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LMX and employee organizational citizenship behaviors: Moderation by job insecurity climate
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1 8 A B S T R A C T 18This study investigated the effect of differences in age, education and tenure on organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). The purposive sample comprised 839 permanently employed staff in a railway organisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Participants completed the Organisational Citizenship Behaviour Questionnaire (OCBQ) and provided demographic data. Data were analysed using multiple regressions and an independent samples t-test to determine the effects of the demographic variables, namely age, education and tenure, on OCB. The results indicated they have signifi cant effects on OCB and that age, education and organisational tenure respectively differed signifi cantly in their effect on OCB. The fi ndings provided evidence that the impact of demographic variables on employee behaviour should be considered in the context of cultural interventions and recruitment practices.
Although downsizing and reorganisation are recognised as serious threats to the psychological well-being of employees, intervention strategies for addressing these events are limited. This study evaluated the effects of a participatory organisational-level intervention in which employees and managers chose to address the psychosocial consequences, specifically job insecurity, of restructuring. The intervention was conducted among postal service letter carriers in Denmark and was evaluated based on quantitative and qualitative data. Using interviews (N = 24) and observations, the programme theory of the intervention and to what extent the intervention had been implemented were assessed. Using survey data (N = 238), repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted to test for differences in the development of job insecurity between the intervention group and a comparison group. The results indicate that the intervention group had a significantly smaller increase in one dimension of job insecurity as compared to the comparison group. Therefore, we conclude that employees’ experiencing of job insecurity, which typically follows in the wake of restructuring, can be addressed by planned efforts at the workplace level.
Job insecurity has received growing attention from researchers because it poses serious challenges for organisations and for society as a whole. However, there are insufficient studies about the processes through which job insecurity affects outcomes as well as potential ways to reduce its negative impact. This study focuses on the relationship between job insecurity and individual-level outcomes (in-role performance and organisational deviance) and examines if (a) job insecurity is positively and/or negatively related to work outcomes, (b) psychological contract breach acts as a mediator of the relationship between job insecurity and work outcomes, and (c) positive psychological capital (PsyCap) buffers the job insecurity–work outcomes relationship via psychological contract breach. With a sample of 362 employee–supervisor dyads, in which the outcome measures were collected from the supervisors, we found support for our hypotheses. Specifically, we found a moderated mediation effect, whereby PsyCap moderates the negative indirect relationship of job insecurity on outcomes through psychological contract breach.
Job insecurity reflects a threat to the continuity and stability of employment as it is currently experienced. Job insecurity has been the focus of increasing scholarly and popular attention in light of technological, economic, and political changes over the past few decades that have left many insecure about the future of their jobs. Yet, conceptual ambiguities exist; the literature remains fragmented; and there lacks an overarching framework through which to organize and reconcile findings. The goal of this article is to offer an integrative review and conceptual framework that addresses these challenges and provides the groundwork for future research. To that end, it proposes a definition of job insecurity that differentiates it from potential antecedents, moderators, and outcomes. The article addresses antecedents and introduces a typology of mechanisms and threat foci that links antecedents to job insecurity and suggests yet unexplored predictors. Furthermore, the framework developed here considers four overarching mechanisms—stress, social exchange, job preservation motivation, and proactive coping—through which job insecurity leads to various outcomes, and it highlights potential competing tensions inherent in individuals’ responses. Finally, the framework introduces threat features, economic vulnerabilities, and psychological vulnerabilities as three overarching categories of variables that moderate reactions to job insecurity, and it identifies factors that contribute to each. In doing so, it suggests important levers through which to influence reactions to job insecurity; it helps explain variability in past research; and it provides a foundation for future work.
We review the literature on organizational climate and culture paying specific attention to articles published in the Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP) since its first volume in 1917. The article traces the history of the 2 constructs though JAP has been far more important for climate than culture research. We distinguish 4 main periods: the pre-1971 era, with pioneering work on exploring conceptualization and operationalizations of the climate construct; the 1971–1985 era, with foundational work on aggregation issues, outcome-focused climates (on safety and service) and early writings on culture; the 1986–1999 era, characterized by solidification of a focused climate approach to understanding organizational processes (justice, discrimination) and outcomes (safety, service) and the beginnings of survey approaches to culture; and the 2000–2014 era, characterized by multilevel work on climate, climate strength, demonstrated validity for a climate approach to outcomes and processes, and the relationship between leadership and climate and culture. We summarize and comment on the major theory and research achievements in each period, showing trends observed in the literature and how JAP has contributed greatly to moving research on these constructs, especially climate, forward. We also recommend directions for future research given the current state of knowledge.
