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Adopting an External Focus of Attention Enhances Musical Performance
Abstract
Two experiments are reported in which skilled musicians playing different instruments performed a piece of their choice under various attentional focus conditions. In the external focus condition, they were asked to focus on playing for the audience and the expressive sound of the music. In the internal focus condition, they were asked to focus on the precision of their finger movements (or lip movements for singers) and correct notes. In the control condition, they were asked to play the way they normally did. Expert raters evaluated the musicians’ performances for both musical expression and technical precision. In Experiment 1, external focus instructions enhanced musical expression relative to both internal focus and control conditions. There was no effect on technical precision. In Experiment 2, raters were given more detailed evaluation criteria. An external focus again led to superior musical expression compared with internal focus and control conditions. In addition, technical precision was higher within the external relative to the internal focus condition. The findings show that the advantages of focusing on the intended movement effect (i.e., externally) generalize to experienced musicians. Music teachers could offer their students specific recommendations for focus of attention during training and in concert situations to optimize learning and performance.
... These inquiries were originally conducted in sports settings, but due to the many parallels drawn between sports and music performance (for example, the skill is learned and honed from a young age and performed in high-stress situations), researchers started to investigate these constructs in music settings as well. This exploration is still in its initial phases, given that the first study on the topic was published in 2011 (Duke et al., 2011), but the emerging results align with the findings reported in sports, namely, that externally placed focus of attention is superior to internal focus: it enhances technical precision and even musical expressivity (Mornell & Wulf, 2019). It is reasonable to conclude that the correlation between attentional focus and movement quality remains intact at the other end of this spectrum, i.e., an internal focus would lead to less efficient and less fluent movements during music performance. ...
... This conscious interference is described by the Constrained Action Hypothesis (Wulf, 2013) or referred to as "reinvestment" or "internal focus" and is identified as harmful to the performance in decades of sports psychology research (Maxwell et al., 2006;Wulf, 2013). More recently, the phenomenon has been examined in musical contexts as well, and researchers drew similar conclusions, namely, that internal focus has a negative effect on technical precision and musical expression (Duke et al., 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2019). It has also been linked to anxiety and choking under pressure both in athletes (Iwatsuki & Wright, 2016) and musicians (Oudejans et al., 2017) and it is closely associated with certain sub-types of the "yips", the task-specific focal dystonia of athletes (Bennett et al., 2016). ...
... The fact that the average starting age in the sample was 12.20 years, and the literature reported similar findings across several samples of musicians with MFD Schmidt et al., 2013) suggests that musicians who later developed MFD employed a more explicit strategy, and more internal focus when acquiring the skill. While the literature clearly shows the superiority of implicit learning or external focus (Wulf, 2013) providing evidence that learning with an external focus enhances efficiency (Zachry et al., 2005), effectiveness (Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010), technical precision, and musical expressivity in music performance (Mornell & Wulf, 2019), the findings regarding the attention of focus in the early stages of learning have been so far inconclusive (Stambaugh, 2017). It has been hypothesised that children with high motor ability benefit from explicit learning (Maxwell et al., 2017); therefore, it is possible that a more explicit strategy provided an asset in the early years of education, helping these young musicians to improve quickly, even if the strategy is not advantageous long-term, especially after the basics of the skill are acquired. ...
Musician’s Focal Dystonia (MFD) is a task-specific, neurological movement disorder affecting highly skilled musicians which disrupts the fine motor control of the movements necessary for playing an instrument. The understanding of the pathophysiology and aetiology is limited, resulting in the lack of reliable treatment strategies; therefore, full recovery is extremely rare.
The multifactorial origins of the condition are acknowledged, yet the bulk of the research is conducted from a medical perspective, focusing on maladaptive neuroplasticity and the genetic setup of the sufferers. Following the initiative of more recent research which broadened the scope of the investigations, this thesis explores the condition from a holistic perspective, including psychosocial, psychological, and behavioural factors. To reach this goal, a large-scale mixed-method research study was planned with three distinct stages and methodologies which allowed the triangulation of the findings. The first, exploratory Grounded Theory interview study collected the life stories of 15 musicians affected by the disorder to identify potential risk factors. These findings informed the interview schedule of the second qualitative study, which was conducted with 14 practitioners who frequently work with musicians with MFD. This still subjective qualitative data provided information about a large in-direct sample, and insights into the ongoing treatment strategies. The identified risk factors then were tested in a quasi-experimental questionnaire study, comparing musicians with and without MFD.
The triangulated findings indicate the musicians who were later affected by MFD had maladaptive psychological traits and cognitive strategies, exercised negative health and practice behaviours, and experienced traumatic events prior to the onset of the condition. Moreover, it was concluded that many seemingly individual maladaptive characteristics were prompted or aggravated by the social context, especially the educational and work environments. Implications for treatment approaches and preventative strategies and suggestions for further research are discussed in the final chapters of the work.
... In several of these past studies, participants were not asked to perform an actual musical piece but only short, experimentally well-controlled but nevertheless artificial, sequences of simple note sequences, either on a keyboard or sung. To our knowledge only one study to date (Mornell & Wulf, 2019) asked participants to perform actual pieces of music in front of an evaluative audience. In that study, ratings of performance quality were used to evaluate the effectiveness of external compared to internal attention focus instructions. ...
... The results reported here are in general support of the idea that an external focus of attention is more beneficial to performance than an internal focus of attention and in line with previous studies evaluating the effects of attention focus in music performance (e.g., Atkins, 2017; Atkins & Duke, 2013;Duke et al., 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2019). We found our amateur musician participants to commit fewer pitch (note) errors and make a smaller number of error corrections under external compared to internal focus instruction when performing an actual piece of piano music live-online to the experimenter. ...
... One could also argue that the use of a non-instruction control condition could shed further light on this issue as it should provide a baseline against which costs arising from an internal focus or benefits from an external focus could be measured. However, as pointed out by Mornell and Wulf (2019), a no-instruction baseline condition is problematic as musicians might automatically choose to focus internally during performance, even when no explicit instruction is provided. ...
