Content uploaded by Andreas M. Hein
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Andreas M. Hein on Oct 17, 2018
Content may be subject to copyright.
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 1 of 7
IAC-18-D4.5.11
Exploring Potential Environmental Benefits of Asteroid Mining
Andreas M. Hein
a
*, Michael Saidani
a
, Hortense Tollu
a
a
Laboratoire Genie Industriel, CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
andreas-makoto.hein@centralesupelec.fr
* Corresponding Author
Abstract
Asteroid mining has been proposed as an approach to complement Earth-based supplies of rare earth metals and
supplying resources in space, such as water. Existing research on asteroid mining has mainly looked into its economic
viability, technological feasibility, cartography of asteroids, and legal aspects. More recently, potential environmental
benefits for asteroid mining have been considered. However, no quantitative estimate of these benefits has been given.
This paper attempts to determine if and under which conditions asteroid mining would have environmental benefits,
compared to either Earth-based mining or launching equipment and resources into space. We focus on two cases:
Water supply to cis-lunar orbit and platinum mining. First, we conduct a state-of-the-art of current environmental life
cycle assessment for the space domain and platinum mining. Second, a first order environmental life cycle assessment
is conducted, including goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, and impact assessment. We compare water
supply to cis-lunar orbit with and without asteroid mining and go on to compare terrestrial with space-based platinum
mining. The results indicate that asteroid water mining would have environmental benefits, as soon as the amount of
water supplied via mining is larger than the mass of the spacecraft used for mining. For platinum mining, we find that
by comparing the operations phase of terrestrial and space mining, space mining would have a lower environmental
impact, if the spacecraft is able to return between 0.3 to 7% of its mass in platinum to Earth, assuming 100% primary
platinum or 100% secondary platinum, respectively. For future work, we propose a more detailed analysis, based on a
more precise inventory and a larger system boundary, including the production of the launcher and spacecraft.
Keywords: asteroid mining, environmental life cycle analysis, ecological impact, sustainability, rare earth metals,
platinum
1. Introduction
Mining asteroids, and in particular mining Near Earth
Asteroids (NEAs) has been frequently proposed as a
source of resources for space and terrestrial applications
[1]–[3]. Two broad categories of resources can be
distinguished: volatiles and metals. Ross [4] identifies a
variety of applications for these resources such as
construction, life support systems, and propellant.
Volatiles such as water are of particular interest for in-
space applications, due to their abundance in
carbonaceous (C-type) asteroids and their relative ease of
extraction. For example, Calla et al. [5] explore the
technological and economic viability of supplying water
from NEAs to cis-lunar orbit.
Regarding the supply of resources for terrestrial
applications, only resources with a high market value are
interesting, due to the high transportation cost. Hence,
expensive metals such as rare earth metals and in
particular the subgroup of platinum group metals have
been the subject of asteroid mining studies [6]. The
supply of platinum group metals is crucial for many
terrestrial “green technologies” such as fuel cells and
catalyzers [7]–[10]. However, there are two major
concerns regarding platinum group metals. First, current
supplies of platinum group metals are dominated by only
a few countries, namely, South Africa, Russia, and
Canada, which introduces political uncertainties into the
supply chain [11]. The second concern is regarding the
environmental impact of mining platinum group metals.
Mines tend to go deeper and deeper, as resources in upper
layers are depleted, which increases already high
greenhouse gas emissions (currently ~40,000t CO
2
per
ton of platinum) [11], [12]. Mitigating these issues has
led to initiatives for recycling rare Earth metals and
investigating substitutes [13]–[15]. In addition, the local
environment is severely impacted due to the use of
hazardous substances during the extraction process [11].
Despite the potential environmental benefits of
asteroid mining, either by reducing the number of
launches into space or moving terrestrial industries into
space, no dedicated studies for exploring these benefits
has been conducted to the authors’ knowledge. Existing
research on asteroid mining has mainly looked into its
economic viability [2], [6], [16], [17], technological
feasibility [2], [18]–[23], cartography of asteroids [24],
[25], and legal aspects [26]–[28]. More recently Hennig
[29] and MacWhorter [30] have introduced
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 2 of 7
environmental arguments for asteroid mining, in
particular with regards to platinum group metals. They
refer to the benefits of asteroid mining for the
environment and sustainability, but do not provide any
analysis or quantitative backing.
