Palm Sap Sources, Characteristics, and Utilization in Indonesia

Full text

Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 2018, Vol. 6, No. 9, 590-596
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/jfnr/6/9/8
© Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/jfnr-6-9-8
Palm Sap Sources, Characteristics,
and Utilization in Indonesia
Teguh Kurniawan1,*, Jayanudin1,*, Indar Kustiningsih1, Mochamad Adha Firdaus2
1Chemical Engineering Department, Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Cilegon, Indonesia
2Chemical Engineering Department, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
*Corresponding author: teguh@untirta.ac.id; jayanudin@untirta.ac.id
Received August 15, 2018; Revised September 19, 2018; Accepted September 28, 2018
Abstract Sap from various species palm trees in which known as neera generally produced by traditional
technology in Indonesia. There are 5 well known palm species that produce Neera in Indonesia such as arenga palm,
coconut tree, doub palm, nipa palm and palm oil. Neera can be utilized as raw material for various derivatives such
as palm sugar, sweet palm toddy, and alcoholic toddy. Tapping of neera is a crucial step because neera prone to
immediately degrade and causing poor quality of palm sugar. Traditional sugar processing has some drawbacks for
example: low energy efficiency processing and off-specification products. On the other side, sugar palm neera has
important antioxidant component which benefits for human that unavailable in normal white sugar from sugarcane.
In this current review, characterization of neera from various palms in Indonesia and available technology on sugar
palm processing such as spray dryer and membrane ultrafiltration will be discussed.
Keywords: neera, palm sugar, antioxidant, spray dryer, membrane
Cite This Article: Teguh Kurniawan, Jayanudin, Indar Kustiningsih, and Mochamad Adha Firdaus, ―Palm
Sap Sources, Characteristics, and Utilization in Indonesia.‖ Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, vol. 6, no. 9
(2018): 590-596. doi: 10.12691/jfnr-6-9-8.
1. Introduction
Sugar consumption in Indonesia approximately reaches
5.7 million metric in 2016/2017 which mainly supplied
from sugarcane [1]. White sugar for non-industry consumption
is produced from local sugarcane plantation. To protect
local sugarcane from imported sugar, raw sugar for industrial
purpose is imported and refined further in local factory.
Typical Indonesia‘s sugarcane contains at least 9% sucrose
which is lower than sucrose content of sugarcane crop in
Brazil, i.e., 14% [2]. Sugarcane is a seasonal plant and
could be harvested once a year in summer season during
April to October in which reaches maximum sucrose content
and easier to transports from field to the factory.
Indonesia as a tropical country has many species palm
trees like coconut, arenga, doub palm, nipa and palm oil.
Most of the palm trees has multipurpose function that are
important for local people [3]. They gain benefits from its
root to the top of the tree. Sugar also could be made from
palm sap named ‗neera‘. Yet, sugarcane production still
dominating sugar production and consumption in Indonesia.
From the ecological perspective, palm trees are important
because they are able to grow on marginal and on also
landslide area.
In this writing, a review of various palm sugar in
Indonesia will be covered including: sap tapping technique,
traditional palm sugar production, and promising advanced
technology to improve palm sugar quality.
2. Sugar Crops in Indonesia
According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
there are two main sugar crops in the world: (1) sugarcane
and (2) sugar beet. In Indonesia, sugar is produced
primarily from sugarcane. In fact, Java, one of big island
in Archipelago of Indonesia, is the second largest
producer-exporter of cane sugar after Cuba in the early
twentieth century under occupation of the Netherland [4].
Beside Sugarcane, Indonesia has traditionally produced
sugar palm and other neera derivatives products from
various palm sugar tress as presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Sugar palm in Indonesia
No
Sugar palm species
Products of palm sap
Area of plantation (ha)
Ref
1
Arenga palm (Arenga pinnata)
Jaggery, granulated palm sugar, sweet toddy, palm toddy
9925
[5, 6]
2
Coconut tree (Cocos nucifera)
Jaggery, granulated palm sugar
1,242,319
[6, 7]
3
Doub palm (Borassus flabellifer)
Jaggery, granulated palm sugar, sweet toddy, palm toddy
1992
[6, 8]
4
Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans)
Jaggery, granulated palm sugar, sweet toddy
700,000
[9, 10]
5
Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis)
Jaggery
3,133,711
[6, 11]

591 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Figure 1. (a) Jaggery, a traditional product of palm sugar, is produced by open pan evaporation technique (b) granulated palm sugar (c) syrup
Jaggery is a traditional sugar brown in color made by
open evaporation without centrifugation of neera derive
from arenga palm, coconut tree, doub palm and nipa palm.
