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Conservation challenges for the Arabian Leopard ( Panthera pardus nimr ) in Western Highlands of Arabia
Abstract
A high proportion of Arabian leopard killings can be attributed to livestock protection. In the process of catching goats, sheep, young camels or other domestic animals, leopards often interfere with human activities and are considered by livestock farmers as direct competitors. With the ongoing decrease of natural prey species, such as Nubian ibex, rock hyrax, Arabian mountain gazelles and cape hare, leopards are now having to shift their diet to livestock. This naturally increases their unpopularity amongst most livestock farmers whom they come into direct, or indirect, contact with. In most cases, leopards are considered a threat for humans. As a result, leopards are hunted within all of their natural range and with different methods, such as trapping and poisoning. In the early part of the 1980s, it was common to use anticoagulant rat killer for poisoning; however, this stopped in 1985. Today, however, other poisons are used by shepherds to kill predators, which include leopards. A total of 52 known incidences of Arabian leopard poisoning have been recorded in Saudi Arabia from the early nineteenth century to February 2014. Shepherds poison the carcasses of domestic sheep, goats, camel or donkeys thought to have been killed by predators such Arabian wolf, striped hyena or stray dogs and, invariably, it is the elusive Arabian leopard who tends to eat these carcasses. The population of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia has almost been wiped out and exists in extremely low numbers in remote mountain ranges. A national leopard strategy and action plan known as the Saudi Leopard Conservation Plan has been developed to protect them from extinction, but further field research and public awareness-raising with regards to banning poisoning or killing the species is absolutely necessary to ensure their survival.
... The 2013 discovery of several individuals in the Nejd-the northern foothills of Jabal Qara-represented a small northward extension of the current known range (Al Hikmani et al., 2015). Threats faced by Arabian leopards in the Arabian Peninsula include illegal killing by livestock owners, prey depletion, loss of prime habitat, and capture for the illegal pet trade (Al Jumaily et al., 2006;Spalton, Al Hikmani, Jahdhami, et al., 2006;Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018). Killing leopards in response to livestock depredation is currently considered the main cause of decline; at least 80 leopards were reported killed by local shepherds in Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the Musandam mountains of northern Oman between 1960 and 2023 (Al Al Jumaily et al., 2006;Mensoor, 2023;Spalton, Al Hikmani, Jahdhami, et al., 2006;Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018). ...
... Threats faced by Arabian leopards in the Arabian Peninsula include illegal killing by livestock owners, prey depletion, loss of prime habitat, and capture for the illegal pet trade (Al Jumaily et al., 2006;Spalton, Al Hikmani, Jahdhami, et al., 2006;Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018). Killing leopards in response to livestock depredation is currently considered the main cause of decline; at least 80 leopards were reported killed by local shepherds in Yemen, Saudi Arabia and the Musandam mountains of northern Oman between 1960 and 2023 (Al Al Jumaily et al., 2006;Mensoor, 2023;Spalton, Al Hikmani, Jahdhami, et al., 2006;Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018). ...
... However, in the late 20th century, following the introduction of modern lightweight firearms and their use by herders, more than 100 leopards were reported killed (e.g. see Al Jumaily et al., 2006;Qarqz & Baker, 2006;Spalton, Al Hikmani, Jahdhami, et al., 2006;Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018) in 1987 (Qarqz & Baker, 2006) and the UAE in 2001 (Edmonds et al., 2006). It is therefore reasonable to posit that the Arabian leopard has been subject to a prolonged genetic bottleneck (Mochales-Riaño et al., 2023), and that this likely resulted from a human-mediated population crash, which would explain the loss of genetic diversity. ...
Genetic diversity underpins evolutionary potential that is essential for the long‐term viability of wildlife populations. Captive populations harbor genetic diversity potentially lost in the wild, which could be valuable for release programs and genetic rescue. The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has disappeared from most of its former range across the Arabian Peninsula, with fewer than 120 individuals left in the wild, and an additional 64 leopards in captivity. We (i) examine genetic diversity in the wild and captive populations to identify global patterns of genetic diversity and structure; (ii) estimate the size of the remaining leopard population across the Dhofar mountains of Oman using spatially explicit capture–recapture models on DNA and camera trap data, and (iii) explore the impact of genetic rescue using three complementary computer modeling approaches. We estimated a population size of 51 (95% CI 32–79) in the Dhofar mountains and found that 8 out of 25 microsatellite alleles present in eight loci in captive leopards were undetected in the wild. This includes two alleles present only in captive founders known to have been wild‐sourced from Yemen, which suggests that this captive population represents an important source for genetic rescue. We then assessed the benefits of reintroducing novel genetic diversity into the wild population as well as the risks of elevating the genetic load through the release of captive‐bred individuals. Simulations indicate that genetic rescue can improve the long‐term viability of the wild population by reducing its genetic load and realized load. The model also suggests that the genetic load has been partly purged in the captive population, potentially making it a valuable source population for genetic rescue. However, the greater loss of its genetic diversity could exacerbate genomic erosion of the wild population during a rescue program, and these risks and benefits should be carefully evaluated. An important next step in the recovery of the Arabian leopard is to empirically validate these conclusions, implement and monitor a genomics‐informed management plan, and optimize a strategy for genetic rescue as a tool to recover Arabia's last big cat.