This article addresses this research gap by providing
an initial, first-order estimate of the potential
environmental benefits of asteroid mining, exemplified
via the case of water and platinum mining.
2. Literature survey
Two different research streams are relevant for an
environmental life cycle assessment of asteroid mining:
The environmental life cycle assessment of space
systems and platinum.
2.1 Space systems life cycle assessment
The environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of space
systems is a rather recent domain. Environmental life
cycle assessment is an approach for assessing the
sustainability of products or systems. Chytka et al. [31]
present an integrated approach to life cycle assessment,
however, environmental aspects are not taken into
account. Ko et al. [32] provide an overview of impacts of
space activities on the space and Earth environment.
They conclude that existing LCA approaches are
insufficient for addressing impacts to space and suggest
the development of additional impact categories.
Neumann [33] applies LCA to launchers and provides a
detailed inventory of inputs and outputs. However, the
environmental impact from combustion exhausts is not
taken into account. Austin et al. [34] present an overview
of ESA activities on adopting LCA for space systems and
mention their application to EcoSat, Ariane 5, Vega,
Ariane 6, and four complete space missions. Wilson and
Vasile [35] present a framework for integrating LCA into
a concurrent engineering environment. De Santis et al.
[36] present a methodology for a cradle-to-grave LCA for
the European space sector and applied to the Astra 1N
and MetOp A missions. The ESA Space system Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) guidelines [37] introduce an
LCA approach based on the ISO 14040 / 14044 standard,
tailored to the European space sector.
Although LCA has been applied to several case
studies in the space domain, its introduction is recent and
no application to asteroid mining could be found.
2.2 Platinum mining life cycle assessment
Platinum mining LCA studies are routinely
performed by platinum mining companies, primarily for
the estimation of their carbon footprint. The reported
values are usually limited to greenhouse gas emissions
and energy consumption. The global warming potential
of emissions is commonly expressed in carbon dioxide
equivalent or in short CO
2
eq over a period of 100 years
[38], [39]. Although not a lot of detail is given for how
the LCA is conducted, we assumed that a carbon
footprint analysis of either Scope 1 (emissions are direct
emissions from owned or controlled sources) or Scope 2
(indirect emissions from the generation of purchased
energy) has been performed [40].
Several reports on the carbon footprint of primary
platinum production exist, such as Bossi and Gediga [41],
Montmasson-Clair [42], Cairncross [43], and by the
Science Advice for the Benefit of Europe [44]. Glaister
and Mudd [45] present qn extensive comparison of the
environmental impact of platinum mining, based on
CO
2
eq values reported by various platinum mining
companies. CO
2
eq values for platinum from secondary
production (recycled platinum) is available, for example,
in the LCA database Impact 2002.
Saidani [12] estimates a mean value of 40 tons
CO
2
eq of greenhouse gas emissions per kg of platinum
from primary platinum production, based on a literature
survey. For secondary production, a value of 2 tons
CO
2
eq per kg of platinum is estimated. We will use these
values as a reference.
3. Asteroid mining environmental life cycle
assessment
We perform a first-order cradle-to-gate (extraction
to factory gate) life cycle assessment of water and
platinum asteroid mining, limited to greenhouse gas
emissions.
3.1 Goal and scope definition
The scope and functional unit define the reference
against which mining activities on Earth and space are
compared.
The functional unit quantifies the service delivered
by the product system. For our two cases of water mining
in space and platinum mining on Earth and space, we use
the following functional units:
• 1 kg of water delivered to cis-lunar orbit.
• 1 kg of platinum supplied to the Earth.
In terms of scope, we limit our analysis to greenhouse gas
emissions, as data is available from various sources.
Furthermore, our system boundary is drawn to include
the operations phase, which includes E1, launch and
commissioning phase, E2, utilisation phase in space, and
F, disposal, according to the ESA lifecycle assessment
guidelines [37]. Contrary to the guidelines, in our case
we interpret F not as disposal but re-entry of platinum to
Earth. For an Earth-based mine, the operations phase
would essentially include the operation of the mine post
installation. Furthermore, the boundary is drawn around
the direct production and refining system of platinum or
water. The reason for the limitation to the operations
phase is that the publicly available sources of LCA data
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 3 of 7
for platinum mining is limisted to the operations phase,
which contains extraction and refining.
