked to implementation in general and task design in particular. This article presents design ideas for mathematical problems incorporating programming in which the focus remains mainly on learning mathematics and less on learning programming. The article starts by reviewing the theoretical background for technology implementation and design, and then presents the methodology for the design, before exploring and discussing the design ideas with an in-depth example. Building on the idea of adidactical situations from the theory of didactical situations, the design illustrates a possible way of implementing programming in the mathematics classroom to facilitate mathematical learning.
... Por lo tanto, es esencial que la educación matemática en la primera etapa de la educación primaria se ofrezca con la suficiente eficiencia para asegurar la mejora de dichas habilidades cognitivas. Otra razón de la necesidad de ofrecer una educación matemática efectiva en la primera etapa de la educación primaria es el hecho de que los años de la escuela primaria coinciden con el período en el que los niños desarrollan habilidades básicas mientras su desarrollo cognitivo ocurre a mayor velocidad (Popat & Starkey, 2019). ...
Las matemáticas son una habilidad importante que todos los estudiantes deberían tener la oportunidad de aprender. Al utilizar métodos de enseñanza eficaces y crear un entorno de aprendizaje positivo, se contribuye a que los estudiantes tengan éxito en matemáticas. En este estudio se trabajó con una muestra de 60 estudiantes de tercer año de educación general básica de la unidad educativa Buena Esperanza, en Ecuador. Se distribuyeron en dos grupos: experimental y control. Se realizó una intervención educativa donde se capacitó al grupo experimental de 30 estudiantes; la intervención estuvo enfocada en desarrollar el razonamiento lógico de los estudiantes. Los resultados demostraron que los niños que entrenaron su razonamiento lógico progresaron más en matemáticas que un grupo de control que no recibió esta capacitación. Se observó que el aprendizaje de los estudiantes fue efectivo, su motivación y participación fueron altas durante la intervención. Los profesores encontraron la estrategia propuesta viable. Según las opiniones de los profesores y expertos consultados, la estrategia ha sido descrita como fácilmente aplicable, divertida y efectiva.
... However, like other educational reforms that are scaled up by bureaucratic industrialists, Logo was largely ineffectual in schooling, compounded by technical incompatibilities and the limited functionality of school computers of the time (Hickmott et al., 2018). Coding quickly receded as technology programs in education began to prioritize word processing in the 1980s and internet search skills in the 1990s (Popat & Starkey, 2019). ...
Teaching coding and computational thinking is an emerging educational imperative, now embedded in compulsory curriculum in the United States, Finland, the UK, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Australia. This meta-synthesis of 49 studies critically reviews recent international research (2009-2022) of coding and computational thinking as core and integrated across the curriculum. It addresses four essential problems: (a) What are the key features of learning environments that successfully develop students' coding and computational thinking? (b) What is the impact of student engagement in coding and computational thinking on learning outcomes across curriculum areas? (c) What pedagogical constraints are evident for coding and computational thinking, including across curriculum areas? and (d) Which conceptual frameworks support coding and computational thinking, and what has been marginalized or excluded? The review advances knowledge of coding and computational thinking-vital to guide and develop future AI-based solutions to real-world problems that challenge disciplinary boundaries.
Digitalisasi pendidikan menjadi permasalahan mendasar ketika pemahamannya hanya menggunakan media pembelajaran teknologi. Maka dari itu kebutuhan kebijakan teknologi pendidikan harus dikaji lebih mendalam dari berbagai referensi untuk menemukan konsep kebutuhan yang sebenarnya. Sehingga penemuan konsep sederhana harus dilakukan untuk penerapannya di lingkungan sekolah dasar (SD). Tujuan penulisan artikel ini untuk mendapatkan konsep litersi digital sepanjang hayat di lingkungan SD . Penggunaan meta-analisis sederhana digunakan mengkaji literatur, kriteria, dan analisis karakteristik diberbagai literatur. Data base Google Scholar, Eric, Springer lebih digunakan untuk mengkaji 300 lebih artikel dalam kurun waktu 10 tahun terakhir, guna mencari kata kunci dengan tema literasi digital dan implementasi di SD. Hasil dan pembahasan menunjukkan bahwa kebijakan literasi digital harus diadakan dilingkungan SD guna menemukan; 1) Pembelajaran Digital Sepanjang Hayat; 2) Kebutuhan Pembelajaran Digital Disetiap Lembaga; dan 3) Terakhir Khusus Implementasinya pada Satuan Pendidikan Khusus di SD. Hasil dan pembahasan setiap poin dapat lebih lanjut dibaca pada tulisan ini akan digital sepanjang hayat dan menggunakan pendekatan student centered learning. Kedepan hasil dari meta-analisis sederhana ini diharapkan dapat menambah konsep dasar penerapan teknologi literasi digital untuk praktisi dan guru sebagai dasar teoritis dan praktis lebih lanjut.