... The interviews were carried out in areas where the leopard had been previously recorded and as such, local people provided historical information on the leopard in their area. More detailed descriptions of the data collection approach are provided elsewhere (Islam et al. 2018). The record information was analyzed in a simple but fit-for-purpose Bayesian timeseries model of the number of leopards recorded each year from 1930 to 2022. ...
... (3) Hunting leopards as a recreational pursuit, (4) Protecting livestock (Islam et al. 2015(Islam et al. , 2018. If leopards become deprived of food, they are likely to prey upon livestock, leading people to hunt them to protect their livelihoods and food sources (adequate resources and meaningful occupation), and (5) Accidental poisoning by people deploying laced meat to control other unwanted species (adequate resources and meaningful occupation). ...
... Another consequence of these issues is a decreasing capacity for leopards to find appropriate mates and increased likelihood of inbreeding. The last record of a dead Arabian Leopard was in February 2014 (Fig. 3), when a sub-adult male leopard was poisoned (Islam et al. 2018). Islam et al. (2018) hypothesized that the individual was dispersing to find a new mate and/or to establish its own territory. ...
The Critically Endangered Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has declined to near extinction in Saudi Arabia over the last fifteen or so years. In this paper we provide a time-series assessment of changes in the rate of leopard records since the 1930’s and provide a values-based plan for the management of the species in Saudi Arabia. The number of leopard records rose sharply in the 1960’s, peaking in the early 2000s, a time where human population growth and expansion across Saudi Arabia was also increasing. However, by 2014, the number of leopard records decreased to zero where it has remained. Based upon a clear need for effective conservation of the species, we developed a values-based management plan. In applying the planning framework, we defined the management system and its elements in their current state and the required state by the year 2050. From this work, a value-based goal was established, and four key management activities were recognised (and are expanded upon in the main text). We recommend that work is done to: (1) Ensure sufficient and suitable (in terms of required habitat and prey availability) areas are protected. (2) Reduce the level of human-based predation upon leopards to ensure sustainable mortality rates. (3) Manage the species metapopulation structure in terms of genetic makeup through natural and/or facilitated movement. (4) Continue to build community capacity and willingness to manage and protect the species. If these activities can be successfully completed, a population of Arabian Leopards can exist in Saudi Arabia if it is adaptively managed to deal with any additional and/or emerging threatening processes.
... They are recognised as one of the eight distinct subspecies of leopard and while they are the smallest, weighing 18-34 kg, they are adapted to desert habitats and genetically most closely related to the African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) (Soultan et al., 2017;Uphyrkina et al., 2001;Al Hikmani, 2019). Their scarcity and the remoteness of their habitat means Arabian leopards' persistence across their range is widely unknown (Mallon & Budd, 2011;Islam, Boug, Judas, & As-Shehri, 2018). ...
... The mountains of southern Oman are considered a stronghold for the Arabian leopard (Spalton et al., 2006a(Spalton et al., , 2006bSpalton & Al Hikmani, 2014;Farhadinia et al., 2021) and though leopards remain in the wild in Yemen, populations are isolated and fragmented (Al Jumaily, Mallon, Naher, & Thowabeh, 2006). In Saudi Arabia, they previously thrived in arid mountainous regions and had strong populations located within the western mountains (Gasperetti, Harrison, & Büttiker, 1985;Harrison & Bates, 1991;Judas, Paillat, Khoja, & Boug, 2006;Islam et al., 2018Islam et al., , 2021Farhadinia et al., 2021). Between 1996, 65 leopard sightings were reported (Al-Johany, 2007, however, since 2010, efforts to detect the species have failed (Islam, Boug, Shehri, & Jackson, 2011, 2018. ...
... Between 1996, 65 leopard sightings were reported (Al-Johany, 2007, however, since 2010, efforts to detect the species have failed (Islam, Boug, Shehri, & Jackson, 2011, 2018. It is estimated the distribution has declined by between 90 and 98% since the 19th Century (Jacobson et al., 2016;Islam, Boug, & As-Shehri, 2017) and there have been no confirmed reports of leopards in Saudi Arabia since 2014 when one was killed by poisoning (Islam et al., 2018). Effective and immediate research into their current range, occupancy, and habitat requirements in Saudi Arabia is therefore of critical conservation importance. ...
Camera trapping can detect and monitor rare species in landscapes spanning thousands of square kilometres but placement of cameras in areas where the animals most likely occur will increase detection success. This vital information is lacking for the critically endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) that has undergone a 90% decline across its range in Saudi Arabia. We aimed to identify suitable Arabian leopard habitat and potential population capacity in Saudi Arabia using data from leopards living in ecologically analogous habitat in South Africa and Oman. We developed a resource selection function (RSF) from 14 leopards’ GPS data in the Cederberg, South Africa, and validated the model using three leopards in the Little Karoo, and two Arabian leopards in Oman. We then projected the model to the historical range of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia to estimate likely leopard locations and potential population sizes based on home range metrics. The RSF successfully discriminated between used and available locations (specificity=96.7%) and had high predictive ability (Rho>0.9). Leopards selectively used areas away from human settlements and roads, with high enhanced vegetation index, and intermediate slopes and elevations. Saudi Arabia could theoretically host 4 distinct populations totalling 162-362 Arabian leopard females, depending on home range size. Camera traps deployed in the south-western mountains of Saudi Arabia may be most likely to detect remnant populations of Arabian leopards. Further research is needed into the local abundance of prey species and human activity to ensure the persistence of suitable leopard ranges and inform conservation actions.