One could argue that for space-based mining,
only E2 should be taken into consideration, as the
production of the mining infrastructure is not taken into
account for Earth-based mining. However, we interpret
the launch infrastructure with launch pads, fuel depots,
etc. as part of the infrastructure as well as launchers, and
spacecraft. We therefore consider operations in the wider
sense of operating this whole infrastructure,
eoncompassing both E1 and E2. Consistent with carbon
footprint analysis, we take Scope 1 (emissions are direct
emissions from owned or controlled sources) and Scope
2 (indirect emissions from the generation of purchased
energy) into account, in order to arrive at results that can
be compared with platinum LCA results from the
literature.
3.2 Lifecycle inventory
For the lifecycle inventory, fuel for the launcher and
electricity for the launch infrastructure are considered as
inputs. The output is limited to greenhouse gas emissions,
for the simple reason that it is rather easy to find values
for platinum mines. The values for electricity
consumption for a launch of a Falcon Heavy-class rocket
in Neumann [33] indicate that it is rather negligible
compared to the greenhouse gas emissions from fuel
combustion during ascent. Neumann [33] does not take
greenhouse gas emissions from fuel combustion into
account. However, we use the LCA conducted for
kerosene by [46], where the greenhouse gas emissions
from combustion is the dominant contribution to
greenhouse gas emissions in the kerosene supply chain.
In the following, we use a rough value of 3 kg CO
2
eq per
kg of Kerosene combusted.
3.3 Bootstrapping factor
We use the bootstrapping factor b as a figure of merit,
which we define as kg of payload mass launched into
space vs. kg of resources delivered to the target
destination.
(1)
indicates the mass of resources mined and supplied
to the target destination and
the mass of the payload
launched into space for the mining operation.
For the case of water, the bootstrapping factor
allows for a comparison between launching water from
Earth and supplying mined water to a target destination.
For example, a 500 kg spacecraft (wet mass) is launched
into space for mining an asteroid and the spacecraft
delivers 1000 kg to its target destination, the
bootstrapping factor is 2. When a 500 kg spacecraft
carrying water is launched into space, delivering 200 kg
of water to its target destination. b is 0.4. Comparing the
water asteroid mining example with direct water delivery
yields a ratio of 5. In order to make environmental sense,
b for mining has to be larger than the b for direct water
delivery. In the example above, this means . We
can therefore write:
(2)
For linking b with environmental impact on
Earth, a multiplier needs to be added, which converts the
payload mass in a destination in space with a common
payload reference, such as payload to LEO. Using the
ratio from (2) and introducing the mass-specific
environmental impact yields the following equation for
the mass-specific environmental impact of asteroid
mining, compared to the direct delivery of a resource.
!
"#$
%
&'(
(3)
"#$
indicates the mass-specific environmental impact
of direct delivery of a resource.
)*#+
is the mass-
specific environmental impact during launch. Equation
(3) is not only valid for water mining but also for the case
of mining and returning resources from space to Earth,
such as platinum. For the latter,
needs to be
smaller than
,)$+
, the mass-specific
environmental impact of mining on Earth:
-
,)$+
(4)
3. Results
3.4 Asteroid water mining
For the nominal case of supplying water to cis-lunar
orbit, the environmental impact of launching 1 kg of
water from Earth to a cis-lunar orbit is calculated.
Based on a previous analysis for asteroid water
mining in Calla et al. [5] and Hein & Matheson [16], a
range for
can be estimated between 0 and lower
two-digit numbers. We calculate a lower bound for the
CO
2
eq of launching 1 kg of water to cis-lunar orbit,
which only includes the CO
2
released from the
combustion of kerosene, using Falcon Heavy data from
Spaceflight 101 [47]. About 30 kg of kerosene is burned
per kg of payload to cis-lunar orbit. We multiply this
value by 3 kg CO
2
eq per kg of kerosene burned, a factor
introduced in 3.2. We therefore get a value of 90 kg of
CO
2
eq per kg of water delivered to cis-lunar orbit as a
lower bound. Furthermore, it is assumed that all of the
kerosene of the first stage and boosters are burned within
the Earth’s atmosphere. It is assumed that the second
stage has no impact in terms of CO
2
emissions on Earth’s
atmosphere.