In this study we examined the role of trait core self-evaluations (CSE) as a person-related resource, hypothesizing that the relationship between task complexity and performance would be positive for people high in trait CSE and negative for people low in trait CSE. Moreover, we hypothesized that trait CSE would influence the buffering effect of job-related resources on the complexity–performance relationship, with such a buffering effect showing for people high but not for people low in trait CSE. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a five-day spanning experience sampling study. Our results showed that trait CSE indeed influenced the complexity–performance relationship in the sense that this relationship was only positive for employees high in CSE. Results on the hypothesized three-way interaction between task complexity, job-related resources, and CSE were less univocal as only one out of four three-way interactions approached conventional levels of significance. By showing that the complexity–performance relationship is only positive for employees high in CSE, our results go against the well-accepted idea that challenge demands act as a two-edged sword for all employees alike. Instead, the effect of challenge demands on performance depends on the individual’s level of person-related resources.
*shared first authorship*
The present study examines job insecurity in the context of dual-earner couples. Linking Conservation of Resources Theory (e.g., Hobfoll, 1989) with crossover research (e.g., Westman, 2001), we proposed that a partner’s job insecurity constitutes an additional resource threat. Thus, the partner’s job insecurity would exacerbate a person’s negative reaction to his or her own job insecurity in terms of attitudinal (i.e., work engagement) and both, health- and withdrawal-related outcomes (i.e., psychological health and turnover intention). Using a time-lagged design and multi-source data from 171 mixed-gender dual-earner couples, multilevel path analysis applying the Actor-Partner-Interdependence Model revealed interesting gender differences. The negative relationship between the husband’s job insecurity and his work engagement was stronger the higher his wife’s job insecurity was. The data further showed a moderated mediation, such that the husband’s job insecurity was negatively and indirectly related to both psychological health and turnover intention (via reduced work engagement) if his wife experienced a medium or high level of job insecurity. Our study demonstrates the interactive effects of stressors in dual-earner couples, and highlights the importance of overcoming an overly individualistic perspective when studying job insecurity in particular, and stressors more generally.
Work in public and private sectors compared
Work in public and private sectors compared
During the past years, Dutch media made mention of work problems and social unrest in the public sectors. However, research did not focus very strongly on the quality of work in these sectors. Therefore the aim of this article is to describe working conditions and terms of employment in the public sectors in comparison with the private sectors in the Netherlands. The data used were gathered by TNO and Statistics Netherlands in 2010 with the annual Netherlands Working Conditions Survey. The 2010-sample contained 23.000 workers, representative for the Dutch work force.The analyses – centered on 10 public and 10 private sectors – show clearly that mental-emotional strain is higher in the public sectors than in private sectors. On the other hand, physical strain, dangerous work and irregular working hours, are encountered more frequently in the private sectors. In the public sectors employees work more with permanent contracts and in shorter working weeks. Work uncertainty is seen above average in the financial and commercial services and in the transportation sector, but also in government departments, the judiciary and the police. Feelings of burn out are found most often in the three educational sectors. Pay satisfaction is highest among workers in the financial services, higher education and government departments, and lowest in the police and the hotel and catering industry. On average overall work satisfaction is highest in the public sectors.In addition, the analyses show that the 10 public sectors cannot be seen as one whole; the same is true for the 10 private sectors. As far as the quality of work is concerned, government departments, local governments, provinces and higher education resemble commercial and financial services. But primary and secondary education, health care and the police differ significantly from the other public sectors.
The current study highlights rumours as an explanation of the reciprocal relationship between perceived organizational change communication and job insecurity. First, we predict that perceiving insufficient organizational change communication may result in rumours, which in turn may shape job insecurity perceptions. Second, we propose that rumours may also mediate the relationship between job insecurity and perceiving insufficient organizational change communication. To test the hypotheses, a multilevel approach was used, in which three measurements were nested within 1994 employees. This enabled us to probe within-person processes, while controlling for possible between-person variation. The results demonstrated a negative reciprocal relationship between perceived organizational change communication and job insecurity. Additionally, rumours mediated both the negative relationship between perceived organizational change communication and subsequent job insecurity, and the negative relationship between job insecurity and subsequent perceived organizational change communication. This study contributes to the literature on job insecurity by offering initial evidence on the relationship between job insecurity and rumours, and by highlighting rumours as a process through which perceived organizational change communication and job insecurity may mutually affect each other.