... The practice of hunting and killing Arabian leopards (Panthera pardus nimr) within Saudi Arabia threatens their existence in the wild. As a result, these leopards have a critically endangered conservation status (Al-Johany, 2007;Islam et al., 2018). Additionally, the population of striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) is sharply declining in its known range, which includes Saudi Arabia, due to hunting . ...
... Overhunting might influence the diet of local wildlife. The rarity of some prey species-such as the Nubian ibex and gazelles in Saudi Arabia (Al-Johany, 2007;Islam et al., 2018)-due to overhunting has forced the Arabian leopard to begin attacking livestock in search of an alternative food source (Islam et al., 2018). Such behavior likely indicates that this species may change its foraging habits and roam further to meet its diet requirements, which may increase human-wildlife conflict. ...
... Overhunting might influence the diet of local wildlife. The rarity of some prey species-such as the Nubian ibex and gazelles in Saudi Arabia (Al-Johany, 2007;Islam et al., 2018)-due to overhunting has forced the Arabian leopard to begin attacking livestock in search of an alternative food source (Islam et al., 2018). Such behavior likely indicates that this species may change its foraging habits and roam further to meet its diet requirements, which may increase human-wildlife conflict. ...
The conservation of biological diversity is gaining an increasing amount of global attention. In particular, in Saudi Arabia, conservation actions have become a topic of focus, with many successful initiatives being implemented. Despite these efforts, several wild animal species in Saudi Arabia still require special attention to ensure their long-term conservation and survival. If not effectively controlled, certain challenges could threaten the conservation status of local wildlife. Various conservation strategies are employed in Saudi Arabia to control these challenges, minimize their influence, and promote conservation action. Such strategies have proven to be effective; however, further efforts are still required, particularly outside protected areas. The conservation of species in critical situations primarily depends on the creation of protected areas and human intervention. Wildlife conservation is a collaborative effort; every individual has a role to play in protecting wild animals in each unique ecosystem to ensure their survival and the sustainability of their habitats for future generations.
... Much of the leopard's range was located within Saudi Arabia; this has decreased by about 90% (Judas et al., 2006;Islam et al., 2018). A number of recent field surveys in the western highlands of Saudi Arabia failed to detect even the signs of the regular presence of leopard (Islam et al., 2018). ...
... Much of the leopard's range was located within Saudi Arabia; this has decreased by about 90% (Judas et al., 2006;Islam et al., 2018). A number of recent field surveys in the western highlands of Saudi Arabia failed to detect even the signs of the regular presence of leopard (Islam et al., 2018). Al Johany (2007) recorded 62 sites with likely leopard presence in Saudi Arabia. ...
... Al Johany (2007) recorded 62 sites with likely leopard presence in Saudi Arabia. The majority of these sites were repeatedly checked between 2010 to 2017 and the regular presence of the species was not confirmed, though one male was poisoned in February 2014 (Islam et al., 2018). From 1833 to 2017 there were ~300 records in the entire region of the Arabian Peninsula (Islam et al., 2018;Al-Johany 2007;Spalton & Al-Hikamani 2006;. ...
This study attempts to link the distribution and movement rate of the critically endangered Arabian Leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) to environmental and anthropogenic features, and to identify environmental constraints and priority areas for the recovery of leopard in Arabian Peninsula. Generalized linear and additive models were used to fit leopard presence/absence locations to environmental and anthropogenic variables. Movement rates between the polygons of modeled leopard presence were inferred and mapped using the isolation-by-resistance model, where probability values of the species distribution model were treated as those of conductance. Our results suggest that currently the Arabian Leopard prefers to live and move in terrain that has high values of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and is difficult for humans to reach. The current network of protected areas largely under-represents the species suitable habitat only covering its 11%, and most of the survey effort to detect and ensure the survival of the leopard in the peninsula has taken place outside the polygons identified by our models as core areas for the species. Our models coupled with existing data suggest the following scenario of the species biogeography: The Arabian Leopard accumulated genetic and phenotypic differences from its conspecifics at a series of glacial maxima during the last glacial period in the Yemeni refugium, from where it expanded elsewhere in the Holocene warming following the expansion of suitable landscape types. Humans expanded too, eventually restricting the source populations of the leopard to an area intersecting eastern Yemen and western Oman today. Our models may serve as a tool for planning future research and conservation for Arabian Leopard.
... Historically, the Arabian Leopard has occupied almost the entire mountainous rim of the Arabian Peninsula, with most of its population located within Saudi Arabia (Figure 1;Judas, Paillat, Khoja, Boug, 2006;Islam, Boug, Judas, & As-Shehri, 2018). The Arabian Leopard in the South-western Highlands faced tremendous pressures from poachers and shepherds, but a very small population still persists in the area (Judas et al., 2006). ...