Recently, Palm oil is also exploited for its sap from the
old trunk palm oil. Some local farmer use arenga leaf to
wrap the jaggery and tie several pieces of jaggery with
bamboo rope (Figure 1a). Jaggery is the main product of
neera. Another product of palm sugar involving granulated
sugar and syrup depicted in Figure 1b and 1c, respectively.
The granulated sugar and syrup were recently produced by
local farmer in order to diversify the sugar palm products.
The palm sugar is not only producing sugar but also
other products such as sweet palm toddy (Figure 2a and
2b) and palm toddy (Figure 2c). Sweet toddy is a fresh
neera extract whilst Palm toddy is a fermented Neera that
usually contains alcohol. Neera from Arenga pinnata
called as lahang in West Java and it is quite popular in the
past (Figure 2a). Nowadays, lahang is rarely found in big
city because of limited number of Arenga tree in urban
area. The fresh sap from Borassus flabellifer called as legen
in East Java (Figure 2b). Fresh neera gives a pleasant
flavor which comes from chemical compound such as ethyl
lactate, 3-hyroxy-2-pentanone, and ethylhexanoate [12].
Figure 2. Beverages made of palm sap (a) sweet toddy of Borassus
flabellifer (b) sweet toddy of Arenga pinnata (c) Toddy of Arenga
pinnata
Palm toddy are mostly found in non-muslim population
area such as in North Sumatera and North Sulawesi. Tuak
is a local name for palm toddy in North Sumatera whereas
in North Sulawesi, people called it as saguer. The ethanol
concentration of traditional palm toddy is within the range
of 5-10% v/v [13]. The palm toddy gives a unique flavor
that come from 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine (earthy), acetoin
(buttery), ethylhexanoate and 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline [12].
Sap of palm trees contains different total sugar
concentration depend on the species. Each palm tree has its
own characteristic of sap production way as presented in Table 2.
2.1. Arenga Pinnata
Arenga pinnata has many local name from east to west
of Indonesian Archipelago such as sageru (Maluku), seho
(Manado), nau (Timur), maoke (Flores), kalotu (Sumba),
Nao (Bima), Pola (Sumbawa), hano (Bali), aren (Jawa,
Madura), kawung (Sunda), hanau (Kerinci), poula
(Mentawai), peto (Nias), bargot (Mandailing), ijuk (Gayo),
pola atau paula (Karo), bagot atau agaton (Toba), dan bak
juk (Aceh) [21]. The various local name of Arenga pinnata
in Indonesia indicates that this tree is a multipurpose plant.
The root extract usually made as a tea to cure bladder
stones; insect repellent and erosion control. The core trunk
is rich with starch. Black fibers of arenga is well-known
for its strength rope. The leaves are used for house roof
whereas the unversed leaves utilize as cigarette additive.
Meanwhile, the fruit served as a dessert [3].
Arenga‘s sap containing sucrose between 10 and 20%
that is ideal to produce sugar. The sap also can be directly
feed for pig which practiced traditionally in two
Indonesian small islands, Roti and Savu for centuries [22].
Neera is easy to be spoiled and deteriorated by
contamination of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The pH of
neera will be below of seven because of acid produced by
microorganism activity. Preservation of neera could be
performed traditionally by adding lime and stem bark of
Jackfruit tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus) [23]. Before
tapping the palm sap, farmers usually beat the stalk by
wooden mallet to improve the yield of palm sap [24].
Table 2. Palm sap characteristics of various palm trees in Indonesia
No
Palm species
Age of tree ready for
tapping [years]
Sap production
[liter/(day. palm)]
Sap production life
span [years]
Sugar content in
palm sap (%)
Ref.