Previous research has established a causal link between individual perceptions of job insecurity and safety outcomes. However, whether job insecurity climate is associated with safety outcomes has not been studied. The purpose of the current study was to explore the main and cross-level interaction effects of affective job insecurity climate on safety outcomes, including behavioral safety compliance, reporting attitudes, workplace injuries, experienced safety events, unreported safety events, and accident underreporting, beyond individual affective job insecurity. With 171 employees nested in 40 workgroups, multilevel analyses revealed that the negative impacts of individual affective job insecurity on safety outcomes are exacerbated when they occur in a climate of high affective job insecurity. These results are interpreted in light of safety management efforts and suggest that efforts to create a secure climate within one's workgroup may reap safety-related benefits. (PsycINFO Database Record
The use of interrater reliability (IRR) and interrater agreement (IRA) indices has increased dramatically during the past 20 years. This popularity is, at least in part, because of the increased role of multilevel modeling techniques (e.g., hierarchical linear modeling and multilevel structural equation modeling) in organizational research. IRR and IRA indices are often used to justify aggregating lower-level data used in composition models. The purpose of the current article is to expose researchers to the various issues surrounding the use of IRR and IRA indices often used in conjunction with multilevel models. To achieve this goal, the authors adopt a question-and-answer format and provide a tutorial in the appendices illustrating how these indices may be computed using the SPSS software.
Although the general picture in the organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) literature is that OCB has positive consequences for employees and organizations, an emerging stream of work has begun to examine the potential negative consequences of OCB for actors. Drawing from the cognitive-affective processing system framework and conservation of resources theory, we present an integrative model that simultaneously examines the benefits and costs of daily OCB for actors. Utilizing an experience sampling methodology through which 82 employees were surveyed for 10 workdays, we find that daily OCB is associated with positive affect, but it also interferes with perceptions of work goal progress. Positive affect and work goal progress in turn mediate the effects of OCB on daily well-being. Moreover, employees' trait regulatory focus influences the strength of the daily relationships between OCB and its positive and negative outcomes. We conclude by discussing theoretical and practical implications of our multilevel model.
Following a review of literature on the leader-member exchange model of leadership, the model's methodological and theoretical problems are discussed. First, it is argued that leader-member exchange is a multidimensional construct and should be measured accordingly. Second, it is noted that the leader-member exchange developmental process has not been fully explicated. In addressing these problems, a three dimensional conceptualization of the leader-member exchange construct is proposed and a model of the leader-member exchange developmental process is presented.
Multiple instruments have been developed and used to measure quantitative job insecurity (i.e., insecurity to lose the job as such), often without systematic evaluation of their psychometric characteristics across countries and language barriers. This may hamper consistent and reliable cross-study and cross-country comparisons. This study’s aim was to introduce and validate the four-item Job Insecurity Scale (JIS) developed by De Witte across five European countries (i.e., Belgium, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and the UK). Overall, the results demonstrated the construct validity (i.e., configural invariance and invariance of the measurement model parameters), the reliability (internal consistency of the items), and the criterion validity (with respect to affective organizational commitment, perceived general health, and self-reported performance) of the JIS. The different translations of the JIS can thus be considered as valid and reliable instruments to measure job insecurity and can be used to make meaningful comparisons across countries. Furthermore, the JIS translations may be utilized to assess how job insecurity is related to outcomes.
We used psychological contract theory as a framework to meta-analytically review subjective and objective predictors of employees’ perceived job insecurity. Seventy-six samples from 68 studies were included in our review. Results revealed that lower levels of job insecurity are associated with having an internal locus of control, lower amounts of role ambiguity and role conflict, greater amounts of organizational communication, less organizational change, younger employees, and white-collar and permanent work. Moderator analyses further revealed that relations between job insecurity and age, gender, education, and formal contracts are moderated by unemployment rates, countries of origin, and type of job insecurity measure. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for psychological contract theory and occupational health, and offer directions for future research.
Most research examining organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has focused on employees’ efforts that benefit the organization or the individuals’ coworkers. A third dimension that is critical for the hospitality industry is behavior above and beyond the specific job description that is directed at customers. While most OCB studies have considered what behaviors are essential to corporate citizenship, but specific behaviors might be culturally bound. To avoid cultural issues, a more effective approach is to analyze the targets of citizenship behavior, that is, the organization, coworkers, and customers. A study of 240 hotel workers in China found support for a three-leg model of OCB, combining behavior aimed at these targets: at the organization itself, at coworkers, and at customers. Citizenship behavior aimed at the organization includes such activities as promoting a hotel’s products and making favorable comments about the property outside of work. Citizenship behavior in support of coworkers includes assisting them as needed and taking time to listen to coworkers’ concerns. Customer-focused OCB includes such activities as maintaining a positive attitude at work and performing duties carefully and accurately. Although this study did not expressly measure the results of such actions, previous work has shown increases in guest satisfaction and company revenue when OCB activities are high.