Southeastern Louisiana University offered a program to prepare high school teachers to pass the computer science PRAXIS exam. This report evaluated the effectiveness of that program.
This chapter aims to provide computer science stakeholders with a perspective on teaching programming through metaphors. The chapter emphasises that the difficulties encountered in learning programming stem from the structure of programming as a learning task, individual traits, and many factors, including curriculum and teaching approaches as interactional setting variables. First, the need for pedagogical approach to teaching programming is emphasized, briefly introducing the teaching approaches used in programming. Teaching programming through metaphor is introduced as an alternative approach to teaching programming concepts. It explains metaphor as a concept, conceptual metaphor theory, and the use of metaphor in teaching programming concepts. Then, the need to reveal the pattern of the teaching process through in-depth qualitative studies is highlighted as a future research direction. Finally, it is argued that using metaphor is not limited to teaching of concepts, but can also improve thinking skills, differentiate teaching and support teachers' professional development.
Purpose - As the era of technology continues to evolve, programming education has garnered a growing amount of interest. Programming has an important role in preparing students and arming them with the language of the future. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the importance of programming, discuss the pedagogical philosophy of how programming is taught, identify the barriers to the proper implementation of programming education in UAE primary schools, and finally find solutions to overcome these barriers.
Methodology - The study adopted a mixed methods approach to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. Thirteen ICT teachers, from different schools in the UAE, were interviewed in the qualitative study to investigate their perception of the teaching of programming to primary students. A questionnaire was used in the quantitative study. The questionnaire distributed to parents who have kids in primary school in the UAE received responses from 499 parents. The primary goal of the questionnaire is to validate the interview results as well as understand the parents' perspectives towards their kids' experiences with the programming being taught at school.
Findings - The analysis of data revealed that the good application of programming education in UAE schools is yet to be accomplished. There is a need to reform the teaching of programming in primary schools in the UAE and to raise awareness about it and its importance in the schools.
Implications - One significant implication is that teaching programming should be taken seriously by educational policymakers and school leaders as a core subject that should be taught to all students. The study also contributed to the growing body of literature on the value of programming skills and the role of the appropriate curriculum in developing these skills. It also makes some recommendations to the MOE, the school inspections team, school managers, and teachers in order to improve education programming and overcome challenges in UAE primary schools.
Originality/value - This study provides new insights at both practical and scholarly levels. It can shed light on the field's expansion prospects. The outcomes of this study may assist educational policymakers in better implementing programming education, particularly in primary school. Moreover, it helps teachers better prepare for the problems that primary students may encounter with learning programming in schools.
Block-based visual programming tools are widely used in elementary education. Nonetheless, these tools alone may not ensure the spontaneous and efficient acquisition of concepts and skills in computational thinking (CT). Using mind mapping as a form of scaffolding to facilitate the visualization of abstract thinking processes may enhance the effectiveness of programming instruction. This study therefore investigated the effects of mind mapping-based scaffolding that integrates five CT skills on elementary students’ CT development. Eighty-six fifth-grade students participated in our pretest-posttest quasi-experimental study. In the experimental group, mind mapping-based scaffolding was used to help students learn programming, while in the comparison group it was not used. The results showed that both groups achieved significant improvements in concept understanding and skill development; however, students instructed using mind mapping-based scaffolding obtained notably superior performance in understanding CT concepts and mastering CT skills. The results also revealed that the students had positive perceptions of mind mapping-based scaffolding, although challenges were also identified. This study enriches the relevant empirical research and offers insights for practitioners on designing effective scaffolding to promote students’ CT development.