... Till late 1990s, it was suspected that an infinitesimal population was still present in the Hijaz, northwestern highlands of Saudi Arabia (Nader, 1996). Recent studies using remote camera trapping, interviews with local people, and records of local leopard killings estimated the current leopard population to be 50 individuals (Islam et al., 2018). The Arabian Leopard population in the entire Arabian Peninsula may have declined by over 90% since the beginning of the 20 th century (Jacobson et al., 2016;Breitenmoser & Breitenmoser, 2006). ...
... The Arabian Leopard population in the entire Arabian Peninsula may have declined by over 90% since the beginning of the 20 th century (Jacobson et al., 2016;Breitenmoser & Breitenmoser, 2006). Recent estimations suggest a total population between 150 and 200 (Islam, Boug, Shehri, & Jaid, 2015;Islam et al., 2018Spalton & Al Hikmani, 2014;Breitenmoser & Breitenmoser, 2006). ...
The Arabian Leopard Panthera pardus nimr, classified by IUCN as “Critically Endangered”, is Saudi Arabia’s flagship predator. The population of this species has declined to approximately 50 individuals and may become extinct in the Arabian Peninsula if threats are not addressed. In addition to habitat destruction, major threats include poaching and competition for diminishing prey species, two factors which may have been underestimated so far. The main competitors of the Arabian Leopard are the Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi) and Arabian Wolf (Canis lupus arabs). With a Population Viability Analysis (PVA), we simulated various scenarios to demonstrate the impact of competition for prey and poaching. The population under stable natural conditions without poaching and restocking (supplementation) would have a survival probability of only 37%. Without competition by the Caracal, survivability of the leopard population would increase to 89%, and without the Arabian Wolf to 98%. The likelihood of extinction would be 1% if both competitors were absent. A second set of scenarios, with a poaching rate of six individuals per year, shows that the leopard would not survive over the next 100 years. Further, the stabilization of the population by means of restocking with captive-bred animals was simulated to test a minimal number of individuals required to substitute the Arabian Leopard population. In addition to the competition by Caracal and Wolf, supplementing a minimum of eight individuals would stabilize the population as it is now, and allow a maximum of six poached individuals per year. Our results demonstrate need for urgent protection of the Arabian Leopard as well as its prey with strict minimization of poaching. Our model, however, does not take into account the effect of habitat destruction and fragmentation, which may also have detrimental impacts to the leopards and associated species.
... Overgrazing has a direct impact on environmental deterioration, erosion, and the reduction of vegetation cover. Grazing is rooted in local culture along with logging as numerous local communities value it more than wildlife and natural resources due to lack of tangible benefits derived from conservation [1,8]. In addition, fuelwood is in high demand despite the existence of alternative fuel resources [9]. ...
... In addition, fuelwood is in high demand despite the existence of alternative fuel resources [9]. Consequently, habitat destruction and land degradation has caused resources competition among domestic livestock and wildlife species [8]. ...
... Numerous studies and government reports further report that the system is not well managed and the benefits, such as providing recreational opportunities for the public, increasing environmental awareness, improving community quality of life, and protecting wildlife are neglected [1,2,4,[6][7][8][9][10]. ...
There is a genuine need to examine stakeholders' perception of biodiversity conservation and tourism development due to overlapping roles and conflicting priorities among key governmental agencies in Saudi Arabia. The need to understand the role of each stakeholder group will assist to support policy formulation and implementation, along with effective practices. Within this context, the purpose of this study was to examine stakeholder perspectives towards National Parks and Protected Areas in Saudi Arabia. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews from 11 stakeholders' representative of public, private, and non-governmental organizations from the tourism and conservation community. Findings revealed four main themes-tourism development, management issues, development challenges, and policy concerns. In addition, multiple sub-themes within each were further categorized. Overall, findings highlight the need to form a foundation for sustainable tourism development that aims to conserve biodiversity and provide opportunities for local communities to ensure economic growth. Implications for development in National Parks and Protected Areas in Saudi Arabia are also noted.
... This landscape of fear will also likely influence caracal occupancy and impact their distribution at a fine and broad scale (Serieys et al., 2023). Recent expansions of livestock herds as well as prey base depletion (e.g., of hyrax) due to hunting and overgrazing may, however, be further exacerbating felid declines in this region (Islam et al., 2018). Human-wildlife conflict is listed as one of the major threats to caracal survival (Mallon and Budd, 2011), where caracals are often considered pests (Ramesh et al., 2017;Nieman et al., 2020) and lethal predator control can be common (McManus et al., 2015;Minnie et al., 2018;Jansen et al., 2019;Drouilly et al., 2023). ...
... They are, however, risk factors associated with spending time around humans that arise from many sources (Mallon and Budd, 2011;Kitchener et al., 2017). Real and perceived threats of livestock predation is a common cause of human-induced mortality for many wild cats around the world, and trapping and poisoning are common methods used to try to reduce livestock deaths (Dickman, 2010;Drouilly et al., 2023;Dunford, 2022;Dunford et al., 2022;Islam et al., 2018;IUCN, 2023). Caracals are known to be susceptible to direct and indirect poisoning either from retaliation or pesticides and rodenticides that enter their food chain (Serieys et al., 2015;Leighton et al., 2022). ...
... Ecologically, Nubian ibex are important for their impact on plant communities in their habitat through browsing [4]. They also serve as a key food source for predators like the Arabian leopard, contributing to the balance of their ecosystem despite the challenges they face [5]. ...