Using meta-analytic tests based on 87 statistically independent samples, we investigated the relationships between the five-factor model (FFM) of personality traits and organizational citizenship behaviors in both the aggregate and specific forms, including individual-directed, organization-directed, and change- oriented citizenship. We found that Emotional Stability, Extraversion, and Openness/Intellect have incremental validity for citizenship over and above Conscientiousness and Agreeableness, 2 well- established FFM predictors of citizenship. In addition, FFM personality traits predict citizenship over and above job satisfaction. Finally, we compared the effect sizes obtained in the current meta-analysis with the comparable effect sizes predicting task performance from previous meta-analyses. As a result, we found that Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Extraversion have similar magnitudes of rela- tionships with citizenship and task performance, whereas Openness and Agreeableness have stronger relationships with citizenship than with task performance. This lends some support to the idea that personality traits are (slightly) more important determinants of citizenship than of task performance. We conclude with proposed directions for future research on the relationships between FFM personality traits and specific forms of citizenship, based on the current findings.
Organizational-level occupational health interventions are often recommended when improvements in working conditions, employee health, and well-being are sought within organizations. Research has revealed that these interventions result in inconsistent effects despite being based on theoretical frameworks. This inconsistency indicates that intervention studies need to be designed to examine directly how and why such interventions bring about change and why they sometimes fail. We argue that intervention studies should include a process evaluation that includes a close examination of the psychological and organizational mechanisms that hinder and facilitate desired intervention outcomes. By drawing on existing intervention literature we present an evidence-based model containing three levels of elements that appear to be crucial in process evaluation. We describe how this model may be applied and developed in future research to identify better the mechanisms that link intervention processes to intervention outcomes.
This article examines the relationship between workplace transformation (or restructuring) and the well-being of employees, in terms of both psychological and physical health, at a large manufacturing corporation in the United States. While the previous literature has been largely divided over the issue - some researchers providing unqualified enthusiasm and others equally strong criticism of workplace changes - we found, after decomposing workplace transformation into five distinct dimensions of intensity, autonomy, team-work, skilling and computing, that certain components were harmful while others were beneficial to the employees. Furthermore, some effects of reengineering varied between managers and non-managers. Overall, increases in workplace intensity were associated with the largest increases in stress and symptoms of poor health. The data were produced by a longitudinal (two-wave) survey questionnaire of over 1000 employees and were analyzed by means of a structural equations model.
This paper provides an overview of how theory and research on job insecurity have evolved in the past 25 years. We trace the Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) model to its origins in a large-scale action research project, summarize the subsequent theoretical and empirical developments of the model, and suggest directions for future research to understand the perpetually important phenomenon of job insecurity.
Transformational leaders employ a visionary and creative style of leadership that inspires employees to broaden their interest in their work and to be innovative and creative. There is some evidence that transformational leadership style is linked to employee psychological well-being. However, it is not clear whether this is due to (1) a direct relationship between leadership behaviour and affective well-being outcomes, or (2) a relationship between leadership behaviour and well-being that is mediated by followers’ perceived work characteristics. (Such characteristics include role clarity, meaningfulness, and opportunities for development.) This study aims to extend previous work by examining the validity of these two mechanisms in a longitudinal questionnaire study. The study was carried out within the elderly care sector in a Danish local governmental department. A theory-driven model of the relationships between leadership, work characteristics, and psychological well-being was tested using Structural Equation Modelling. The results indicated that followers’ perceptions of their work characteristics did mediate the relationship between transformational leadership style and psychological well-being. However, there was only limited evidence of the existence of a direct path between leadership behaviour and employee well-being. These findings have implications for design, implementation, and management of efforts to improve employee well-being.
De<plt» past entreaties to organizational theorists and reseontchars to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within &e organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specification of levels of theory throuj^out mganizational behavior: (a) homo-geneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher Uvel tinits. and (c) heterogeneity within higher level ludts. These assumptions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen organizational theory development and research.