This chapter considers ways in which educators can create their own educational applications to integrate into their teaching. It is argued that interactive uses of technology can aid student engagement and encourage uptake of skills presented to them. Today, tools available allow everyone to create not only static websites, but also functional applications. It is possible to get started without knowing how to code, empowering anyone with an interest in technology to become a creator. While these no and low code solutions may come with some restrictions, they may encourage users to explore more traditional ways to engage with code and its possibilities for teaching. The chapter aims to encourage readers to look at technology as a creative practice to include into their teaching. It suggests strategies to help readers select the most appropriate tool for their projects.
Argumentation is an important practice and an explicit goal in educational standards in multiple STEM disciplines. In this descriptive study of elementary teachers' practice, we draw on established frameworks to analyze teacher support for collective argumentation in integrated STEM. We watched over 100 h of video of classroom instruction from 10 elementary teachers and analyzed over 200 episodes of argumentation. We constructed an analytic methodology to categorize integrated STEM tasks, which draws on integrated STEM education literature and selected those teachers from our data who engaged their students in integrated STEM tasks, resulting in an in-depth analysis of five teachers' practice. We found that the teachers supported students by contributing argument components, using a variety of questions and other supportive actions, and adapting their contributions and supports in different settings. Previous research on collective argumentation has been discipline specific; our study contributes an analysis of teacher support for collective argumentation in integrated STEM.
This chapter delves into the profound impact of programming in transforming contemporary education and developing cognitive skills essential for the twenty-first century. It underscores programming’s ubiquitous presence, extending beyond traditional computing, and weaving into the fabric of everyday experiences. The chapter highlights the pivotal role of programming in educational analytics, providing educators with essential tools for analyzing student performance and data-driven decision-making. It emphasizes coding as a universal language, vital across diverse fields, propelled by the rise of big data, AI, and machine learning. The cognitive benefits of learning to code, including enhanced problem-solving and logical thinking, are explored, showcasing its necessity for all students. Additionally, the chapter discusses how coding fosters creativity, persistence, and confidence, equipping students to address challenges innovatively. Finally, it examines coding’s impact in non-traditional sectors, revealing its importance in strategic corporate decision-making. This chapter provides comprehensive insights into how programming is reshaping education, cognitive skills, and professional landscapes.
The study was carried out with 18 primary school students (11 girls, 7 boys) who participated in programming training conducted at a university. In this research, the implementation of programming activities in the whole classroom is a case study. While trying to understand the phenomena during the implementation of the activities in the study, a quasi-experimental design was carried out without a control group in order to determine the changes before and after learning and to investigate the research questions. In this quasi-experimental design, measurements were made both before the implementation (pre-test) and after the implementation (post-test). The results showed that the combination of plugged and unplugged programming activities help improve primary school students' computational thinking skills. At the end of the study, it was concluded that unplugged and plugged activities would be beneficial for primary school students when used together. Further research is needed to evaluate these activities separately, their role in providing the gains, and the students' thoughts about these activities. In addition, the effects of using different teaching methods in programming education can be examined.
In this paper we investigate whether computer programming has an impact on high school student’s reasoning skills, problem solving and self-efficacy in Mathematics. The quasi-experimental design was adopted to implement the study. The sample of the research comprised 66 high school students separated into two groups, the experimental and the control group according to their educational orientation. The research findings indicate that there is a significant difference in the reasoning skills of students that participated in the “programming course” compared to students that did not. Moreover, the self-efficacy indicator of students that participated in the experimental group showed a significant difference from students in the control group. The results however, failed to support the hypothesis that computer programming significantly enhances student’s problem solving skills.