The Nubian ibex is important for conservation strategies, population health, evolutionary history, genetic adaptations, and management and breeding programs. Understanding these aspects is crucial for targeted conservation strategies, species survival, and maintaining genetic diversity. This chapter focuses on the genetic diversity and population structure of the Nubian ibex. We compare it to related species and use genotyping data to analyze heterozygosity, differentiation, and cluster analysis. Through our research, we emphasize the significance of comprehending genetic variations for the purpose of implementing effective conservation efforts. These insights play a crucial role in the preservation of this remarkable species in Sudan, ultimately raising awareness about the importance of protecting the Nubian ibex for future generations.
... Historically, the Arabian leopard roamed diverse regions from the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, through Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan, all the way to the mountainous areas of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and the UAE (Jacobson et al., 2016;Spalton, and al Hikmani, 2006). However, since the 19th century, its range has been more than decimated, primarily due to habitat loss and fragmentation caused by human encroachment, declining prey populations, as well as direct hunting, retaliatory killings provoked by livestock losses, and poisoning (Jacobson et al., 2016;Islam et al., 2015Islam et al., , 2018Breitenmoser et al., 2006). ...
The Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr) has experienced dramatic range and population contractions over the last century. Conservation efforts for this felid focused on captive breeding and identification of suitable conditions for reintroductions. With this study, we unravelled historical collaring and direct observations data to understand the spatial use of the last leopards recorded in the region of Israel and the West Bank (IWB). Through datasets of leopard occurrence, we characterised suitable habitats, assessed niche overlap with the Arabian leopard's main prey, the Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), and evaluated their distributions with respect to currently protected habitats. We estimated home-ranges employing area-corrected density kernel methods and investigated suitable conditions through multiple scales habitat modelling. Average home ranges for the population were 73.24 ± 47.91 km2 and 77.46 ± 54.94 km2, depending on the time lag adopted. Ecological response to predictors highlighted reliance by both predator and prey on the same habitat characteristics, suggesting they occupied essentially identical niches. These characteristics were intermediately rugged topographic conditions and high indices of vegetation in scarcely populated desert environments, mostly encompassed within protected areas. The distribution of leopard and ibex overlapped substantially according to several metrics. Notably, more than half of potential habitat for both species is encompassed by protected areas and military zones. Given the coincidence in their ecological requirements, and highly congruent distributions, an important step towards future reintroduction of Arabian leopards will include gaining a better understanding of ibex populations, alongside attention to the practicality of enforcing habitat protection.
... aFreyhof et al., 2015;Hamidan & Shobrak, 2019; b Cox et al., 2012;Aloufi et al., 2019; c Islam, Ismail & Boug, 2011 d Soares et al., 2014Al Jahdhami et al., 2017;Svizzero, 2019; e Mallon & Budd, 2011;Islam et al., 2018 ...
Globally, the resources devoted to biodiversity conservation are insufficient to prevent biodiversity loss, forcing conservation agencies to prioritize which species receive active protection. Accordingly, we developed an objective method for prioritizing the terrestrial vertebrates of Saudi Arabia, a country with limited baseline ecological data and limited conservation effort. Ninety-seven species were regarded as High Conservation Priority on the basis that they are listed as globally or regionally threatened and/or have more than 50% of their range within Saudi Arabia. We then scored these 97 species according to measures of extinction risk, level of endemicity, national responsibility, and phylogenetic distinctness to create a ranked list of High Conservation Priority species. The ten highest conservation priority species in Saudi Arabia are all freshwater fish or small reptiles, with the highest ranked species being the critically endangered Arabian Bream Acanthobrama hadiyahensis. We developed GIS heat maps of the summed conservation priority scores for the 97 High Conservation Priority species, which reveal the Asir Mountains as the highest conservation priority area within the Kingdom. The method we developed can be used on any group of species in any geographicarea and can be easily revised as additional data arise.
... The Javan leopard is thought to be threatened primarily by habitat loss (Gomez and Shepherd, 2021), whereas illegal hunting is reported to be the biggest threat to the Indo-Chinese leopard , and in South Africa (Balme et al., 2010). In Saudi-Arabia the decline of the leopard's prey base and retaliatory killings were reported as the biggest threats (Islam et al., 2018). Similarly, hunting is known to be a key threat to snow leopards (Uncia uncia), however despite the existence of the Snow Leopard Crime Database, a lack of data on snow leopard populations and hunting offtakes makes it difficult to estimate the extent to which population declines are due to direct illegal hunting (primarily due to human wildlife conflict and for trade in hides and bones) or due to prey population declines and habitat destruction . ...
... The Javan leopard is thought to be threatened primarily by habitat loss (Gomez and Shepherd, 2021), whereas illegal hunting is reported to be the biggest threat to the Indo-Chinese leopard , and in South Africa (Balme et al., 2010). In Saudi-Arabia the decline of the leopard's prey base and retaliatory killings were reported as the biggest threats (Islam et al., 2018). Similarly, hunting is known to be a key threat to snow leopards (Uncia uncia), however despite the existence of the Snow Leopard Crime Database, a lack of data on snow leopard populations and hunting offtakes makes it difficult to estimate the extent to which population declines are due to direct illegal hunting (primarily due to human wildlife conflict and for trade in hides and bones) or due to prey population declines and habitat destruction . ...