1
Arenga pinnata
7-10
10-15
Several years
10-20
[15]
2
Cocos nucifera
7
1.7-4.3
20 years
15-18
[16,17]
3
Borassus flabellifer
15-30
6
30 to 100
9-17
[18]
4
Nypa fruticans
4
0.2-2
50
15
[19]
5
Elaeis guineensis
6
-
10 to 15
9-11
[20]

Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 592
2.2. Cocos Nucifera
Coconut tree is also traditionally exploited for its neera
which contains mainly sucrose. One example of coconut
sap from Malang, East Java, contained 70.85% sucrose,
3.00% glucose and 2.92% fructose [25]. Coconut sap is
the raw materials for various products i.e. palm syrup,
palm jaggery, palm honey, palm candy, chocolate toffees
and confectionery items, molasses, coconut vinegar, neera
soft drink, neera cookies, neera chocolate, and neera sweet
[26]. The coconut palm sugar product should have a
proper packaging. Sutthachaidee suggested that the
packaging of coconut sugar coffee spoon should meet 5
criteria [7]. First, the designs should accommodate the
sense of local natural resources and cultural wisdom,
second the design should be simple for production; third,
the designs should have low prices; fourth, the designs
should be attractive, pleasing and unique, and lastly, the
designs should be moveable for travelers, appropriate as a
souvenir, and the packages should be designed for ease of
distribution and transportation.
The technique of tapping palm sap is similar for arenga,
coconut, doub palm and nipa palm except for the palm oil
which extracted sap from its trunk (Figure 3). The coconut
sap obtained by cutting the inflorescence stalk of a
coconut tree which is usually done in the afternoon;
cleaning and beating the stalk for producing high quality
coconut sap; attaching a bamboo tube to store the sap and
afterward, collecting it for the next morning.
Figure 3. Tapping palm sap of (a) Arenga pinnata (b). Cocos nucifera (c)
Borassus flabellifer (d) Nypa fruticans and (e) Elaeis guineensis
2.3. Borassus Flabellifer
Palm sap quality of Borassus flabellifer are vary depend
on genetic and metabolite characteristics of the tree,
environment factors, the collecting time, microbial load,
personal hygiene and sanitary equipment. The microorganisms
possibly become significant factor on quality of palm sap
because they use sugar as substrate to produce organic
acids and ethanol. These organic acids cause the inversion
reaction whilst ethanol has unpleasant flavor of palm sap
[27].
Reshma et. al. [8] has successfully extract
2,3,4-trihydroxy-5-methylacetophenone, nicotinamide, and
uracil of palmyra palm syrup by using chloroform and
butanol. The 2,3,4-trihydroxy-5-methylacetophenone is
exhibited DPPH radical scavenging activity that used as
antibacterial against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus
aureus, Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Staphylococcus
simulans.
2.4. Nypa Fructicans
Nipah is one of Arecaceae species which growths in
swamp area and estuary. The fruit have bunch similar like
fruits of palm oil with hard skin and brown color. Nipa is
spread out in Indonesian along with mangrove. Nipa also
has many local name such nipah (Java), buyuk (Bali),
bhunyok (Madura), bobo (Menado, Ternate, Tidore),
boboro (Halmahera), and palean (Moluccas).
The nipa sap production is within the range of 0.4 to 1.0
L/(day.palm) with sugar contents vary from 15% to 21%
(w/w). Timing for tapping is very important. Palms
typically are tapped for 38 to 63 days per tapping season
which equals to 2 or 3 cycles and makes tapping could
only be done from 80 to 180 days per year [9]. Päivöke
reported that nipa could be tapped until 100 days per year
for a life span of more than 50 years, yielding a maximum
of 1.3 L/day per palm of sap [28]. The result confirmed by
Tamunaidu investigation that the 100 years nipa yield 0.3
to 1.4 L/day [9].