Detriments to performance under pressure are common in many performance settings, from public speaking to skilled sports or music performances. In the last few decades, sports scientists have suggested that the quality and accuracy of movements can depend on what the performer attends to while executing the action, with an external focus of attention directed at the effects of the movement on the environment resulting in better performance than an internal focus, where attention is directed at the performer’s own body movements. Here we investigated the effects of attention focus instruction on the accuracy of piano performance. Amateur pianists were asked to practice a set piano piece for 7 days and then perform it to the experimenter under different performance instructions (no instruction, internal focus, external focus). An external focus of attention resulted in more accurate performance compared to an internal focus instruction, as evaluated by the difference in the number of note pitch errors and note corrections between the two conditions. Importantly, the advantage of an external over internal focus did not depend on pianistic expertise in our sample. Our research supports the idea that an external attention focus can improve music performance and should be considered in music teaching practice.
... The relative effectiveness of external versus internal foci of attention has been examined with respect to multiple dimensions of motor performance, including the effectiveness of movements and their outcomes, the efficiency with which movements are performed, and automaticity in the control of movements. Movement effectiveness is reflected, for example, in the accuracy with which a target is hit in tasks involving throwing or hitting objects (e.g., Bell & Hardy, 2009;Lohse et al., 2010), deviations from a balanced position or time in balance (for a review, see Kim et al., 2017), quality of movement form (e.g., Abdollahipour et al., 2015;, or musical performance (e.g., Mornell & Wulf, 2019) as determined by kinematic measures or expert ratings, and many others. Movement efficiency has been operationalized as reduced oxygen consumption for a given task (e.g., Hill et al., 2017;Schücker et al., 2009), reduced muscular activity and cocontraction (e.g., Lohse et al., 2011;Vance et al., 2004), greater movement fluidity (e.g., Kal et al., 2013), or greater sustainability of motor activities such as weightlifting (Marchant et al., 2011;Nadzalan et al., 2015). ...
... Importantly, most studies did not attempt to assess participants' thoughts after specific instruction or the absence of instruction. Those few studies that did examine participants' reports of the content of their thoughts or attentional focus via postperformance questionnaire (e.g., Becker & Smith, 2013;Land et al., 2014) or interview (e.g., Abdollahipour et al., 2014;Chow et al., 2014;Ille et al., 2013) suggest that participants' foci tended to be internal (e.g., Pascua et al., 2015) or a mixture of internal and external (e.g., Christina & Alpenfels, 2014;Mornell & Wulf, 2019) when no focus direction was given. Second, examination of control versus specific attentional focus conditions might be seen to address a separate, albeit interesting question, namely, what attentional focus performers or learners spontaneously adopt when not specifically prompted with instructions. ...
... When the task goal involved maximum performance, such as maximum jump height (e.g., Abdollahipour et al., 2016) or distance (e.g., , maximal force production (e.g., Halperin, Williams, et al., 2016), propelling an object as far as possible (e.g., Zarghami et al., 2012), or number of repetitions to failure (e.g., Marchant et al., 2011), performance was measured accordingly. In some case, somewhat more subjective measures derived from assessment instruments such as the Game Performance Assessment Instrument for tennis (Tsetseli et al., 2016), Berg Balance Scale (e.g., Landers et al., 2016), or blinded expert ratings to assess musical or gymnastics performance (Abdollahipour et al., 2015;Mornell & Wulf, 2019) were used. A complete list of dependent measures used in the present meta-analyses can be found in the Appendix. ...
Considerable literature on the role of attentional focus in motor performance and learning has accumulated for over two decades. We report the results of comprehensive meta-analyses that address the impact of an external focus (EF, on intended movement effects) versus internal focus (IF, on movements of body parts) of attention on the performance and learning of motor skills. Values of effect sizes (ES) from 73 studies with 1,824 participants and 40 studies with 1,274 participants were used for examining the effects of EF versus IF on behavioral outcomes of motor performance and learning (separately for retention and transfer phases) respectively. The EF condition was more effective than the IF condition for performance, Hedges’ g value = 0.264 (95% CI [0.217, 0.310]), retention learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.583 (95% CI [0.425, 0.741]), and transfer learning, Hedges’ g value = 0.584 (95% CI [0.325, 0.842]). Multivariable metaregression analyses on behavioral measures further indicated that neither age group, health status, or skill level, nor their two-way interactions, moderated the ES differences between EF and IF in performance, retention, and transfer models (all p > .100). A secondary analysis on 12 studies with 216 participants that examined the effects of EF versus IF on electromyographic outcomes of motor performance also indicated that EF was associated with more efficient neuromuscular processing, Hedges’ g value = 0.833 (95% CI [0.453, 1.213]). From nine studies with 272 participants, performance measured by behavioral outcomes was found to be more effective when a more distal, rather than proximal, EF was used, Hedges’ g value = 0.224 (95% CI [0.019, 0.429]). Overall, the meta-analytic results are consistent with prior narrative reviews and indicate that an external focus is superior to an internal focus whether considering tests of motor performance or learning, and regardless of age, health condition, and level of skill expertise.
... These results were seminal in supporting the CAH for a musical task involving auditory feedback. Similarly, Atkins (2017) found that trained singers received higher expert ratings when performing under distal external foci compared to internal and proximal external foci, while Mornell and Wulf (2019) found that an external focus on musical expression compared to an internal focus on technical accuracy improved expert ratings of both musicality and technical accuracy for various kinds of expert instrumentalists. ...
... It is also noted that basic sound production using woodwind instruments is more complex (i.e., involves coordination of both hands and breathing) than previously tested tasks of piano playing and singing, which also may have affected results (Stambaugh, 2017). Although Mornell and Wulf (2019) found support for the CAH in a variety of instrumental performances, their conception of the external focus as "on musical expression" and the internal focus as "on technical accuracy" is not directly comparable with the other studies discussed here. Therefore, the current literature on FOA in music making is lacking in evidence for the CAH in complex instrumental sound production. ...