Recent government moves in many countries have seen coding included in school curricula, or promoted as part of computing, mathematics or science programmes. While these moves have generally been associated with a need to engage more young people in technology study, research has hinted at possible benefits from learning to program including fostering general thinking skills. However, little research has been carried out exploring these ideas. This study analysed data collected while 5‐ and 6‐year‐old students in a New Zealand primary school were using Scratch Jnr. to learn about basic shapes, as part of a numeracy topic. Analysis combined Brennan and Resnick's (2012) computational thinking skills framework and Krathwohl's (2002) revision of Bloom's Taxonomy to evaluate any role general thinking skills played in these students' coding work. Results suggest including basic coding in primary curricula provides teachers with an effective means of exercising their students' general and higher order thinking skills. They build on Brennan and Resnick's (2012) framework by including conceptualization as an important element in students' computational work and highlight the role of predictive thinking in debugging code. Findings support historical arguments that more needs to be done to investigate students' cognitive processes when undertaking computational work.
Lay description
What is already known about the topic
Computational learning is an emerging area of school curricula;
Limited research exists exploring thinking processes within computational learning;
Early studies challenge more recent claims of thinking skill transfer from computational work.
What this paper adds
Computational work supports a range of general and higher order thinking skills;
Task design and teacher skills are critical to achieving higher order thinking outcomes from computational work;
Computational work in teams can support collaborative, cooperative and self‐management key competencies.
Implications for practice and/or policy
Findings broaden the base of empirical support for including computational work in school curricula;
Coding provides an engaging means of exercising complex thinking skills and key competencies in students;
The data methods used provide teachers with visible evidence of students' thinking processes during computational work.
[Full text freely available at http://www.informingscience.org/Publications/3521]
The introduction of computer programming in K-12 has become mainstream in the last years, as countries around the world are making coding part of their curriculum. Nevertheless, there is a lack of empirical studies that investigate how learning to program at an early age affects other school subjects. In this regard, this paper compares three quasi-experimental research designs conducted in three different schools (n=129 students from 2nd and 6th grade), in order to assess the impact of introducing programming with Scratch at different stages and in several subjects. While both 6th grade experimental groups working with coding activities showed a statistically significant improvement in terms of academic performance, this was not the case in the 2nd grade classroom. Notable disparity was also found regarding the subject in which the programming activities were included, as in social studies the effect size was double that in mathematics.
In this paper we have examined the position and roles of Computer Science in curricula in the light of recent calls for curriculum change and we have proposed principles and issues to consider in curriculum design as well as identifying priority areas for further research. The paper is based on discussions within and beyond the International Federation of Information Processing (IFIP) Education Community since 2012 as well as an analysis of curriculum developments in five different countries. Emerging themes have been discussed with reference to important perspectives from curriculum theory including “powerful knowledge” as a key element of entitlement and management of the growth of expertise. Based on this analysis we have identified areas of consensus as well as constraints, risks and issues that are still subject to controversy. There is an emerging consensus of the importance of Computer Science and the nature of its “powerful knowledge”. Furthermore current understanding of the opportunities and benefits for starting to learn Computer Science early in primary schools has identified this early start as an entitlement and equity issue. There is a strong consensus that teacher professional development in Computer Science Education is critical for supporting curriculum change and is currently a major challenge in many countries. Other key issues include understanding how the growth of expertise affects potential structure and sequencing in the curriculum and the balance of content. Further considerations include how new technological opportunities interact with pedagogical approaches and can provide new potential for the growth of expertise.
Students in secondary education strive hard enough to understand basic programming concepts. With all that is known regarding the benefits of programming, little is the published evidence showing how high school students can learn basic programming concepts following innovative instructional formats correctly with the respect to gain/enhance their computational thinking skills. This distinction has caused lack of their motivation and interest in Computer Science courses. This case study presents the opinions of twenty-eight (n = 28) high school students who participated voluntarily in a 3D-game-like environment created in Second Life. This environment was combined with the 2D programming environment of Scratch4SL for the implementation of programming concepts (i.e. sequence and concurrent programming commands) in a blended instructional format. An instructional framework based on Papert's theory of Constructionism to assist students how to coordinate or manage better the learning material in collaborative practice-based learning activities is also proposed. By conducting a mixed-method research, before and after finishing several learning tasks, students’ participation in focus group (qualitative data) and their motivation based on their experiences (quantitative data) are measured. Findings indicated that an instructional design framework based on Constructionism for acquiring or empowering students’ social, cognitive, higher order and computational thinking skills is meaningful. Educational implications and recommendations for future research are also discussed.