This study looks for the first time at the extent to which terrestrial animals protected by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) are being impacted by wild meat taking, trade and consumption. It contributes to the implementation of a decision adopted by the CMS Conference of the Parties in 2020 (CMS Decision 13.109). We assessed the direct and indirect impacts of wild meat taking, trade and consumption of 105 terrestrial mammal species listed in the CMS Appendices I and II and relevant CMS daughter agreements and initiatives. We first used a systematic review of the published literature, global database searches and the IUCN Red List to determine which CMS species are affected by wild meat hunting. We then reviewed the legislation applicable to the regulation of wild meat hunting and trade and explored the application of hunting legislation using a national case-study example. Finally, we examined the known linkages between zoonotic diseases and wild meat use and trade.
... The Caracal is able to kill prey weighing 2-3 times its own size such as gazelles Gazella (Moqanaki et al. 2016). The reduction of these ungulates as a result of hunting and land degradation may be the reason for the Caracal to prey occasionally on small domestic livestock and poultry (Stuart & Stuart 2007;Zafar-ul et al. 2018). Predation on escaped livestock was recorded in South Africa, but is considered to be seasonal in nature and limited in extent (Avenant & Nel 2002a). ...
We present evidence confirming the presence of Caracal Caracal caracal in Abu Dhabi Emirate. Camera trap deployment into areas likely to harbour elusive species revealed the presence of at least one male individual with 37 records in 683 camera trap days over a seven-month period. These records represent the first confirmed presence of Caracal in Abu Dhabi Emirate since 1965. Both diurnal and nocturnal records highlighted varied activity patterns of this generally elusive species. Foraging activity occurred primarily during low luminosity levels associated with the new moon. The evidence obtained proves the presence of Arabian Caracal in a location long suspected of providing suitable habitat for this species.
... Details of populations and legal status of four threatened leopard subspecies across continental Asia. The Amur leopard population size is provided as a total number across Russia and China, not at the scale of country. Abbreviations: NA -not available, PA -protected area.Zafar-ul Islam et al., 2018) ...
Large carnivores have extensive spatial requirements, which often result in ranges that span geopolitical borders. Consequently, management of transboundary populations is subject to different political jurisdictions, often with high heterogeneity in conservation challenges. In continental Asia, there are four endangered leopard subspecies with transboundary populations spanning 23 countries: the Persian, Indochinese, Arabian, and Amur leopards. We reviewed the status of these subspecies and examined their conservation challenges and opportunities. Amur and Indochinese leopards had the majority (58-100%) of their remaining range in borderlands, whereas Persian and Arabian leopards had a quarter (23-26%) of their remaining ranges in borderlands. Overall, in 18 of 23 countries the majority of the remaining leopard range was in borderlands, thus in most countries their conservation is dependent on transboundary collaborations. However, we found only two transboundary initiatives for Asian leopards. Overall, we highlighted three key transboundary landscapes in regions which are of high importance for the survival of these subspecies. Recent listing of leopard in the Bonn Convention is an encouraging step forward, but more international collaboration is needed to save these subspecies. Our paper provides a spatial framework on which range countries and international agencies can establish transboundary cooperation for conserving endangered leopards in Asia.
The Arabian leopard Panthera pardus nimr is categorized as Critically Endangered, with < 200 individuals estimated to remain in the wild. Historically the species ranged over an extensive area of western Saudi Arabia but, with no confirmed sightings since 2014, investigating potential continued presence and distribution is of critical conservation importance. We present the results of a comprehensive survey designed to detect any remaining Arabian leopard populations in Saudi Arabia. We conducted 14 surveys, deploying 586 camera-trap stations at 13 sites, totalling 82,075 trap-nights. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with 843 members of local communities across the Arabian leopard's historical range to assess the presence of leopards, other predators and prey species. Predator scats were collected ad hoc by field teams and we used mitochondrial DNA analysis to identify the originating species. We obtained 62,948 independent photographs of animals and people, but none were of Arabian leopards. Other carnivores appeared widespread and domestic animals were numerous, but wild prey were comparatively scarce. Three questionnaire respondents reported sightings of leopards within the previous year, but targeted camera-trap surveys in these areas did not yield evidence of leopards. Of the 143 scats sent for analysis, no DNA was conclusively identified as that of the leopard. From this extensive study, we conclude there are probably no surviving, sustainable populations of Arabian leopards in Saudi Arabia. Individual leopards might be present but were not confirmed. Any future Arabian leopard conservation in Saudi Arabia will probably require reintroduction of captive-bred leopards.
This manual has been written to assist the staff of the National Wildlife Research Center (NRWC) to conduct camera-trap surveys of the Critically Endangered Arabian leopard with the primary purpose of (1) determining Presence-Absence (detection-non-detection) of leopards across the range, followed by (2) intensive camera-trapping in selected areas in order to establish population size and density where this is feasible. Secondary objectives, not addressed in detail in this manual, include a threats-based assessment of each survey area in order to determine and then prioritize conservation actions as recommended under the National Conservation Strategy for the Arabian Leopard (2010). Additional information is contained in the Final Report prepared on the training.