... As the somatic focus constitutes a specific type of external focus, this is in line with the Constrained Action Hypothesis (CAH), previous research in sport (e.g. Neumann, 2019;Wulf, 2013;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2016) and music (Atkins, 2017;Duke et al., 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2019). However, we unexpectedly found no evidence of performance benefits under the external focus on sound compared to the internal focus. ...
Violin bowing is a specialised sound-producing action, which may be affected by psychological performance techniques. In sport, attentional focus impacts motor performance, but limited evidence for this exists in music. We investigated the effects of attentional focus on acoustical, physiological, and physical parameters of violin bowing in experienced and novice violinists. Attentional focus significantly affected spectral centroid, bow contact point consistency, shoulder muscle activity, and novices’ violin sway. Performance was most improved when focusing on tactile sensations through the bow (somatic focus), compared to sound (external focus) or arm movement (internal focus). Implications for motor performance theory and pedagogy are discussed.
... Advantages of an external compared with an internal focus have been shown for various measures of movement effectiveness (e.g., movement accuracy, consistency) and efficiency (e.g., force production, muscular activity, heart rate, oxygen consumption). This benefit to performance and learning has also been demonstrated for a wide variety of skills, including sport skills (e.g., soccer, volleyball, basketball, swimming, running, kayaking, gymnastics), musical skills (Duke, Cash, & Allen, 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2018), or activities of daily living (e.g., Fasoli, Trombly, Tickle-Degnen, & Verfaellie, 2002). The external focus advantage is independent of the task, performer's skill level, age, or (dis)ability (for reviews, see Lohse, Wulf, & Lewthwaite, 2012;Marchant, 2011;Wulf, 2007aWulf, , 2007bWulf, , 2013Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2010Wulf & Prinz, 2001). ...
... If the familiarity of the attentional focus plays a significant role (Maurer & Munzert, 2013), foci that skilled performers typically adopt might yield more effective outcomes than other, instructed foci. However, any effects of familiarity typically seem to be outweighed by (instructed) external foci (e.g., Mornell & Wulf, 2018;Wulf & Su, 2007). Therefore, and based on previous findings related to the distance effect, we hypothesized that a distal external focus would result in the fastest sprint times. ...
... The distal focus condition resulted in superior performance relative to both the proximal focus and control conditions, while there was no difference between the latter two. One might have expected the instructed external, albeit proximal, focus to produce more effective results than the control condition as previous findings indicate that participants' foci tended to be internal (e.g., Pascua et al., 2015) or a mixture of internal and external (e.g., Christina & Alpenfels, 2014;Mornell & Wulf, 2018) when no focus direction was given. Alternatively, given participants' level of experience and presumably the familiarity with the foci they adopted in the control condition (Maurer & Munzert, 2013), one might have expected to see more effective performance in the control condition compared with the proximal focus condition. ...
Studies have demonstrated a benefit to performance and learning of a distal relative to a proximal external focus of attention. That is, focusing on a movement effect that occurs at a greater distance from the body has been found to be more effective than concentrating on a movement effect closer to the body. The present study examined the distance effect in skilled kayakers performing an open, continuous skill. Participants (n = 27) performed a wild water racing sprint of 100 m on Class 2 water. Using a within-participants design, a distal external focus (“Focus on the finish”) was compared to a proximal external focus (“Focus on the paddle”) as well as to a control condition. The distal focus condition (30.63 s, SD = 3.21) resulted in significantly shorter sprint times than did the proximal (32.07 s, SD = 3.27) and the control (31.96 s, SD = 3.58) conditions (ps < 0.001). The effect size was large (ηp² = 0.53). There was no significant difference between the proximal and control condition (p = 1.00). The findings demonstrate the importance of adopting a distal, rather than proximal, external focus for skilled athletes performing open, continuous skills under time pressure.
... Anxiety, perfectionism, and phobias are closely associated with maladaptive cognitive strategies, such as overfocusing and reinvestment, which were also suggested as triggering factors , and are known to interfere with the execution of motor movements in various settings (Wulf, 2013), including music performance (Duke et al., 2011;Mornell and Wulf, 2019). It is plausible that these characteristics informed the practice behaviours of the musicians, prompting overinvolvement in the task, to the level of motor fatigue and overuse injuries, which can be initial indicators of the onset as well . ...
... The fact that the average starting age in the sample was 12.20 years, and the literature reported similar findings across several samples of musicians with MFD (Schmidt et al., 2013;Altenmüller et al., 2014) suggests that musicians who later developed MFD employed a more explicit strategy, and more internal focus when acquiring the skill. While the literature clearly shows the superiority of implicit learning or external focus (Wulf, 2013) providing evidence that learning with an external focus enhances efficiency (Zachry et al., 2005), effectiveness (Wulf and Lewthwaite, 2010), technical precision, and musical expressivity in music performance (Mornell and Wulf, 2019), the findings regarding the attention of focus in the early stages of learning have been so far inconclusive (Stambaugh, 2017). It has been hypothesised that children with high motor ability benefit from explicit learning (Maxwell et al., 2017), therefore, it is possible that a more explicit strategy provided an asset in the early years of education, helping these young musicians to improve quickly, even if the strategy is not advantageous long-term, especially after the basics of the skill are acquired. ...
Musicians’ Focal Dystonia (MFD) is a task-specific neurological movement disorder, affecting 1–2% of highly skilled musicians. The condition can impair motor function by creating involuntary movements, predominantly in the upper extremities or the embouchure. The pathophysiology of the disorder is not fully understood, and complete recovery is extremely rare. While most of the literature views the condition through a neurological lens, a handful of recent studies point out certain psychological traits and the presence of adverse playing-related experiences and preceding trauma as possible contributors to the onset. The nature and the frequency of these factors, however, are under-researched. The present quasi-experimental study aimed to compare musicians with and without MFD in terms of the frequency of various adverse psychosocial and psychological factors to explore their contribution to the onset of the condition. Professional musicians with MFD (n = 107) and without MFD (n = 68) were recruited from online platforms, musicians’ unions, and organisations to fill out a survey. The survey was based on two previously conducted interview studies and included the Student-Instructor Relationship Scale (SIRS), the Mistake Rumination Scale (MRS), the Trauma History Screen, and self-constructed questions about the received music education, early success, and personal experiences. To identify potential risk factors, independent samples t-tests were conducted and found that there are significant differences in musicians with and without MFD in terms of mistake rumination, early success, and the received music education. A logistic regression showed that six factors contributed to the construct to various extents; we observed a significant model [χ2(80) = 22.681, p < 0.001], which predicted 71.2% of the cases correctly. This exploratory study shows that psychological and psychosocial factors might play a role in the development of MFD. Understanding these in more detail could inform preventative strategies and complement the current therapeutic approaches to support this vulnerable population better.