Various aspects of computational thinking, which builds on the power and limits of computing processes, whether they are executed by a human or by a machine, are discussed. Computational methods and models are helping to solve problems, design systems, and understand human behavior, by drawing on concepts fundamental to computer science (CS). Computational thinking (CT) is using abstraction and decomposition when attacking a large complex task or designing a large complex systems. CT is the way of thinking in terms of prevention, protection, and recovery from worst-case scenarios through redundancy, damage containment, and error correction. CT is using heuristic reasoning to discover a solution and using massive amount of data to speed up computation. CT is a futuristic vision to guide computer science educators, researchers, and practitioners to change society's image of the computer science field.
Computer programming is perceived as an important competence for the development of problem solving skills in addition to logical reasoning. Hence, its integration throughout all educational levels, as well as the early ages, is considered valuable and research studies are carried out to explore the phenomenon in more detail. In light of these facts, this study is an exploratory effort to investigate the effect of Scratch programming on 5th grade primary school students' prob� lem solving skills. Moreover, the researchers wondered what 5th grade primary school students think about programming. This study was carried out in an explanatory sequential mixed methods design with the participation of 49 primary school students. According to the quantitative results, programming in Scratch platform did not cause any significant differences in the problem solving skills of the primary school students. There is only a non-significant increase in the mean of the fac� tor of " self-confidence in their problem solving ability " . When the thoughts of the primary students were considered, it can be clearly stated that all the students liked programming and wanted to improve their programming. Finally, most of the students found the Scratch platform easy to use. Keywords: programming and programming languages� elementary education� improving class� programming and programming languages� elementary education� improving class� room teaching.
One of the biggest problems in teaching Mathematics is the motivation of students (Kloosterman, 1997; Lambić, 2008). The core
of this problem is insufficient comprehension of reasons by students, why they want to learn Mathematics and in which way
they could apply acquired knowledge of Mathematics (Southwell, 1994; Musto, 2008). Since programming is closely connected
to Mathematics, this try has been compiled to make Mathematics closer to students with a help of working with software C++
Builder. The students from higher grades of elementary schools, high school students and university students have been participating
in this project. Without previous knowledge of programming languages, the students were given tasks to create a certain computer
program. The students have been making programs by inventing algorithms and setting visual components of the program, while
the teacher, on their request, has been doing programming as part of the work. At the end of the project, the students have
shown much better attitude towards the Mathematics class than before, and they have also obtained certain skills and knowledge
in the programming field.
A comprehensive and practical textbook on research methods, including quantitative, qualitative, and mixed.
Jeannette Wing’s influential article on computational thinking 6 years ago argued for adding this new competency to every child’s analytical ability as a vital ingredient of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning. What is computational thinking? Why did this article resonate with so many and serve as a rallying cry for educators, education researchers, and policy makers? How have they interpreted Wing’s definition, and what advances have been made since Wing’s article was published? This article frames the current state of discourse on computational thinking in K–12 education by examining mostly recently published academic literature that uses Wing’s article as a springboard, identifies gaps in research, and articulates priorities for future inquiries.
We are witnessing a remarkable comeback of programming. Current initiatives to promote computational thinking and to broaden participation in computing signal a renewed interest to bring programming back into K-12 schools and help develop children as producers and not simply consumers of digital media. This essay explores the re-emergence of programming in K-12 schools, addressing three questions in particular: First, what is the role of programming in facilitating children’s learning with digital media? Second, how can schools play a more prominent role in supporting such coded production as a veritable new literacy for the 21st century? Third, what are some of the systemic equity issues of access and participation that will need to be addressed? Given these questions facing schools as well as the wider economic viability of this country, it is crucial that we understand the importance of programming as a means to process and communicate information, how it relates to developing minds through computational thinking, and why computational participation as an extension of such thinking represents our best chance to teach programming in schools.