Social exchange theory (SET) is one the most influential conceptual paradigms in organizational behavior. Despite its usefulness, theoretical ambiguities within SET remain. As a consequence, tests of the model, as well as its applications, tend to rely on an incompletely specified set of ideas. The authors address conceptual difficulties and highlight areas in need of additional research. In so doing, they pay special attention to four issues: (a) the roots of the conceptual ambiguities, (b) norms and rules of exchange, (c) nature of the resources being exchanged, and (d) social exchange relationships.
This study aims to investigate the effect of employee participation in decision making (EPDM) on employees’ positive cognition and attitudes which can lead to their knowledge-sharing behaviour. Consistent with the philanthropic and justice principles of Confucianism, such participation emphasizes the sharing of power with employees, which can satisfy employees’ humanistic needs, give employees a fundamental right to extend a degree of control and psychologically experience ownership of the organization. Employees who perceive they have ownership of the organization regard themselves as important organizational members and then commit to the organization. Knowledge-sharing behaviour contributes to the creation and utilization of knowledge; therefore, high-tech organizations always carefully negotiate with internal power relations in order to make tacit knowledge shared and produce innovation. Psychological ownership makes employees produce organizational commitment which can evoke altruistic spirit, contributing to knowledge-sharing behaviour. However, researchers have not yet investigated the relationships among EPDM, psychological ownership, organizational commitment, and knowledge-sharing behaviour, revealing an important research gap. Statistical analysis of 260 samples involving high technical and knowledge-intensive companies in Taiwan was undertaken. Theory-driven approach and structural equation modeling were the main methodologies employed. Results showed that employee participation in decision making was a positive association with psychological ownership. Psychological ownership was positively related to organizational commitment. A positive relationship existed between organizational commitment and knowledge sharing. Organizational commitment mediated the relationship between psychological ownership and knowledge-sharing behaviour. Important implications for academics and practitioners were discussed.
Composition models specify the functional relationships among phenomena or constructs at different levels of analysis (e.g., individual level, team level, organizational level) that reference essentially the same content but that are qualitatively different at different levels (M. T. Hannan, 1971; K. H. Roberts, C. L. Hulin, & D. M. Rousseau, 1978; D. M. Rousseau, 1985). Specifying adequate composition models is a critical component of good multilevel research. A typology of composition models is proposed to provide a framework for organizing, evaluating, and developing constructs and theories in multilevel research. Five basic forms of composition are described and illustrated. Implications of the typology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Good Jobs, Bad Jobs provides an insightful analysis of how and why precarious employment is gaining ground in the labor market and the role these developments have played in the decline of the middle class. Kalleberg shows that by the 1970s, government deregulation, global competition, and the rise of the service sector gained traction, while institutional protections for workers-such as unions and minimum-wage legislation-weakened. Together, these forces marked the end of postwar security for American workers. The composition of the labor force also changed significantly; the number of dual-earner families increased, as did the share of the workforce comprised of women, non-white, and immigrant workers. Of these groups, blacks, Latinos, and immigrants remain concentrated in the most precarious and low-quality jobs, with educational attainment being the leading indicator of who will earn the highest wages and experience the most job security and highest levels of autonomy and control over their jobs and schedules. Kalleberg demonstrates, however, that building a better safety net-increasing government responsibility for worker health care and retirement, as well as strengthening unions-can go a long way toward redressing the effects of today's volatile labor market. There is every reason to expect that the growth of precarious jobs-which already make up a significant share of the American job market-will continue. Good Jobs, Bad Jobs deftly shows that the decline in U.S. job quality is not the result of fluctuations in the business cycle, but rather the result of economic restructuring and the disappearance of institutional protections for workers. Only government, employers and labor working together on long-term strategies-including an expanded safety net, strengthened legal protections, and better training opportunities-can help reverse this trend. © 2011 by the American Sociological Association. All rights reserved.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relationship between individual job insecurity and job insecurity climate over time.
Design/methodology/approach
– Data were collected among readers of a Flemish Human Resources magazine. The data collection was repeated three times, resulting in a longitudinal dataset with information from 419 employees working in Flanders. A cross-lagged design was used in which both individual job insecurity and job insecurity climate were modeled at all times and reciprocal relationships between these constructs could be investigated.
Findings
– The results showed that perceptions of individual job insecurity were related to perceiving a climate of job insecurity six months later. However, no evidence was found for the effect of job insecurity climate on individual job insecurity. This suggests that job insecurity origins in the individual’s perceptions of job insecurity and subsequently expands to include perceptions of a job insecurity climate at the workplace.
Research limitations/implications
– First, the data used in this study were collected solely by self-reports, which could have introduced a common method bias to the study. Second, as with all non-experimental studies, the possibility that a third variable could have affected the results cannot categorically be ruled out.