... Thus, musicians need to identify what information is relevant and irrelevant when both practicing and performing. For instance, when musicians focus on internal factors such as motor skills while performing (e.g., moving the fingers, applying the appropriate technique), they tend to play less expressively compared to when focusing on conveying the musical content to an audience (Mornell & Wulf, 2018 unsuccessful performances are in most cases caused by lack of sufficient concentration during practice (Bratlie & Jørgensen, 2015). ...
... Expert performers are significantly better than intermediate and novice performers at consciously shifting from controlled processing in practice to automatic processing in performance (Cleary & Zimmerman, 2001). Accordingly, the overall expressiveness of musical performances turns out to be strengthened when musicians' focus on conveying the music to the audience, rather than focusing on technical abilities and motor skills (Mornell & Wulf, 2018). Thus, musicians need to fully trust their technical and musical abilities accepting whatever outcome . ...
Peak performance has been investigated in the realm of sports for almost a century. Considerably fewer resources have been provided for studying peak performance in music. While musicians are usually left to their own devices, aspiring athletes are provided substantial support, knowledge, and resources on their journey toward excellence. In this chapter, our aim is to close this gap by providing musicians with access to basic psychological skills that have been adopted from peak performance techniques in sports. Two thematic questions will be addressed: Why can musicians benefit from psychological skills when pursuing peak performance? How can musicians apply psychological skills to their daily activities? In answering these questions, psychological skills such as goal setting, arousal regulation, concentration, and imagery are presented as foundational psychological skills in peak performance in music. Finally, hands-on examples of each psychological skill are discussed from a musical and an athletic perspective.
... Joanne places great emphasis on such experiences, which may be facilitated by restructuring the challenge from technique to performance. Moreover, by focusing on her artistry to engage the audience Joanne is directing her attention externally, which may allow her technical skills to be unconsciously processed thus enabling her to focus more on artistic expression (Mornell and Wulf 2019). Davina takes a more passive approach in constructing her narrative but recognizes the benefits of the automaticity of technical skills due to muscle memory "when you perform on stage you don't think about your technique, it's your muscle memory that takes over." ...
... Externally focused attention can enhance both performance and technical skills as opposed to focusing attention specifically on technical ability as Lora has been advised, which may have no effect on performance or technique (Mornell and Wulf 2019). Thus, dance teachers may benefit from encouraging a focus on attention externally to improve both technical and performance skills. ...
Professional dancers have described high levels of performance anxiety while also experiencing flow on stage. However, such research tends to capture one period of time in the performance experience and rarely focuses on vocational dance students. The current study samples vocational dance students at a UK performing arts school and captures their cognitive, somatic, and emotional experiences from pre- to post-performance. Eleven interviews were conducted with female students aged between 15 and 17 years. Thematic analysis was employed and three themes identified: Facilitative and Debilitative Anxiety in the Wings, Constructions of Anxiety and Flow on Stage, and After the Show; the Highs and the Lows. Findings produced an understanding of the psychological journey from pre- to post-performance. Students have the potential to manipulate their cognitions
to facilitate flow suggesting that dance schools can implement psychological techniques to manage anxiety and increase flow, thus enhancing well-being and performance
... A number of studies across different athletic and musical disciplines (Zachry et al., 2005;Zentgraf et al., 2009; Duke et al., 2011;Wulf, 2013;Mornell and Wulf, 2019) have investigated the influence of focus of attention on training and performance outcomes. Typically, they distinguish between internal focus as being mentally occupied with parts of one's own anatomy (for a trumpet player lips, tongue, breathing muscles), or external focus, thinking about the effect of the activity (musical elements, the sound of the music in the hall, where to direct the music or the wind etc.). ...
... A substantial number of studies (see especially Wulf (2013) review of 68 studies across different athletic and musical disciplines; Zachry et al., 2005;Zentgraf et al., 2009;Duke et al., 2011;Mornell and Wulf, 2019) have investigated the influence of focus of attention on training and performance outcomes and the vast majority, whether in sports or musical performance, points to external focus as being most efficient. The present study did not show any significant improvement relating to direction of focus, partly owing to the fact that only three participants reported mainly using internal focus and therefore yielded little statistical value. ...
Classical musicians face a high demand for flawless and expressive performance, leading to highly intensified practice activity. Whereas the advantage of using mental strategies is well documented in sports research, few studies have explored the efficacy of mental imagery and overt singing on musical instrumental learning. In this study, 50 classically trained trumpet students performed short unfamiliar pieces. Performances were recorded before and after applying four prescribed practice strategies which were (1) physical practice, (2) mental imagery, (3) overt singing with optional use of solfege, (4) a combination of 1, 2 and 3 or a control condition, no practice. Three experts independently assessed pitch and rhythm accuracy, sound quality, intonation, and musical expression in all recordings. We found higher gains in the overall performance, as well as in pitch accuracy for the physical practice, and the combined practice strategies, compared to no practice. Furthermore, only the combined strategy yielded a significant improvement in musical expression. Pitch performance improvement was positively correlated with previous solfege training and frequent use of random practice strategies. The findings highlight benefits from applying practice strategies that complement physical practice in music instrument practice in short term early stages of learning a new piece. The study may generalize to other forms of learning, involving cognitive processes and motor skills.