In South Kalimantan, traditionally palm stalk was
shaked for 15-20 days before sap tapping. The palm stalk
was cut with angles 30 – 45o facing down to avoid
exposure direct sunlight. Each container sap was wrapped
by lime with concentration of 1.5 g/liter sap. The nipa sap
tapping was carried out in the morning and the afternoon
[29]. The nipa sap then crystallized into granulated brown
sugar.
2.5. Elaeis Guineensis
Sugar extracted from palm oil of Nigeria contains 9.6 to
10% sucrose [11,22]. The tapping of palm oil sap in
Nigeria is quite similar with any palm sugar tree that is by
cutting the inflorescence flower [20]. Typically, oil is the
only product of palm oil. Zahari reported that pressed oil
palm frond (OPF) juice contain sugar of glucose (71%),
sucrose (27%), and fructose (2%). By using a simple
sugarcane press, 50% (wt/wt) of OPF juice was obtained
from fresh OPF [30].
Figure 4. Extracting sugar from oil palm frond and fermenting into
alcohols
The sucrose content of OPF juice is quite low, while
glucose content is very high. Instead of making sugar from
OPF juice, it is much easier to convert sucrose and
glucose into ethanol via fermentation process [31].
Extracting sugar from oil palm frond and fermenting into
alcohols as presented in Figure 4 is ideal solution to utilize
the OPF juice. Development of sap compression system is
critical to obtain high yield of OPF juice [32].

593 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Recently, palm sap also had produced from palm oil.
However, the source of sap is not from male inflorescence
but from the felled palm oil trunk [33]. Local farmer
tapping the sap from its fell trunk in replanting period.
Usually after 20 years, palm oil needs to replant by cutting
down the old palm oil tree and replant with the new
one which taking time within the range of 30-40 days.
The produced sap then processed to produce jaggery.
This new method potentially applied to increase sugar
production from palm oil plantation which is the largest in
the world.
3. Traditional Sugar Production
The typical processing of sugarcane to produce white
sugar utilized by modern methods like sulphitation and
carbonation followed by evaporation, crystallization and
centrifugation. However, these process removes almost all
antioxidant containing in the juice along with other
impurities. On the other hand, simple handling of palm
sugar processing done by heating in a large pan for several
hours until crystallized sugar occur could preserve the
antioxidant components in traditionally produced sugar.
Generally, the process of sugar making for all palm sap or
neera is similar [7,24]. The collected neera then filtered by
sheet cloth and pouring into large pan. Afterward, neera
cooked for 3-4 hours to high concentration of brown sugar
that indicated by very viscous appearance. Afterward, the
hot sticky brown sugar pouring down into mold made of
bamboo, wood, or coconut shell. The sugar will be
cooling down and hardened after 1 hour and ready for
packaging.
Traditional sugar processing produce sugar with brown
color because of browning and Maillard reaction (Figure
6). High temperature and long heat treatment on the open
pan evaporator favored the browning and Maillard
reaction [34,35]. Furthermore, the phenolic compounds
and antioxidant properties of date syrup become decreased
after high temperature treatment [36]. The disadvantage of
using an open pan evaporator lead to a higher sucrose
inversion and hydroxymethylfurfural formation with less
glucose and fructose. On the contrary, a vacuum
evaporator runs under lower temperature than open
evaporator could reduce the sucrose inversion [18].
Figure 5. Traditional palm sugar processing
4. Spray Dryer for Sugar Production
The method of palm sugar processing can affect its
characteristics and quality. Conventional method that has
been used to produce palm sugar causes palm sugar to be
dark brown and taste slightly bitter. The darkening
phenomenon is occurred because of high temperatures
operation which leads to caramelization. Another negative
effect is the loss of active components due to palm sap
degradation. Selection of the right technology is required
to improve the quality of palm sugar. One of that has been
promising method is spray drying.
Spray drying is a process to convert liquid into solid
granules (Figure 7a) that has the advantage of maintaining
good product quality in just a little time. Derivatives palm
sugar from spray drying also has low water content and easier
to be stored [37]. Spray drying widely used in the food
industry to make food powder because of its effectiveness
in optimal conditions. The operating conditions that
mainly affect the process are the drying air temperature,
feed rate that highly depend on product characterization,
such as particle size, color, bulk density, moisture content,
and nutrient content [38]. Temperature become the most
important parameter of spray drying in which causes a
higher level of evaporation of moisture, higher porosity
and lower bulk density of dried powder [37].