Practical implications
– Managers and human resource practitioners who wish to prevent job insecurity in organizations may consider focussing on individual job insecurity perceptions when planning preventive efforts.
Originality/value
– By investigating the relationship between individual job insecurity and job insecurity climate over time, this study contributes to the understanding of job insecurity, both as an individual and a social phenomenon.
Adopting a multilevel approach, this study extends the current understanding of workplace incivility by examining the cross-level associations between team climate for incivility, team size and team norms with regard to competitiveness on employees’ well-being associated with incivility at work. Using a sample of 637 employees nested in 50 work teams, the results revealed a direct negative effect of uncivil team climates on employee job-related affective well-being, over and above employees’ personal experience of uncivil behaviour. As hypothesized, competitive norms significantly moderated the negative effect of experienced incivility on affective well-being, suggesting that competitive team environments may buffer the negative consequences of workplace incivility through a team sensemaking process. Utilizing Social Comparison Theory (comparing how they are treated) and climate strength literature, this study also found team size to be a significant moderator of the incivility–well-being relationship, with members of smaller work teams experiencing more detrimental effects of uncivil acts. Together, these findings suggest that the magnitude of the negative effect of uncivil behaviour is dependent on the composition and incivility climate of work teams. The results of this study have important implications for designing individual- and team-level interventions aimed at addressing uncivil behaviour and climates in the workplace.
The aim of this study is to examine job insecurity from a multilevel perspective and to investigate the roles of two types of job insecurity – job insecurity climate and individual job insecurity – for work-related attitudes and health outcomes. It further explores the role of the workgroup – as a social context – in shaping job insecurity perceptions. Data were collected from white-collar employees in a Swedish organization, with 126 participants nested in 18 groups. The results show that 19% of the variance in job insecurity climate perceptions, and none of the variance in individual job insecurity perceptions, could be attributed to group membership. Further, compared to other members of their group, those perceiving a stronger job insecurity climate reported lower levels of negative self-rated health and higher burnout scores. These results imply that the workgroup is an important social context for job insecurity climate perceptions.
This paper comments on the review of longitudinal job insecurity studies in this special issue. The main conclusion of that review, namely that job insecurity leads to poor health and well-being, remains undisputed. It is argued, however, that future job insecurity research should focus more on: (a) uncovering the underlying psychological mechanisms of job insecurity; (b) the effects of new forms of labor contracts; (c) differences across nations as a function of different social security systems; and (d) the effects of organisations. It is concluded that job insecurity is a problem of our time and that 20 years after the publication of Dekker and Schaufeli's study on job insecurity among workers in Australian public transport corporation, psychological job insecurity research is still alive and kicking.
Perceptions of justice in the workplace are widely recognised as an influential factor in employee attitudes at the workplace. Employees are more likely to exhibit organisational citizenship behaviours if they perceive that their supervisors personally treated them fairly. Examining the relationship between organisational justice, leader member exchange (LMX), and organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) from a sample of 267 employees in the manufacturing sector it was found that interpersonal justice tended to be a stronger predictor of OCB. Interpersonal justice correlates significantly with courtesy, altruism and conscientiousness. Though all dimensions of organisational justice correlates positively with LMX, informational justice appears to be most significant. LMX has a significant relationship with all dimensions of OCB except sportsmanship, which correlates positively with age. However, when the influence of justice had been controlled, the effect of LMX on OCB is restricted to altruism and conscientiousness. Thus, it can be concluded that even though LMX may be related to OCB, organisational justice, in particular, interpersonal justice, seems to have a stronger influence on OCB.
Drawing on shared reality theory and social exchange processes in leader–member exchange (LMX), we posit that variability in LMX ratings at both the dyadic and group levels act as cross-level moderators of the routinely studied individual-level LMX–performance ratings association. Specifically, we introduce dyadic dispersion LMX as a key dyad-level variable that attenuates the positive individual LMX–performance association. Furthermore, we conceptualize that LMX differentiation, a group-level construct, is dysfunctional for individual outcomes as it violates norms of equality, and we suggest that the positive individual-level LMX–performance ratings association is plausible only in low differentiation workgroups and not high differentiation workgroups. Our analyses invoke new cross-classified and traditional nested models with multisource ratings of performance, and the findings largely support the study hypotheses. Implications for LMX at different levels of analyses as well as future theory and research are discussed.