... Similarly, Atkins (2017) showed that expert ratings of experienced singers' performances were improved under an external focus on filling the room with their sound compared to other foci directing their voice to different objects in the room or focusing on their soft palate or vibrato. A study on the expressive performances of a group of various experienced instrumentalists found that an external focus on playing for the audience and the expressive sound of the music produced higher expert performance ratings compared to an internal focus on movement technique and note accuracy (Mornell & Wulf, 2019). These studies offer support for the CAH in musical contexts and suggest the suitability of inducing external FOA as a music pedagogical tool for improving performance. ...
... In partial support of our hypothesis, we found that experienced players made significantly fewer errors under the somatic focus on bow-string resistance compared to the internal focus on arm movement. This result is in line with previous research supporting the CAH in music tasks (Atkins, 2017;Duke et al., 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2019) and suggests that the bow-control skills essential for quality violin tone production are better supported by a focus on bow-string resistance than a focus on arm movement. However, we found no significant difference in errors between the internal and external foci, suggesting that for this task, a focus on sound was not a beneficial alternative to an internal focus. ...
The constrained action hypothesis states that focusing attention on action outcomes rather than body movement improves motor performance. Dexterity of motor control is key to successful music performance, making this a highly relevant topic to music education. We investigated effects of focus of attention (FOA) on motor skill performance and EMG muscle activity in a violin bowing task among experienced and novice upper strings players. Following a pedagogically informed exercise, participants attempted to produce single oscillations of the string at a time under three FOA: internal (on arm movement), external (on sound produced), and somatic (on string resistance). Experienced players’ number of bow slips was significantly reduced under somatic focus relative to internal, although number of successful oscillations was not affected. Triceps electromyographic activity was also significantly lower in somatic compared to internal foci for both expertise groups, consistent with physiological understandings of FOA effects. Participants’ reported thoughts during the experiment provided insight into whether aspects of constrained action may be evident in performers’ conscious thinking. These results provide novel support for the constrained action hypothesis in violin bow control, suggesting a somatic FOA as a promising performance-enhancing strategy for bowed string technique.
... London, New York: Routledge; 2018. Pp. [111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129] prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), inferior and superior parietal cortices (SPL and IPL, respectively), and insular cortex ( [12]; see Fig. 2a). Connectivity analyses show that during EF tasks the lateral frontal regions communicate with regions in the dorsolateral attention network, the default mode network, and prefrontal-cerebellar networks [16,17]. ...
... The authors attach particular importance to the components of autonomy (development of the feeling of strength and ownership over activity), increased expectations, and external focus in the learning process. Promising results with this approach to intervention have been achieved in sports, in music and in the treatment of stroke patients [116][117][118]. ...
Purpose of Review
The aims of this review are to focus (a) on identifying the neural circuits that are involved by a cognitive task in relation to those that are involved during a simultaneous motor task in children with DCD, (b) to discuss cognition–action trade-offs across different dual tasks, and (c) on the possible training regimes to enhance cognitive performance to support motor function.
Recent Findings
This paper integrates results from neuroimaging and behavioral studies in typically developing and children with DCD. Evidence for disproportionate dual-task costs in developmental coordination disorder remains contradictory and inconclusive. Missing and or less efficient structural and functional connections between the fronto-parietal regions and the cerebellum in children with DCD provide support for the automatization deficit hypothesis, the internal modeling deficit hypothesis, as well as the mirror neuron hypothesis in explaining motor-cognitive trade-offs.
Summary
The dual-task paradigm represents an important tool for investigation of underlying mechanisms of motor disorders on both the neuronal and behavioral levels. In addition to the widely discussed internal model deficit hypothesis and the automatization deficit model, the role of mirror neurons in hemispheric communication appears to be a promising approach in the explanation of dual task costs and of motor impairment in children with DCD. Successful interventions to promote motor and cognitive ability in children with DCD can only be designed based on knowledge of the underlying mechanisms of this motor disorder.
... Fortunately, research regarding a variety of topics that are relevant to musicians' practicing has become quite prevalent across the past several decades (Driskell et al., 1994;How et al., 2021;Mazur & Laguna, 2019;Miksza, 2011b;Varela et al., 2016). The majority of studies on this topic have tended to feature psychological theories (How et al., 2021), which has led to many compelling insights regarding critical cognitive (e.g., Duke et al., 2009;Mornell & Wulf, 2019), behavioral (e.g., Gruson, 2001;Miksza et al., 2012), motivational (e.g., López-Íñiguez & McPherson, 2020;McPherson & McCormick, 1999), and affective (e.g., ...
The purpose of this descriptive study was to investigate changes in advanced musicians’ self-regulated practice as they worked to acquire mastery of an étude across 2 weeks. Four advanced collegiate violinists recorded themselves practicing an étude in seven practice sessions, each approximately 20 min in length. Data were gathered via questionnaire, practice diaries, behavioral observations, an automated offline score-following program (which documented the measures played during practicing), and stimulated recall interviews in which participants commented on their own practice recordings. Several compelling changes in self-regulation sub-processes pertaining to forethought (goals, plans) and performance (strategies used, material addressed, time spent) self-regulation sub-processes across practice sessions were found. In addition, distinct differences in self-regulated learning tendencies were observed between participants. These results suggested that the participants struggled to implement a self-regulated learning approach, despite being advanced musicians and having much knowledge of practice methods. Suggestions for making practice instruction more explicit are discussed.
... We also did not use manipulation checks or interviews to measure participants' adherence to our instructions. While lack of manipulation checks could potentially limit our findings, previously published attentional focus studies have shown high levels of adherence to similar attentional focus instructions [41,[80][81][82][83][84][85][86]. Additionally, several individual factors such as stress, arousal and anxiety were not controlled in this study which warrants caution in broad interpretation of our findings. ...