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 4 of 7
Using the bootstrapping factor
, we get
CO
2
eq values for the case where an asteroid mining
spacecraft is launched and returns per kg of spacecraft
mass b-times its mass. Table 1 shows the resulting
values. It can be seen that substantial savings in
greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved.
Table 1: CO
2
eq values for delivering 1 kg of water to cis-
lunar orbit, with respect to the bootstrapping factor b
.
/01012
CO
2
eq [kg per kg of
water] only Kerosene
1 90
5 18
10 9
20 4.5
30 3
40 2.3
3.5 Asteroid platinum mining
For the case of platinum, Earth-mining is the reference
and the impact of returning platinum to Earth needs to be
taken into consideration. It is known that during re-entry
a spacecraft releases H
2
O and NOx in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere via the re-entry shock wave and material
released via ablation [48], [49]. N
2
O has a global
warming potential of between about 265–298, 310 times
CO
2
[39], [50].
Park and Rakich [51] estimate that about
17.5±5.3% of the Space Shuttle mass is released in the
form of NOx during re-entry. As a conservative estimate,
we use 20% and assume that predominantly N
2
O is
released. Furthermore, we assume that for 1 kg of
platinum, about 1 kg of additional mass is required for re-
entry (heatshield, GNS, parachute etc.). Hence, roughly
0.2 kg of N
2
O is released per kg of platinum returned to
Earth, which translates into roughly an equivalent of 60
kg of CO
.
As a result, we get a total kg CO
2
eq per kg Pt of
150 kg. Given various uncertainties, we see that the total
CO
2
eq of an asteroid mining mission is on the order of
dozens to hundreds of kg CO
2
eq per kg of platinum
returned.
If we compare these rough estimates with the
CO
2
eq values for Earth-based platinum mining, we
immediately see that the global warming effect of Earth-
based mining is several orders of magnitude larger, even
for secondary platinum. Table 2 shows the ratio between
the Earth-based platinum mining emissions and the
space-based mining emissions. A difference of two
orders of magnitudes for primary platinum and one order
of magnitude for secondary platinum is observed. For a
mixture of primary and secondary platinum, we get
values with two orders of magnitude difference.
Table 2: Comparison of space and Earth-based platinum
mining greenhouse gas emissions
.
/01012
CO
2
eq
/ kg Pt
Ratio
Earth
reference
(40 t / kg
CO
2
eq)
vs. space
Ratio
Earth
reference
(2 t / kg
CO
2
eq)
vs. space
Earth:
33%
secondary,
66%
primary
platinum
vs. space
1 150
267 13 182
5 78
513 26 350
10 69
580 29 396
20 65
620 31 424
30 63
635 32 434
40 62
643 32 439
Although the CO
2
eq values used for space-based
platinum mining represent a lower bound, we can
estimate that even one order of magnitude higher
emissions would lead to one order of magnitude savings,
compared to Earth-based mining.
3.6 Carbon tax effects
A straight-forward consequence of greenhouse gas
emissions is that they have an economic effect, once
carbon tax is introduced. Given the large differences in
CO
2
eq emissions for Earth and space-based platinum
mining, Earth-based mining would be penalized with the
introduction of carbon tax. As shown in Table 3, using
the value of 50 t of CO
2
eq per kg of platinum mined in
2030, extrapolated from its current value of 40 and a
conservative carbon tax value of €70 per ton, we obtain a
carbon tax of €3,500 per kg of platinum. Given today’s
price levels for platinum and assuming that these remain
similar, a penalty of ~10% needs to be added on top of
the cost of Platinum production. Currently, the platinum
mining industry is operating at low profit margins or even
at a loss. The 10% tax could be compensated via a higher
efficiency of the mining process and a potentially higher
degree of renewable energy sources for electricity
supply, as the majority of greenhouse gas emissions are
generated by burning hard coal, at least in the case of
South Africa [41]. However, it is unclear how much
platinum mining companies might influence decisions
that concern the energy mix on a country level.