Investigated 3 kinds of changes that could occur when a child learns to program in Logo: changes in the child's knowledge of the specific features of the Logo language, changes in the child's thinking within the domain of programming, and changes in the child's thinking in domains beyond programming. Novice programmers for 4th-grade classes were given three sessions of Logo learning, with a Logo test given after each session, and a test of spatial cognition given before and after learning. Children showed a general increase in their knowledge of Logo across the three sessions, as indicated by increasing proportions of correct answers on the Logo test. Children showed a reduction in their misconceptions related to Logo, namely, egocentric bugs such as thinking "turn right" means to turn to the right side of the screen rather than to the turtle's right, and interpretation bugs such as thinking "turn right" means to turn and then keep moving. Children who lost their egocentric misconceptions or who never had them showed pretest-to-posttest gains on a test of spatial cognition, whereas egocentric children did not. Results provide some preliminary evidence that productive learning of a programming language involves a chain of cognitive changes, with lower-level changes facilitating higher-level changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Bloom’s Taxonomy is difficult to apply consistently to assessment tasks in introductory programming courses. The Bloom taxonomy is a valuable tool that could enable analysis and discussion of programming assessment if it could be interpreted consistently. We discuss each of the Bloom classification categories and provide a consistent interpretation with concrete exemplars that will allow computer science educators to utilise Bloom’s Taxonomy for programming assessment. Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to help design examinations could greatly improve the quality of assessment in introductory programming
courses.
Full test available from: http://crpit.com/confpapers/CRPITV78Thompson.pdf
This paper critically examines current thinking about whether learning computer programming promotes the development of general higher mental functions. We show how the available evidence, and the underlying assumptions about the process of learning to program, fail to address this issue adequately. Our analysis is based on a developmental cognitive science perspective on learning to program, incorporating developmental and cognitive science considerations of the mental activities involved in programming. It highlights the importance for future research of investigating students' interactions with instructional and programming contexts, developmental transformations of their programming skills, and their background knowledge and reasoning abilities.
Six key questions will help readers to assess qualitative research
Digital technology offers new possibilities for children to play, express themselves, learn, and communicate. A recent development in online practice is a shift toward youth engaged in computer programming online communities. Programming is argued to be the new literacy of the millennium. In this article, I examine the use of Scratch, an online programming community, as a means to support digital literacy for early adolescent gifted, talented, and creative students. In addition, I share the experiences of an early adolescent gifted student with Scratch and consider the use of Scratch to promote interdisciplinary curricular concepts.
There is a common intuition among those in computer science education that programming encourages the development of good problem-solving skills. The term “problem solving” has a broader and deeper meaning than what is implied by its educational association with mathematics. This is an exciting idea, especially when one considers how the concept of problem solving has been synonymous with human endeavors of the best possible kind, with the mastery of the physical, social, and intellectual worlds we live in. Computer environments make it possible for students to experience some of the deeper ideas that underlie a correct understanding of what human problem solving entails. Students learn best in settings where they can move from the empirical to the theoretical and back again freely. This coincides with the way real problem-solvers function. Low-cost microcomputers make it possible to incorporate these ideas into mathematics curricula and also into new courses in computer science and computer literacy.
Background:
Previous research found that pre-teenage ability to derive arbitrary 'same', 'opposite', 'more', and 'less' relations correlated with measured intelligence quotient (IQ) and that training this derived relational responding (DRR) skill produced substantial IQ rises.
Aims:
This study extended previous work by comparing the effects of DRR training (using strengthening mental abilities with relational training [SMART], an automated online training protocol) with the effects of a similar quantity of training in 'Scratch' computer coding.
Sample:
Twenty-eight children (13 girls) aged 10-11 (M = 10.34) participated, all members of the same class in a primary school in Co. Limerick, Ireland.
Methods:
Participants were tested before and after training for DRR ability as well as on standardized tests of IQ and academic attainment. Training time was limited to 29 hrs over two academic semesters in twice-weekly 1-hr instalments.
Results:
Significant improvements were seen in measures of overall intellectual performance; in digit span and letter/number sequencing; and in academic attainment, including spelling, reading, and numerical operations, in the SMART/DRR group alone, and there was significantly more improvement on these measures in the SMART/DRR group than in the Scratch group.
Conclusions:
These findings extend the evidence that training DRR can produce improvements in intellectual and academic ability.