This study, among 330 pairs of employees and their supervisors, tested whether self- versus supervisor ratings of five employability dimensions (occupational expertise, corporate sense, personal flexibility, anticipation and optimization, and balance) are associated with different learning characteristics in the workplace, and whether age moderates these relationships. Results of structural equation modelling showed that the learning value of the job positively related to both self- and supervisor ratings of corporate sense, personal flexibility, and anticipation and optimization. Applicability in the job of recently followed training and development programmes was associated with all dimensions of self-rated employability and with supervisor ratings of anticipation and optimization. Regarding the hypothesized age moderation effects, contrary to our expectations, it was found that both learning value and applicability of training and development related more strongly to self-rated anticipation and optimization for younger workers. In addition, age appeared to moderate the otherwise non-significant relationship between learning value and self-rated occupational expertise. Implications for Human Resource Development (HRD) practices are discussed. As learning characteristics are differentially related to the unique employability dimensions, tailor-made development programmes are key. Moreover, it is advocated that having a job with a high learning value is an important factor in the light of the employee’s sustainable employability
We used identification theory to develop a model of the processes linking leader-member exchange (LMX) to organizational citizenship behavior. Using a sample of 262 supervisor-subordinate dyads collected in China, we found that followers' identification with the leader mediated the
influence of LMX on organizational citizenship behavior. We also found that perceived group leader's reputation moderated the relationship between LMX and identification with the leader, in that the relationship was stronger for individuals scoring high on perceived group leader's reputation
than it was for those scoring low. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to develop and validate a measure of job insecurity climate by:
first, testing whether job insecurity climate and individual job insecurity are two separate constructs;
and second, investigating the relative importance of individual job insecurity and job insecurity climate in
predicting work-related and health-related outcomes.
Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected by questionnaires in a simple stratified random
sample of 1,380 white-collar workers in Sweden. The response rate was 56 percent.
Findings – Confirmatory factor analyses showed that job insecurity climate was distinct from individual
job insecurity. Four separate ridge regression analyses showed that qualitative job insecurity climate was
a significant predictor of demands, work-family conflict, psychological distress, and poor self-rated health
and that quantitative job insecurity climate predicted demands and work-family conflict.
Research limitations/implications – The study is based on self-reports, which may involve common
method bias. The cross-sectional study design limits the possibility to make causal inferences regarding
the relationship between job insecurity climate and outcomes.
Practical implications – Future studies may consider measuring job insecurity climate in line with
a referent-shift model. Work environment surveys in organizations that include measures of individual
job insecurity and job insecurity climate can provide practitioners with a fuller picture of the psychosocial
work environment.
Originality/value – The present study adds to previous research by introducing a new approach
to measuring and conceptualizing job insecurity climate.
This study aims to respond to earlier calls to study well‐known concepts, more specifically, job insecurity, in less traditional (i.e. non‐European, non‐US) settings, as well as factors that may mitigate the aversive consequences of job insecurity for employees' work‐related functioning. We investigate (1) the relationship between job insecurity and work engagement and psychological distress, and (2) the moderating role of positive affect in these relationships. Cross‐sectional data from 296 employees in a South African government organisation were used to test the hypotheses. The results showed that job insecurity was negatively related to work engagement and positively to psychological distress. These relationships were buffered by positive affect.
Relative leader-member exchange (RLMX) is a reflection of the social comparison process, and employees go through a process of social exchange when they display specific behaviors and attitudes in their workplace role, with psychological contract (PC) fulfillment playing a mediating role between these 2 social processes. We conducted a survey to analyze paired leader-staff samples in 39 bank branches in order to examine the influence of RLMX on employees' work behaviors and the mechanism that operates between these 2 factors. The results showed that RLMX affected employee task performance and innovative behavior, and that PC fulfillment played a full mediating role in this relationship.