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 5 of 7
Table 3: Estimates of carbon tax for platinum production
Year t
CO
2
eq/kg
Pt
Carbon
Price (€)
Carbon
Tax (€) /
kg Pt
2017 40 5 200
2030 50 70 3500
2050 60 120 7200
5. Discussion
The results of the asteroid mining LCA show
that for a broad range of bootstrapping factors
,
substantial environmental benefits could be reaped for
both, water and platinum mining. The range of
is consistent with the values for
presented in
Hein and Matheson [16] and should cover realistic
mining scenarios. As with LCA in general, this result
depends on the initial scope of the assessment.
There are several limitations to the analysis
presented in this article. For example, the environmental
impact of rocket launchers could be reduced by applying
eco-design principles, such as the use of “green
propellants”, the reuse of components such as rocket
stages etc. Some of these options are discussed in
Neumann [33].
Furthermore, only greenhouse gas emissions
have been considered, and a more extensive LCA would
require the consideration of further impact categories. Of
particular relevance for launchers is ozone layer
depletion, as combustion products are directly released
above the troposphere. Hence, adding midpoint and
endpoint impact categories would create a more complete
picture of the environmental impact of an asteroid mining
mission. However, at least for the case of platinum
mining, we are limited by the availability of LCA data
beyond CO
2
eq and energy consumption.
Another limitation is that emissions from
spacecraft operations have not been considered. Sending
1 kg of water into cis-lunar orbit takes less time than an
asteroid mining mission, a few days versus hundreds of
days to years. Emissions from ground station operations
are proportional to the duration of the mission and could
change the result in favour of launching water.
The impact of off-nominal behaviour has also
not been considered. For example, the environmental
impact of a failed launch within the Earth atmosphere
would be much larger than for a successful launch, as the
entire propellant would be burned within the atmosphere,
including that of the upper stage(s).
A topic that merits further investigation is the
assessment of the in-space impact of asteroid mining.
Such an assessment could be extended to trade-offs
between terrestrial and space impact. The recent
literature on in-space impact assessment could provide a
starting point [32], [52], [53].
6. Conclusions
This article provides a first-order analysis of the
potential environmental implications of asteroid mining,
with a focus on greenhouse gas emissions. We introduce
a bootstrapping factor, the ratio of resources delivered to
the target destination and the payload mass launched into
space that allows for a comparison of various asteroid
mining missions. The results for the case of in-space
water supply and platinum mining indicate that for
typical values of the bootstrapping factor, asteroid
mining generates substantial environmental benefits
compared to its alternatives.
For future work, a more extended LCA for
asteroid mining missions would provide a more extensive
picture of its environmental impacts. Further, combining
economic and environmental assessment seems to be
promising for identifying mining architectures that show
a good performance with respect to both criteria. Another
interesting topic would be a framework for conducting
trade-offs between terrestrial and in-space environmental
impacts such as the generation of space debris and the
occupation of orbits.
References
[1] J. S. Lewis, Mining the sky: untold riches from
the asteroids, comets, and planets. Reading,
Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1996.
[2] M. Sonter, “The technical and economic
feasibility of mining the near-earth asteroids,”
Acta Astronaut., 1997.
[3] C. Lewicki, P. Diamandis, E. Anderson, C.
Voorhees, and F. Mycroft, “Planetary
resources—The asteroid mining company,” New
Sp., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 105–108, 2013.
[4] S. D. Ross, “Near-Earth Asteroid Mining,” 2001.
[5] P. Calla, D. Fries, and C. Welch, “Asteroid
mining with small spacecraft and its economic
feasibility,” arXiv Prepr., vol. arXiv:1808, 2018.
[6] D. Andrews, K. Bonner, A. Butterworth, and H.
Calvert, “Defining a successful commercial
asteroid mining program,” Acta Astronaut., vol.
108, pp. 106–118, 2015.
[7] E. Alonso, A. M. Sherman, T. J. Wallington, M.
P. Everson, F. R. Field, R. Roth, and R. E.
Kirchain, “Evaluating rare earth element
availability: A case with revolutionary demand
from clean technologies,” Environ. Sci. Technol.,
vol. 46, no. 6, pp. 3406–3414, 2012.