Several authors and studies highlight the benefits of the integration of Computer Science into K-12 education. Applications such as Scratch have been demonstrated to be effective in educational environments. The aim of this study is to assess the use of a Visual Programming Language using Scratch in classroom practice, analyzing the outcomes and attitudes of 107 primary school students from 5th to 6th grade in five different schools in Spain. The intervention takes place in two academic years analyzing the practice of integrating coding and visual blocks programming in sciences and arts. The “Computational concepts and computational practices” dimension details a quasi-experimental approach, which showed significant improvement regarding learning programming concepts, logic, and computational practices with an active approach. The “Learning processes and coding in primary education” dimension analyzes the practice of the experimental group through questionnaires and structured observation. In this pedagogical design, students interact and create their own content related to curricular areas with several advantages, such as motivation, fun, commitment, and enthusiasm, showing improvements related to computational thinking and computational practices. Understanding of computational concepts through an active approach, Project Based Learning, usefulness, motivation, and commitment underline the importance and effectiveness of implementing a Visual Programming Language from active methodologies in primary education. Due to the aforementioned benefits and positive results obtained in this research, it is recommended to implement a Visual Programming Language in educational settings in 5th and 6th grade in primary education through a cross-curricular implementation.
The purpose of this study was to investigate transfer effects of a high school BASIC programming course on skills in mathematical modeling, procedural comprehension, and verbal problem solution. The sample consisted of 44 BASIC students, 44 computer literacy students, and 44 students who had no computer training. Results indicated no significant differences in scores among groups for mathematical modeling or procedural comprehension; however, the BASIC group scored significantly higher than the other two groups on verbal problem solution (p <.01). Neither the gender x treatment interaction nor gender alone was found to be a significant source of score variance. Although the variance caused by student grade level was not significant, a significant interaction was found between group membership and grade level with respect to verbal problems (p <.02). Implications for computer education are offered.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between BASIC programming language instruction and high school students’ problem solving skills and computer anxiety. Specific attention was placed on five critical issues concerning this area of research: (a) sufficient attention to problem solving theory, (b) issues related to the programming treatment, (c) the programming language selected and the method of instruction, (d) system-related issues, and (e) the selection of an appropriate sample. Twenty-two high school students participated in a 15-week computer treatment, 11 of whom received BASIC instruction and the other 11 received general Computer Literacy instruction. Students in the BASIC treatment group showed a significant increase in their problem solving ability, whereas the students in the Computer Literacy treatment did not. Although both groups did show a significant decrease in computer anxiety, there was no significant difference between the groups. There were also significant positive relationships between computer performance and problem solving for the BASIC group. These results are discussed in terms of designing programming/problem solving research, as well as general curricular issues related to programming instruction.
Programming is more than just coding, for, it exposes students to computational thinking which involves problem-solving using computer science concepts like abstraction and decomposition. Even for non-computing majors, computational thinking is applicable and useful in their daily lives. The three dimensions of computational thinking are computational concepts, computational practices and computational perspectives. In recent years, the availability of free and user-friendly programming languages has fuelled the interest of researchers and educators to explore how computational thinking can be introduced in K-12 contexts. Through an analysis of 27 available intervention studies, this paper presents the current trends of empirical research in the development of computational thinking through programming and suggests possible research and instructional implications. From the review, we propose that more K-12 intervention studies centering on computational practices and computational perspectives could be conducted in the regular classroom. To better examine these two dimensions, students could be asked to verbalize their thought process using think aloud protocol while programming and their on-screen programming activity could be captured and analyzed. Predetermined categories based on both past and recent programming studies could be used to guide the analysis of the qualitative data. As for the instructional implication, it is proposed that a constructionism-based problem-solving learning environment, with information processing, scaffolding and reflection activities, could be designed to foster computational practices and computational perspectives.
Computer programming is considered an important competence for the development of higher-order thinking in addition to algorithmic problem solving skills. Its horizontal integration throughout all educational levels is considered worthwhile and attracts the attention of researchers. Towards this direction, an exploratory case study is presented concerning dimensions of problem solving using computer programming by 5–6 years old kindergarten children. After a short introductory experiential game the children were involved in solving a series of analogous computer programming problems, using a Logo-based environment on an Interactive White Board. The intervention was designed as a part of the structured learning activities of the kindergarten which are teacher-guided and are conducted in a whole-class social mode. The observation of the video recording of the intervention along with the analysis of teacher's interview and the researcher's notes allow for a realistic evaluation of the feasibility, the appropriateness and the learning value of integrating computer programming in such a context. The research evidence supports the view that children enjoyed the engaging learning activities and had opportunities to develop mathematical concepts, problem solving and social skills. Interesting results about children learning, difficulties, interactions, problem solving strategies and the teacher's role are reported. The study also provides proposals for the design of future research.