Motor imagery (MI) has emerged as an individual factor that may modulate the effects of attentional focus on motor skill performance. In this study, we investigated whether global MI, as well as its components (i.e., kinesthetic MI, internal visual MI, and external visual MI) moderate the effect of attentional focus on performance in a group of ninety-two young adult novice air-pistol shooters (age: M = 21.87, SD = 2.54). After completing the movement imagery questionnaire-3 (MIQ-3), participants were asked to complete a pistol shooting experiment in three different attentional focus conditions: (1) No focus instruction condition (control condition with no verbal instruction) (2) an internal focus instruction condition, and (3) an external focus condition. Shot accuracy, performance time, and aiming trace speed (i.e., stability of hold or weapon stability) were measured as the performance variables. Results revealed that shot accuracy was significantly poorer during internal relative to control focus condition. In addition, performance time was significantly higher during external relative to both control and internal condition. However, neither global MI, nor its subscales, moderated the effects of attentional focus on performance. This study supports the importance of attentional focus for perceptual and motor performance, yet global MI and its modalities/perspectives did not moderate pistol shooting performance. This study suggests that perception and action are cognitively controlled by attentional mechanisms, but not motor imagery. Future research with complementary assessment modalities is warranted to extend the present findings.
... Instead, the distal focus on the bullseye, representing the highest hierarchical movement goal, enhanced goal-action coupling. Despite skilled performers often adopting a less-optimal focus (e.g., Mornell & Wulf, 2019), maintaining a distal external focus when performing a complex motor task involving multiple degrees of freedom is important, as it results in significantly more effective movement outcomes relative to other attentional foci. ...
Many studies have shown that focusing on an intended movement effect that is farther away from the body (distal external focus) results in performance benefits relative to focusing on an effect that is closer to the body (proximal external focus) or focusing on the body itself (internal focus) (see, Chua, Jimenez-Diaz, Lewthwaite, Kim & Wulf, 2021). Furthermore, the advantages of a distal external focus seem to be particularly pronounced in skilled performers (Singh & Wulf, 2020). The present study examined whether such benefits of more distal attentional focus may be associated with enhanced functional variability. Volleyball players (n = 20) performed 60 overhand volleyball serves to a target. Using a within-participants design, the effects of a distal external focus (bullseye), proximal external focus (ball) and an internal focus (hand) were compared. The distal focus condition resulted in significantly higher accuracy scores than did the proximal and internal focus conditions. In addition, uncontrolled manifold analysis showed that functional variability (as measured by the index of synergy) was greatest in the distal focus condition. These findings suggest that a distal external focus on the task goal may enhance movement outcomes by optimising compensatory coordination of body parts.
... Duke, Cash, and Allen (2011) found that the common mu sic instruction of "listen to your sound" helped students learn and perform simple key board tasks more than instructions to focus attention on their fingers, the piano keys, or the piano hammers. Similarly, Mornell and Wulf (2019) found that inducing an external fo cus of attention led to better technical precision and ratings of musical (p. 163) expression as compared to an internal focus of attention among instrumentalists as well as singers. ...
Volume 1 of the Oxford Handbook of Music Performance is designed around four distinct parts: Development and Learning, Proficiencies, Performance Practices, and Psychology. Chapters cover a range of topics dealing with musical development, talent development, and chapters dealing with learning strategies from a self-directed student learning perspective and high-impact teaching mindframes. Essential proficiencies include coverage of effective practice habits, through to the abilities of being able to play by ear, sight-read, improvise, memorize repertoire, and conduct and chapters that detail the highly personalized forms of musical expression that go beyond the printed notation or stylistic convention of the repetoire being performed. Chapters within the Performance Practices part cover some of the most fundamental aspects of performance practices from Baroque through to New Music repertoire and include chapters dealing with how emotions might be generated as a form of historically informed performance practice, and how creativity unfolds in the real-time dynamics of musical performance. The Psychology part concerns characteristics and individual differences in human behavior, cognition, emotion, and wellness. Across chapters in this part, several common threads and themes are evident: our relationships with music itself and what it means to become and to be a musician, the tensions that can arise between the joy of music and the hard work required to develop musical skills, and the intimate connection between music performance and our social and emotional lives.
... This conscious interference is described by the Constrained Action Hypothesis (Wulf, 2013), or referred to as 'reinvestment' or 'internal focus' and is identified as harmful to the performance in decades of sports psychology research (Maxwell, Masters, & Poolton, 2006;Wulf, 2013). More recently, the phenomenon has been examined in musical contexts as well, and researchers drew similar conclusions, namely, that internal focus has a negative effect on technical precision and musical expression (Duke, Cash, & Allen, 2011;Mornell & Wulf, 2019). It has also been linked to anxiety and choking under pressure both in athletes (Iwatsuki & Wright, 2016) and musicians (Oudejans, Spitse, Kralt, & Bakker, 2019) and it is closely associated with certain sub-types of the 'yips', the task-specific focal dystonia of athletes (Bennett, Rotherham, Hayes, Olusoga, & Maynard, 2016). ...
Musician’s Focal Dystonia (MFD) is a task-specific, neurological disorder with poorly understood pathophysiology, affecting highly skilled musicians, ending successful careers. Studies found neurological changes in the sufferers’ brains, which presumably occurred via negative neuroplasticity, however, surprisingly little is known of what triggers these changes. Recently, non-organic risk factors, such as maladaptive psychological traits and preceding trauma have been suggested by a handful of studies, but the field has not yet been explored in detail. The aim of the study was to identify and describe the non-organic factors which might contribute to the onset of MFD. Due to the study’s exploratory nature, a qualitative constructivist Grounded Theory (GT) design was chosen, with the goal of generating a theory that emerges directly from the data. 15 MFD sufferers (5 females, mean age = 36.1) were interviewed for the study. Apart from previously suggested traits, such as anxiety and perfectionism, we found that the educational environment might also be influential. Many participants studied in a negative emotional climate, faced unattainable demands, and were instructed to focus only on the technical aspects of their playing. Consequently, they developed unhealthy practice strategies and negative perfectionism and these problems were often accompanied by negative emotional coping and maladaptive health behaviours. In addition, many participants experienced trauma before the onset of the condition. These findings support the theory that MFD is a multifaceted condition that could partially originate from non-organic factors. It also suggests that the environment – especially the educational approach – might be more influential than previously thought. This might have further implications not only for prevention and research but for the treatment strategies as well. It is likely, that opposing a purely medical procedure, an interdisciplinary approach would enhance the currently used therapies and would increase the possibility of the rehabilitation of the suffering musicians.