This manual is intended to serve as general guide for planning and executing camera-trap surveys; for more information, practitioners are referred to manuals like Henschel and Ray’s (2003) African Leopard Survey and Monitoring Handbook and to Karanth and Nichol’s manual on tiger and prey species monitoring for the rationale behind camera-trap theory and survey design. In any case, this manual will need to be periodically updated from the survey results and, we hope, an ever-increasing knowledge of the Arabian leopard’s ecology and natural history.
and has not been recorded in the Musandam Governorate since 1997. However, it continues to survive
through much of the Dhofar Mountains.
The first significant step to conserve the Arabian leopard was taken in 1985 when the region’s first captive
breeding group was established. Further important steps were taken in 1997 when Jabal Samhan, a part of
the Dhofar Mountains, was declared a Nature Reserve. In the same year the Arabian Leopard Survey was
launched and since that time field surveys, camera-trapping and tracking of leopards fitted with GPS satellite
collars has not only revealed vital information on the ecology of this species but has helped to keep this
flagship species in the public eye.
While new work, from ecotourism initiatives to molecular scatology, is underway further bold steps need
to be taken if we are to conserve Oman’s and perhaps the regions’ last wild Arabian leopard population.
Undoubtedly the most important of these is to urgently safeguard the leopards and associated biodiversity
of Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve with innovative measures that bring real benefits to the local people.
Many killings of leopards can be attributed to livestock protection. When catching goats, sheep, young camels or other domestic animals, leopards interfere with human activities and are seen as straight competitors. With the decrease of natural prey species, they have to more and more shift their diet to livestock, which increases their unpopularity. In most cases, they are also considered as a threat for human. As a result, leopard is hunted across its range, with different methods (trapping, poisoning, shooting). Poisoning using anticoagulant rat killer was common in the eighties, which was stopped in 1985 unlike trapping. A total of only five known incidences of poisoning of Arabian leopards Panthera pardus nimr have been recorded in Saudi Arabia between 1965 and 2014. Shepherds poisoned the carcasses of sheep, goats, camel thought to have been killed by a predator such as Arabian wolf Canis lupus arabs, striped hyena Hyaena hyaena or stray dogs and unfortunately, the predator in these instances was the elusive Arabian leopard. The Arabian leopard is Saudi Arabia's flag-ship predator and is listed as Critically En-dangered by the IUCN (Mallon et al. 2008, Boug et al. 2009, Islam et al. 2011), with an effective population of 100-250 across its en-tire range in the Arabian Peninsula (Islam et al. 2011). It is also considered to be a geneti-cally distinct subspecies (Mallon et al. 2008). Known locally as Al nimr al-arabi, this leop-ard subspecies is small, adapted to desert habitats and endemic to the Arabian Penin-sula. It once occupied the mountainous rim of the Arabian Peninsula, albeit at low densities given the harsh environment and limited prey base (Fig. 1). Historically much of the leopard's range was located within the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Fig. 1), which decreased by about 90% since the 19th Century (Judas et al. 2006, Boug et al. 2009). Primary threats to the species are habitat degradation and fragmentation re-sulting from road or track construction (and which facilitate access for poachers), over-grazing by sheep and goats, construction of new houses (especially in rural areas), urbanization along the Asir Range on the Biljurashi Plateau, and mining or gravel extraction development. Depletion of the leopard's prey base and retributive killing are the greatest threats. Excessive illegal hunting has greatly
Discusses the assertion that effectively states that habitat fragmentation should be innocuous to most species, and therefore need not be a consideration in reserve design. This conclusion runs counter to the prevailing view that habitat fragmentation negatively affects population survival, and thus biological diversity, and therefore should be a prime consideration in conservation strategy. This apparent contradiction arises from 3 sources: 1) the 'single large or several small reserves will protect more species' is not equivalent to, or is at very best a special case of, the problem of habitat fragmentation; 2) the population model Simerloff and Abele (1982) (see 83L/2948) employ is inadequate because it ignores key factors affecting population survival; and 3) Simerloff and Abele's treatment does not consider how the disposition of one species may affect the survival of others, because it is limited to single-species population phenomena and ignores interspecific interactions or community-level phenomena.-from Authors
Leopards, Panthera pardus, are widely distributed across southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. The extent and phylogeographic patterns of molecular genetic diversity were addressed in a survey of 77 leopards from known geographical locales representing 13 of the 27 classical trinomial subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences (727 bp of NADH5 and control region) and 25 polymorphic microsatellite loci revealed abundant diversity that could be partitioned into a minimum of nine discrete populations, tentatively named here as revised subspecies: P. parduspardus, P. p. nimr, P. p. saxicolor, P. p. fusca, P. p. kotiya, P. p. delacouri, P. p. japonensis, P. p. orientalis and P. p. melas. However, because of limited sampling of African populations, this may be an underestimate of modern phylogeographic population structure. Combined phylogeographic and population diversity estimates support an origin for modern leopard lineages 470 000–825 000 years ago in Africa followed by their migration into and across Asia more recently (170 000–300 000 years ago). Recent demographic reductions likely have led to genetic impoverishment in P. p. orientalis and in the island subspecies P. p. kotiya.