This paper provides an historical and empirical critique of the claim that learning to program will promote the development of general higher mental functions. A developmental perspective on learning to program is provided which incorporates cognitive science studies of mental activities involved in programming, and highlights the importance of programming contexts, instructional contexts, and a student's relevant background knowledge and reasoning skills for the task of learning to program. The following topics are discussed: claims for cognitive effects of learning to program; the developmental role of contexts in learning to program; the programming environment; the instructional environment; what constitutes skilled programming; levels of programming skill development; cognitive constraints on learning to program; and evidence for cognitive effects of programming. Types of transfer outcomes expected from each of the different levels of programming skill development are described, and a concluding statement and a 14-page list of references are included. (Author/THC)
The effects of 1 academic year of experience with Logo programming were studied in two areas: problem-solving and spatial relations. The subjects were fifth-and sixth-grade students from two public elementary schools, one school serving as the treatment group and one as the control. Two computer programs, The Factory and Teasers by Tobbs, were used to assess problem-solving differences. Spatial relations ability was measured by subtests of the CTMM and PMA. Data analysis revealed significant differences between treatment and control groups on both problem-solving measures and one of the three spatial relations tests. The results are discussed in light of previous findings.
Young people interact with games, animations, and simulations all of the time. But few of them are able to create interactive media. The obstacle: traditional programming languages are too difficult to learn and understand. This panel brings together a group of researchers, developers, and educators who are aiming to democratize the activity of programming. They are developing a new generation of programming environments that enable children and teens to create their own interactive games, stories, animations, and simulations. Panelists will discuss and critique their programming environments, then set up interactive demonstration stations for focused exploration and small-group discussion. Audience members will also have the opportunity to download the environments onto their own laptops, so that they can experiment in greater depth.
Formal mathematical methods remain, for most high school students, mysterious, artificial and not a part of their regular intuitive thinking. The authors develop some themes that could lead to a radically new approach. According to this thesis, the teaching of programming languages as a regular part of academic progress can contribute effectively to reduce formal barriers. This education can also be used to enable pupils to access an accurate understanding of some key mathematical concepts. In the field of heuristic knowledge for technical problem solving, experience of programming is no less valuable: it lends itself to promote a discussion of relations between formal procedures and the comprehension of intuitive problem solving and provides examples for the development of heuristic precepts (formulating a plan, subdividing the complexities, etc.). The knowledge gained in programming can also be used for the discussion of concepts and problems of classical mathematics. Finally, it can also facilitate the expansion of mathematical culture to topics in biological and physical sciences, linguistics, etc. The authors describe a programming language called 'Logo' adapted to objectify an enduring framework of mathematical experimentation.
Mitchel Resnick's book is one of the very few in the field of computing with an interdisciplinary discourse that can reach beyond the technical community to philsoophers, psychologists, and historians and sociologists of science. -- Sherry Turkle, Professor, Program in Science, Technology, and Society, Massachusetts Institute of Technology "Resnick's work provides a rare glimpse of what I am sure will become a new paradigm for research in education." -- Seymour Papert How does a bird flock...
The second coming of coding: will it bring rapture or rejection
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Computing our future. Computer programming and coding. Priorities, school curricula and initiatives across Europe. Brussels: European Schoolnet
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Doing your literature review: Traditional and systematic techniques
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Teaching and learning computer programming: Multiple research perspectives
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The Global Information Technology Report: Readiness for the Networked World
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Does computer programming enhance problem solving ability? Some positive evidence on algebra word problems. Computer Literacy: Issues and directions for 1985
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Technology in the New Zealand curriculum
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An in-depth analysis of teaching themes and the quality of teaching in Higher Education: Evidence from the programming education environments
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The second coming of coding: Will it bring rapture or rejection?
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