... Finally, a study by Mornell and Wulf (2019) examined the effects of different attentional focus conditions on the performance of proficient musicians who performed complex pieces of ...
Body movements and gestures that accompany singing have become potent tools in the teaching and learning of singing. However, the underlying psychomotor mechanisms responsible for the enhancement of vocal technique through the use of movements and gestures have not yet been examined in detail. This article therefore proposes an explanatory model, namely, the attentional focus effect, and links key assumptions and insights from motor learning and performance research about the effects of different attentional foci on motor skill performance with the practice of using movement while singing. Music-related studies on attentional focus effects have shown that an internal focus of attention on the vocal mechanism (or movement components of singing such as lip movements) does not actually enhance precision or overall performance. An external focus of attention, for example, on the sound produced, was found to have an optimizing influence on vocal performance. Thus, aiming at conceptual development, it will be argued that body movements and gestures promote an external focus of attention because vocalists coordinate, watch, and kinesthetically perceive their movements, which directs attention away from the movement components of singing. This external focus may result in the recruitment of automated control processes of voice production, less self-evaluation, and more effective performance in general.
... In addition to this self-report evidence of diverse focus strategies, some researchers have suggested that certain tasks (e.g., gymnastics, dance) do not naturally lend themselves to generating meaningful external focus cues (Collins, Carson, & Toner, 2016). Experimental evidence disputes this viewpoint by showing a benefit of an external focus in gymnastics (Abdollahipour, Wulf, Psotta, Palomo Nieto, 2015), dance (Texeira da Silva, Lessa, & Chiviacowsky, 2017), and playing music (Mornell & Wulf, 2019), but generating effective external focus cues for these skills may be more difficult. For skills like a golf shot, a learner can naturally focus on the golf club, or on the planned trajectory or target of the ball. ...
Attentional focus research consistently demonstrates a benefit of an external focus relative to an internal focus. However, this dichotomous comparison may oversimplify the variety of attentional focus strategies a learner uses when acquiring a motor skill. Recent research suggests a holistic focus of attention provides a similar benefit over an internal focus in performing a standing long jump, but the generalizability of this effect is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine how an internal (IF), external (EF), and holistic focus (HF) and control condition impact the learning of a badminton short serve. Novice participants (N = 60) were randomly assigned to IF, EF, HF, or control groups. They practiced the badminton short serve for 150 trials over 5 days and completed retention and transfer tests 48-h post-acquisition. Serve accuracy was analyzed in separate repeated-measures ANOVAs for acquisition and pretest/retention/transfer. All groups improved accuracy through acquisition with the HF group serving more accurately than the IF and control groups. In retention, the HF and EF group served more accurately than the control group, and in transfer, the HF group was more accurate than the IF and control groups. The present findings suggest a benefit of both a holistic and external focus in the learning of an accuracy-based task.
... Therefore, an external focus on expressiveness and communication may benefit young musicians' accuracy and technical fluency. Music teaching stimulating an external focus during performance is likely to speed up the learning process (Wulf, 2013;Mornell and Wulf, 2019). ...
Since communication and expression are central aspects of music performance it is important to develop a systematic pedagogy of teaching children and teenagers expressiveness. Although research has been growing in this area a comprehensive literature review that unifies the different approaches to teaching young musicians expressiveness has been lacking. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide an overview of literature related to teaching and learning of expressiveness from music psychology and music education research in order to build a new theoretical framework for teaching and learning expressive music performance in instrumental music lessons with children and teenagers. The article will start with a brief discussion of interpretation and expression in music performance, before providing an overview of studies that investigated teaching and learning of performance expression in instrumental music education with adults and children. On the foundation of this research a theoretical framework for dialogic teaching and learning of expressive music performance will be proposed and the rationale explained. Dialogic teaching can be useful for scaffolding young musicians’ learning of expressivity as open questions can stimulate thinking about the interpretation and may serve to connect musical ideas to the embodied experience of the learner. A “toolkit” for teaching and learning of expressiveness will be presented for practical application in music lessons. In addition, a theoretical model will be proposed to further our understanding of teaching and learning of expressive music performance as a multifaceted and interactive process that is embedded in the context of tutors’ and learners’ experiences and environment. Finally, implications of this framework and suggestions for future research will be discussed.
... Bonshor (2017) has explored confidence as a framework to study amateur singers and suggests that confidence issues rather than MPA impairs performance and the performance experience. Using attentional focus as the framework of study, Buma, Bakker, and Oudejans (2015), Mornell and Wulf (2019), and Oudejans, Spitse, Kralt, and Bakker (2017) found that developing an external focus of attention could be beneficial for performance quality and for the performance experience. In sport psychology, Uphill (2016) describes the "tangled knots" yet to be unraveled between arousal, anxiety, stress, and their relationships with other constructs; "knots" that also need to be unraveled in future music psychology research. ...
The main approach for improving the performance experience and/or performance quality for musicians has been to find solutions for music performance anxiety. An alternative model is prevention through psychological skills training (PST), which is increasingly being shown to have beneficial effects. Pre-performance routines (PPRs) are a common strategy used in such programs. PPRs are thought to help musicians be “ready to perform,” and that musicians could benefit from a deliberate introduction to PPRs by an instructor. This article reports on the teaching of PPRs to recreational piano pupils in an exploratory action research project designed to introduce a PST approach in regular piano lessons. PPRs were taught for 4 weeks in two action cycles leading up to a performance and were evaluated by teachers and pupils. The findings demonstrate how PPRs can be developed, learned, and implemented and suggest that PPRs function in two ways: to improve concentration and to achieve a sense of calm prior to the performance. Consequent increases in performance confidence and improved performance quality could not be attributed to the PPRs alone as the teaching of routines led to changes in working practice. Implications for future research are discussed.