Figure 6. High temperature and a long cooking time leads to sugar browning

Journal of Food and Nutrition Research 594
Figure 7. Applying technology on sugar processing (a) spray dryer (b) membrane ultrafiltration.
The weakness of producing sugar using spray drying is
stickiness on the drying wall or changes to unwanted
agglomeration in the drying chamber, and low product
yield [39]. Sticky powder occurs due to cohesion-adhesion
that can be explained in terms of adhesion between
particles (cohesion) and particle-surface walls (adhesion).
The forces which make powder particles stick to each
other are called internal or cohesive properties that further
form a powder lump. On the other hand, adhesion is an
interfacial property that makes particle powder stick to the
spray dryer wall surface. Both cohesion and adhesion
force is a major parameter in designing a spray dryer that
is responsible for the stickiness problem [39]. Factors that
cause the stickiness of palm sugar production using a
spray dryer are high hygroscopicity, thermoplasticity and
low glass transition temperature (Tg) of low molecular
weight substances [39].
Several methods can be used to minimize stickiness
problem, one of the way is to increase the glass transition
temperature by adding materials that have high molecular
weight and using cold air at the bottom of vessel [39].
Ingredients that have high molecular weight including
maltodextrin, whey, casein, and soy protein. The function
of proteins is to modify the surface of droplets and
particles because proteins tend to migrate to water
molecule interface within air from droplets which are
atomized further and form protein films on drying that
overcome the stickiness of sugar proteins. The film will
convert a thick glass-like layer during the drying process.
The study reported by Adhikari et al [40] found that
addition of 0.5-1% sodium caseinate and whey protein to
sucrose would minimize stickiness. Operating conditions
of the spray dryer was 160oC for inlet temperature and
70oC outlet. The added protein composition could convert
crystalline sucrose into an amorphous form. The presence
of protein can improve powder recovery from 0% (pure
sucrose) to 80% (protein addition). This happens because
proteins are able to migrate to the air-droplet interface
which driven by surface activity. Such thin layer occurs as
protein-rich films quickly after contact with drying air.
Thus, a film then changes to a glass condition and
overcome the stickiness between each particles and
particles with a wall that increased by temperature
transition from the surface layer [40].
Spray drying is able to protect the sap component from
unfavorable ambient conditions, minimize the loss of
antioxidant content, total phenolic, amino acid content,
and sugar content of palm sap [41]. Antioxidant content
and the total phenolic content of palm juice using a
spray dryer were 26.81-28.74% and 5.82-5.83mg/100g
respectively.
5. Membrane Technology
The sugar industry is one of the food industries that
have the most energy-intensive processes. Therefore,
membrane technology has been extensively investigated
by scientists in the past decade to increase the process
efficiency in sugar processing (Figure 7b). Membrane
filtration technology has been maintained in the sugar
industry because of the improved quality and
pre-treatment efficiency to produce value-added products.
The sugar industry research organization, commercial
manufacturing and membrane supplier company also
sugar milling company have been actively involved in
developing pilot plant utilization of membrane filtration in
the sugar industry [42, 43].
Several process areas in the sugar industry use
membrane systems, such as treatments of juice after
liming with ultrafiltration (UF), treatment of liquid
thickness after evaporation with UF, treatment of molasses
using Electrodialysis (ED) or UF, and utilization of raw
materials with UF [42]. The raw material for juice
contains impurities such as salt, acid, protein and pectin.
Colloidal impurities and some organic acids and ferri- and
magnesium hydroxide can be deposited by CaO.
Ultrafiltration membranes can be used before liming to
remove compounds with high molecular weight content.
Another function is that it can reduce the use of CaO [44].
Membrane technology that is widely used in the food
industry is the ultrafiltration membrane. This type of
membrane can be used to concentrate solution while also
providing separation process such wise to retain natural
juice constituents like sugar, vitamins, volatile aroma
profiles, and improve microbiological quality of permeate
[45]. The concern of using membranes is fouling. Fouling
can affect the effectiveness of microfiltration and filtration.