[8] N. Haque, A. Hughes, S. Lim, and C. Vernon,
“Rare earth elements: Overview of mining,
mineralogy, uses, sustainability and
environmental impact,” Resources, vol. 3, no. 4,
pp. 614–635, 2014.
[9] X. Du and T. E. Graedel, “Global in-use stocks
of the rare earth elements: a first estimate,”
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 6 of 7
Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 45, no. 9, pp. 4096–
4101, 2011.
[10] T. E. Graedel, E. M. Harper, N. T. Nassar, P.
Nuss, and B. K. Reck, “Criticality of metals and
metalloids,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., vol. 112, no.
14, pp. 4257–4262, 2015.
[11] T. Graedel and E. van der Voet, Linkages of
sustainability. Cambridge, USA: MIT Press,
2010.
[12] M. Saidani, “Monitoring and advancing the
circular economy transition - Circularity
indicators and tools applied to the heavy vehicle
industry,” CentraleSupélec, Université Paris-
Saclay, 2018.
[13] B. C. Hagelüken, “Recycling the platinum group
metals: A European perspective,” Platin. Met.
Rev., vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 29–35, 2012.
[14] C. Hagelüken, “Recycling of (critical) metals,”
in Critical metals handbook, 2014, pp. 41–69.
[15] C. Hagelüken, J. U. Lee-Shin, A. Carpentier, and
C. Heron, “The EU circular economy and its
relevance to metal recycling,” Recycling, vol. 1,
no. 2, pp. 242–253, 2016.
[16] A. M. Hein and R. Matheson, “A Techno-
Economic Analysis of Asteroid Mining,” in 69th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC),
2018.
[17] M. Busch, “Profitable asteroid mining,” J. Br.
Interplanet. Soc., 2004.
[18] J. Brophy and B. Muirhead, “Near-earth asteroid
retrieval mission (ARM) study,” 2013.
[19] K. Erickson, “Optimal architecture for an
asteroid mining mission: equipment details and
integration,” in Space 2006, 2006, p. 7504.
[20] Z. Hasnain, C. Lamb, and S. Ross, “Capturing
near-Earth asteroids around Earth,” Acta
Astronaut., 2012.
[21] C. McInnes, “Near Earth object orbit
modification using gravitational coupling,” J.
Guid. Control. Dyn., 2007.
[22] J. Sanchez and C. McInnes, “Assessment on the
feasibility of future shepherding of asteroid
resources,” Acta Astronaut., 2012.
[23] D. Yárnoz, J. Sanchez, and C. McInnes, “Easily
retrievable objects among the NEO population,”
Celest. Mech., 2013.
[24] M. Elvis, “How many ore-bearing asteroids?,”
Planet. Space Sci., 2014.
[25] J. Sanchez and C. McInnes, “Asteroid resource
map for near-Earth space,” J. Spacecr. Rockets,
2011.
[26] R. Lee, “Law and regulation of commercial
mining of minerals in outer space,” 2012.
[27] L. Shaw, “Asteroids, the New Western Frontier:
Applying Principles of the General Mining Law
of 1872 to Incentive Asteroid Mining,” J. Air L.
Com., 2013.
[28] F. Tronchetti, “Private property rights on asteroid
resources: Assessing the legality of the
ASTEROIDS Act,” Space Policy, 2014.
[29] A. Hennig, “Policy Recommendations for
Economically and Socially Valuable Asteroid
Mineral Resource Exploitation Activities,” 2016.
[30] K. MacWhorter, “Sustainable Mining:
Incentivizing Asteroid Mining in the Name of
Environmentalism,” Wm. Mary Envtl. L. Pol’y
Rev., 2015.
[31] T. Chytka, R. Brown, A. Shih, J. D. Reeves, and
J. Dempsey, “An integrated approach to life
cycle analysis,” in 11th AIAA/ISSMO
multidisciplinary analysis and optimization
conference, 2006, p. 7027.
[32] B. Ko, N., I. T., Schestak, and J. Gantner, “LCA
in space-current status and future development,”
Mater. Tech., vol. 105, 2018.
[33] S. S. Neumann, “Environmental Life Cycle
Assessment of Commercial Space
Transportation Activities in the United States,”
University of Texas at Arlington, 2018.