This study aims to further knowledge on the mechanisms through which job insecurity is related to negative outcomes. Based on appraisal theory, two explanations-perceived control and psychological contract breach-were theoretically integrated in a comprehensive model and simultaneously examined as mediators of the job insecurity-outcome relationship. Different categories of outcomes were considered, namely work-related (i.e. vigour and need for recovery) and general strain (i.e. mental and physical health complaints), as well as psychological (i.e. job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and behavioural coping reactions (i.e. self-rated performance and innovative work behaviour). The hypotheses were tested using data of a heterogeneous sample of 2413 Flemish employees by means of both single and multiple mediator structural equation modelling analyses (bootstrapping method). Particularly, psychological contract breach accounted for the relationship between job insecurity and strain. Both perceived control and psychological contract breach mediated the relationships between job insecurity and psychological coping reactions, although the indirect effects were larger for psychological contract breach. Finally, perceived control was more important than psychological contract breach in mediating the relationships between job insecurity and behavioural coping reactions. This study meets previous calls for a theoretical integration regarding mediators of the job insecurity-outcome relationship. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Using the group engagement model, we hypothesize that two differentiated leadership constructs – LMX differentiation at the group level and a new construct, LMX relational separation, at the individual-within-group level – interact with LMX to affect follower citizenship behaviors (OCB) and turnover intentions. Data from 223 followers and their leaders situated across 60 workgroups demonstrate that the effects of individual perceived LMX quality are contingent upon a group's overall variability in LMX (i.e., LMX differentiation) and employees' similarity in terms of LMX with their coworkers (i.e., LMX relational separation). Specifically, the effects of high quality LMX relationships on OCB and turnover intentions are weaker when group LMX differentiation or employees' LMX relational separation is higher, rather than lower. Our findings contribute to a growing stream of multilevel LMX research incorporating climate effects and offer an alternative view of differentiated leadership in groups. Key implications for theory and practice are discussed.
The aim of this study is to examine the impact of superior's emotional intelligence (EI) and leader-member exchange (LMX) on organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Using a sample of 200 supervisor-subordinates dyads working in four financial institutions located in Klang Valley, Malaysia, this study hypothesised that emotional intelligence and leader-member exchange would have a stronger relationship to organisational citizenship behaviour. The results revealed that use of emotions (UOE), other's emotions appraisal (OEA), and regulation of emotion (ROE) were the dimensions of emotional intelligence to predict employee organisational citizenship behaviour. Both UOE and OEA shared the same findings with 52.7% of the variance on conscientiousness respectively. On the other hand, OEA was also found to be significantly influencing sportsmanship with only 6.3% of the variance and ROE was found to predict civic virtue with 26.7% of the variance. Meanwhile, LMX of subordinates was found to moderate the relationships between only one EI dimension and OCB-civic virtue. A difference between male and female emotional intelligence and organisational citizenship behaviour were also analysed. Future research and practical implications are also discussed.
The study developed an integrated model of the relationship among leader–member exchange (LMX), outcome favorability, procedural fairness climate and employee organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Using three-phrase multilevel data from multiple sources collected from 238 employees working with 42 supervisors at manufacturing firms in China, we found that (1) LMX was positively related to outcome favorability and OCB, (2) procedural fairness climate moderated the relationship between outcome favorability and OCB, and (3) the indirect effect of LMX on OCB (via outcome favorability) was stronger when procedural fairness climate was high rather than low. The study provides insight on the LMX–OCB relationship and the integration of LMX and fairness research.
In 1940 Lindquist presented a discussion of an analysis of variance using the group mean as the unit of analysis. Unfortunately, most modern writers on statistical methodology have ignored this important topic and some of the best text-book book writers make the error of using the individual as the unit of analysis when the group mean would be more appropriate. The reluctance to use group mean as the unit of analysis is due in part to the belief that the resultant drop in the number of observations per treatment greatly reduces the probability of detecting a treatment effect. This concern is put in perspective in this paper and equations are presented to facilitate power estimates when the group mean is the unit of analysis.
Previous organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) research (a) has not demonstrated that extra-role behaviors can be distinguished empirically from in-role activities, and (b) has not examined the relative contributions of components ofjob satisfaction a nd organizational commitment to the performance of OCBs. Factor analysis of survey data from 127 employees' supervisors supported the distinction between in-role behaviors and two forms of OCBs. Hierarchical regression analysis found two job cognitions variables (intrinsic and extrinsic) to be differentially related to the two types OCBs, but affective variables and organizational commitment were not significant predictors. The link between the present findings and previous research is discussed, as are directions forfuture research.
Simple slopes, regions of significance, and confidence bands are commonly used to evaluate interactions in multiple linear regression (MLR) models, and the use of these techniques has recently been extended to multilevel or hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) and latent curve analysis (LCA). However, conducting these tests and plotting the conditional relations is often a tedious and error-prone task. This article provides an overview of methods used to probe interaction effects and describes a unified collection of freely available online resources that researchers can use to obtain significance tests for simple slopes, compute regions of significance, and obtain confidence bands for simple slopes across the range of the moderator in the MLR, HLM, and LCA contexts. Plotting capabilities are also provided.
Introduction Contracting A Modern Dilemma Contract Making The Contract Makers Contemporary Contracts Violating the Contract Changing the Contract Business Strategy and Contracts Trends in the New Social Contract