595 Journal of Food and Nutrition Research
Several studies reported no fouling problems during
classification of raw juice with a tangential rate of 4 m/s
and no pre-treatment needed to achieve the same level
achieved by conventional processes [46]. The use of
ultrafiltration membranes can also affect raw materials to
products in order to reduce sugar levels in sap and saps
permeate syrups. The content of sucrose decreases and
also causes loss of the pectin content of permeate. From
the energy analysis the use of ultrafiltration membranes
significantly decreases the heating and cooling area [45].
Heating process is one of the key comparisons between
ultrafiltration and conventional method. Research conducted
by Makhlouf-Gafsi, et al [47] regarding the comparison
between thermal processes with ultrafiltration were
analyzed on several parameters, including: for sugar
and protein content, both thermal and ultrafiltration
processes decreased. The total phenolic content for the
thermal process was higher than that of ultrafiltration
(354.3 vs. 328.36 mg GAE / mL of total polyphenols)
whereas the antioxidant activity of thermal process
was lower compared to ultrafiltration (3.76 ± 0.07 vs
4.93 ± 0.08 (IC50 (mg/mL))). The antimicrobial ratio
between thermal processes with ultrafiltration depends on
total phenolic content which means that antimicrobials
with a thermal process are higher than the ultrafiltration
process.
One type of ultrafiltration membrane that widely used
in the food industry is ceramic membranes. Ceramic
membrane is one of the most important inorganic
membranes. The main types of ceramics used for the
manufacture of filtration membranes are refractory oxides
including: alumina, zirconia and titania. Nonetheless, a
number of other ceramic materials such as cordierite,
mullite, silicon nitride, silica and borosilicate glasses are
suitable for the production of ceramic membranes. One of
the advantages of using ceramic membranes is their
endurance in order able to withstand hard operating
conditions in terms of pH, temperature, pressure and
chemical stability. Ceramic membranes can be produced
with different geometries such example: flat, tubular,
multichannel or monolithic geometries. Ceramic membranes
have been used successfully for the food industry [48].
The membrane material used for the sugar industry is
material that is resistant to temperatures between 70-90°C.
Polymer membrane was not possible to reach high
temperature levels. Therefore, the right material for this
process is the ceramic membrane that has good resistance
to high temperatures as well as flow rates and high
pressure [49].
6. Future Directions
Palm sugar has huge potency to supply sugar demand
of Indonesia while also reducing dependency of imported
sugar. Arenga palm, coconut, and doub palm have already
been exploiting for its sap and many other products.
Indonesia is the largest palm oil producer in the world
with 12.3 million hectares palm oil plantation with
production 17 ton of fresh fruit bunches per hectares [50].
Palm oil sap that familiarly as neera is potential to exploit
as one of raw materials for sugar production which have
not exploited yet up to now.
Introduction advanced technology for sap tapping is
critical to preserve sucrose from spoilage and deterioration.
Like using sterilization technique, put some ice to provide
low temperature during tap sapping, are simple technique
yet could improve the quality of palm sap [14]. Membrane
has offered an attractive technique to reduce water content
with lower energy supply than the evaporator technique.
The membrane technology could improve the energy
efficiency in sugar industry.
7. Conclusions
Various sugar palm in Indonesia are potential for
alternative sugar resource instead of the sugarcane. For
particular ecology perspective, many benefits could be
taken by planting sugar palm. The sugar made of palm sap
through traditional method contain more antioxidant
which is healthier than the commercial white sugar made
of sugarcane in factory. Palm sap tapping method is
critical aspect for determining the quality of sugar because
the sap is very sensitive and easy to deteriorate into other
substances. Introducing advanced technology on sugar
processing to improve sugar quality could be achieved by
using spray dryer and membrane technology. New
products could also be developed by these advanced
technologies such as white healthy sugar and liquid
colorless sugar in which could make farmer in village
improve their prosperity.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the funding provided by
IDB-UNTIRTA under project no.593/UN43.9/PL/2018.
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