[34] J. Austin, J. Huesing, T. Soares, and L. Innocenti,
“Developing a standardised methodology for
space-specific Life Cycle Assessment,” in
Challenges in European Aerospace− 5th CEAS
Air & Space Conference, 2015.
[35] A. R. Wilson and M. Vasile, “Integrating life
cycle assessment of space systems into the
concurrent design process,” in 68th International
Astronautical Congress (IAC), 2017.
[36] M. De Santis, G. Urbano, G. A. Blengini, R. Zah,
S. Gmuender, and A. Ciroth, “Environmental
impact assessment of space sector: LCA results
and applied methodology,” in 4th CEAS Air &
Space Conference, 2013.
[37] ESA LCA, “Space system Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) guidelines,” 2016.
[38] S. J. Smith and M. L. Wigley, “Global warming
potentials: 1. Climatic implications of emissions
reductions,” Clim. Change, vol. 44, no. 4, pp.
445–457, 2000.
[39] EPA, “Understanding Global Warming
Potentials,” United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 2018. [Online]. Available:
https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/understandi
ng-global-warming-potentials. [Accessed: 06-
Oct-2018].
[40] G. P. Peters, “Carbon footprints and embodied
carbon at multiple scales,” Curr. Opin. Environ.
Sustain., vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 245–250, 2010.
[41] T. Bossi and J. Gediga, “The Environmental
Profile of Platinum Group Metals,” Johnson
Matthey Technol. Rev., vol. 61, no. 2, pp. 111–
121, 2017.
69
th
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Bremen, Germany, 1-5 October 2018.
Copyright ©2018 by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). All rights reserved.
IAC-18-D4.5.11 Page 7 of 7
[42] G. Montmasson-Clair, “Mining, Energy and
Climate Change in South Africa: A Platinum
Case Study, in ‘Industrialisation and the Mining
Economy,’” in TIPS Annual Forum, Trade &
Industrial Policy Strategies, 2016.
[43] E. Cairncross, “Health and environmental
impacts of platinum mining: Report from South
Africa,” 2014.
[44] EASAC, “Indicators for a circular economy.
EASAC policy report 30,” 2016.
[45] B. J. Glaister and G. M. Mudd, “The
environmental costs of platinum–PGM mining
and sustainability: Is the glass half-full or half-
empty?,” Miner. Eng., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 438–
450, 2010.
[46] C. Koroneos, A. Dompros, G. Roumbas, and N.
Moussiopoulos, “Life cycle assessment of
kerosene used in aviation,” Int. J. Life Cycle
Assess., vol. 10, no. 6, pp. 417–424, 2005.
[47] Spaceflight 101, “Falcon Heavy,” Spaceflight
101, 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.spaceflight101.net/falcon-
heavy.html. [Accessed: 01-Oct-2018].
[48] C. Park, “Estimates of nitric oxide production for
lifting spacecraft reentry,” Atmos. Environ., vol.
10, no. 4, pp. 309–313, 1976.
[49] E. J. Larson, R. W. Portmann, K. H. Rosenlof, D.
W. Fahey, J. S. Daniel, and M. N. Ross, “Global
atmospheric response to emissions from a
proposed reusable space launch system,” Earth’s
Futur., vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 37–48, 2017.
[50] G. Braker and R. Conrad, “Diversity, Structure,
and Size of N2O-Producing Microbial
Communities in Soils—What Matters for Their
Functioning?,” Adv. Appl. Microbiol., vol. 75,
pp. 33–70, 2011.
[51] C. Park and J. V. Rakich, “Equivalent-cone
calculation of nitric oxide production rate during
space shuttle re-entry,” Atmos. Environ., vol. 14,
no. 8, pp. 971–972, 1980.
[52] C. Colombo, F. Letizia, M. Trisolini, H. G.
Lewis, A. Chanoine, P.-A. Duvernois, J. Austin,
and S. Lemmens, “Life cycle assessment
indicator for space debris,” in 7th European
Conference on Space Debris, 2017, pp. 1–12.
[53] T. Maury, P. Loubet, J. Ouziel, Saint-Amand, L.
M., Dariol, and G. Sonnemann, “Towards the
integration of orbital space use in Life Cycle
Impact Assessment,” Sci. Total Environ., vol.
595, pp. 642–650, 2017.