Research on fragmented ecosystems has focused mostly on the biogeograpbic consequences of the creation of habitat “islands” of different sizes and has provided little of practical value to managers. However, ecosystem fragmentation causes large changes in the physical environment as well as biogeograpbic changes. Fragmentation generally results in a landscape that consists of remnant areas of native vegetation surrounded by a matrix of agricultural or other developed land. As a result fluxes of radiation, momentum (La, wind), water, and nutrients across the landscape are altered significantly. These in turn can have important influences on biota within remnant areas, especially at or near the edge between the remnant and the surrounding matrix. The isolation of remnant areas by clearing also has important consequences for the biota. These consequences vary with the time since isolation distance from other remnants, and degree of connectivity with other remnants. The influences of physical and biogeographic changes are modified by the size, shape, and position in the landscape of individual remnant, with larger remnants being less adversely affected by the fragmentation process. The Dynamics of remnant areas are predominantly driven by factors arising in the surrounding landscape. Management of, and research on, fragmented ecosystems should be directed at understanding and controlling these external influences as much as at the biota of the remnants themselves. There is a strong need to develop an integrated approach to landscape management that places conservation reserves in the context of the overall landscape
Previous, unreported and recent records of the Carnivora from Arabia are listed, supplemented by distribution maps. Aspects of ecology and species status are discussed and measures for protection of carnivores are recommended. Proposals for the re-introduction or redistribution of some species into protected areas are made. -from Authors
Fragments of habitat are often viewed as islands and are managed as such; however, habitat fragmentation includes a wide range of spatial patterns of environments that may occur on many spatial scales. Fragments exist in a complex landscape mosaic, and dynamics within a fragment are affected by external factors that vary as the mosaic structure changes. The simple analogy of fragments to islands, therefore, is unsatisfactory. Understanding how birds respond to these complexities of fragmentation requires mechanistic studies focused on habitat selection and movement behaviour. Conservation efforts must be based on viewing fragmentation as a range of conditions that occurs in a landscape mosaic, and management should be directed towards the mosaics rather than focusing solely on reserves. -Author
NWRC has started a captive-breeding programme to secure the Arabian leopard and provide animals
for future restocking or reintroduction. The establishment of a captive breeding programme is an
important step in preventing the extinction of the Arabian leopard, even though not all leopards held
in captivity on the Arabian Peninsula have yet been integrated into the breeding programme. In the
meantime, most remnant populations will probably continue to decline. We do not know how much
time we have left to save the Arabian leopard from extinction in the wild.
This field guide begins with a checklist. The main part of the volume consists of entries for each species. Each entry provides information on common names, measurements, recognition, geographical distribution (plus map), habitat, diet, behaviour, adaptations and conservation status. Illustrations are also included. Brief notes are also provided on the African environment (physical, climate and vegetation) and palaeoecology (habitats and species). Finally a short section examines African wildlife conservation.
In this brief review of the status and conservation needs of the larger mammals of the Arabian peninsula, Dr Harrison, author of the standard work on the subject (volume 2 will be reviewed in the next ORYX) finds the situation not entirely depressing. Arabian oryx still probably number several hundred. The species that are in some danger include genet, lynx, leopard, cheetah, tahr, goat, red sheep, dorcas gazelle, Persian fallow deer and roe deer.
Fragments of habitat are often viewed as islands and are managed as such; however, habitat fragmentation includes a wide range of spatial patterns of environments that may occur on many spatial scales. Fragments exist in a complex landscape mosaic, and dynamics within a fragment are affected by external factors that vary as the mosaic structure changes. The simple analogy of fragments to islands, therefore, is unsatisfactory. Understanding how birds respond to these complexities of fragmentation requires mechanistic studies focused on habitat selection and movement behaviour. Conservation efforts must be based on viewing fragmentation as a range of conditions that occurs in a landscape mosaic, and management should be directed toward the mosaics rather than focusing solely on reserves.
Field surveys of populations and potential habitats of leopards in Saudi Arabia were conducted to assess the current distribution and status of the species. Related topics such as habitat characteristics of the current distribution, prey of the species, the human impact and conservation of the species were also investigated. Survey results from 153 sites showed that leopards had disappeared from their former range in the Median Mountains in northern Saudi Arabia. The species still survives in reasonable numbers in Hijaz and Sarawat Mountains. In spite of their rugged and arid locations, many sites were found to have shrubs, trees and waterholes. These sites provide habitat for the leopard's prey, such as hyrax, ibex and others. Results of this investigation reveal that there is a need for public awareness, involvement of local inhabitants, and establishment of protected areas to ensure the survival of the Arabian leopard. r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
A protective glycolipid antigen (PAg) was extracted from Leptospira interrogans serovar canicola with chloroform/methanol/water (1:2:0.8, by vol.) and partially purified by silica gel column chromatography. The PAg elicited a protective response in hamsters and in cyclophosphamide-treated mice subsequently challenged with homologous Leptospira. The PAg band was detected as a single smear-like band, corresponding to a protein of 23-30 kDa, by silver-staining in SDS-PAGE. In immunoblots, this band reacted with a monoclonal antibody, A5, which agglutinated serovar canicola and recognized a serovar-specific antigen. Furthermore, the PAg did not migrate on silica gel TLC, but was detected at the origin as a ninhydrin- and naphthol-positive spot. This suggests that PAg is a hydrophilic molecule with a carbohydrate chain that contains amino groups, possibly as amino sugars.
Field Reconnaissance Survey of Southern Hijaz
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