... In music, evidence exists that adopting an external focus (i.e., imagining expression, emotion, images, etc.) -compared to an internal focus (i.e., focus on technical execution, fingerings, etc.) -increases movement effectiveness and learning efficiency (Williams, 2019). Furthermore, studies using expert ratings of music performance, found that skilled musicians adopting an external focus of attention are generally rated higher on expressiveness and perceived musical ability (Van Zijl and Luck, 2013;Mornell and Wulf, 2019). Finally, research has demonstrated that increased pressure (e.g., during important performances) can lead to a shift in attentional focus toward irrelevant stimuli (e.g., worrying thoughts; Buma et al., 2015;Oudejans et al., 2017). ...
The present study presents a process evaluation of a performance psychology intervention for transitioning elite and elite musicians. The goal of the intervention was to provide participants with an amalgamation of evidence-informed principles, aimed to improve their quality of practice and performance preparation. The intervention consisted of an educational session followed by four workshops. In total, eight transitioning elite and seven elite musicians participated. Process measures included quantitative and qualitative workshop evaluations, monitoring logs, and semi-structured interviews. Overall, the intervention was evaluated positively by the participants. However, differences were present between the groups, with the elite musicians typically evaluating the intervention more favorably compared to the transitioning elites. Specific positive outcomes included an increased awareness and re-examining of current practice strategies, more structured and goal-directed practice, increased practice efficiency and focus, a more proactive approach to performances, and increased attention for the physical aspects of playing. Moreover, a number of contextual considerations and implementation challenges became evident. Important implications for performance psychology interventions and practitioners in music are discussed.
... Inversely, when individuals' attention is directed to their own body movements -internal focus -individuals become more conscious of the need to control their movements. A variety of studies support this notion [8][9][10][11] . ...
Aim: Attentional focus and demonstration have traditionally been investigated through outcome measures. Few studies have used other levels of analyses, such as the neuromuscular to explain the benefits of these two factors. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether there would be performance differences between external and internal focus of attention conditions and an online demonstration condition, and if these differences would be observed at a neuromuscular level through EMG analysis, in addition to traditional outcome measures. We hypothesized that under the demonstration condition participants would perform better than under external and internal focus conditions. We also hypothesized that demonstration condition would show smaller EMG activity than external and internal focus conditions. Furthermore, we hope to replicate the benefits of external focus in relation to internal focus, both in outcome and product measures. Methods: Six male participants performed a bilateral leg extension under internal focus of attention, external focus of attention and online demonstration conditions. Muscular contractions goal times were set for concentric muscle action (4 seconds) and eccentric muscle action (2 seconds). An electrogoniometer was used to record muscular activation (production measures), and temporal error was used to observe performance (outcome measures). Results: Results showed that online demonstration condition obtained better performance than external focus condition and a reduced muscular activation. However, differences between internal focus and the other experimental conditions were not found. Conclusion: These findings advance in the understanding mechanisms underpining the focus of attention, such as proposed by Constrained Action Hypothesis.
Health education encompasses building health knowledge, but also training skills such as critical thinking, that guide individuals’ ability to access, understand and use health information to take care of their own health (WHO, 1998). This study aimed to document expert discussions on the content of an ideal health education curriculum for higher music education (HME) students in the UK, integrating critical thinking. Four interdisciplinary workshops were conducted, where 67 experts in relevant fields discussed the content of four lists created based on literature reviews (cognitive biases, logical fallacies, critical appraisal tools and health topics). Notes taken during the discussions were thematically analysed. Most of the participants thought that the topics and tools were relevant. Two of four identified themes are reported in this paper, which represents the first of a two-part series: (1) critical thinking applied to health; and (2) misconceptions. This is the first attempt to document conversations aimed at using the applied knowledge of key stakeholders to discuss the content of an ideal health education curriculum integrating critical thinking, for conservatoire students.
Movement science research indicates that an external focus of attention benefits learning as well as performing movement. Despite these findings from the field of sports, research on the effects of external focus in music pedagogy is sparse, especially in naturalistic settings. This in-depth, small-sample study investigated the effect of external focus on musical learning in terms of accuracy, self-efficacy, confidence, motivation, and engagement, as well as the qualitative performance experience. Seven conservatoire (natural trumpet) students practiced challenging, unfamiliar pieces in short practice sessions using their normal practice methods, followed by a trial using the instructions of the Audiation Practice Tool (APT). This tool was developed to enhance auditory and kinaesthetic engagement as well as detailed musical intention through vivid imagination, singing, gesturing, playing, and seeking musical variation. Use of the APT resulted in higher performance accuracy than participants’ usual practice methods, and a non-significant trend for improvement in self-efficacy and confidence compared to practice as usual. Logbook scores were inconclusive on motivation and engagement; however, exit questionnaire answers showed that most participants experienced audiation or external focus as engaging and enjoyable. Although none of the participants initially favored external focus, participants generally intended to continue using elements of the APT. This study suggests that the use of external focus could be more explicit and prominent in teaching and in practicing music.
A differential benefit of external focus of attention (FOA) relative to internal focus has been demonstrated across a wide variety of athletic and rehabilitative pursuits; however, very little research has been undertaken in the performing arts. Given the unique aesthetic context of the arts and obvious transdisciplinary parallels, particular attention is warranted. This study examines nine pianists’ pedaling while performing Bartók’s Romanian Folk Dance Sz. 56, No. 2, and directing attention to three different focus conditions relative to a baseline condition. Differences in global pedal use and technique emerged and appeared to be modulated by level of expertise and the length of time spent preparing the piece. The two most experienced pianists and the least experienced pianist demonstrated greatest consistency in pedaling, as measured by Z scores calculated across eight performance parameters. Results corroborate previous FOA research demonstrating performance variability when adopting different focus strategies. Implications include the need to deliberately align focus strategies in music training and performance. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study to examine performance effects of external against internal FOA on pianists’ pedaling. The critical conceptual aspect of the work is beginning to illuminate the relationships between a performer’s attention and motor output, and perceived artistic or musical effects.
Auditions form the gold standard for hiring practices in symphonic orchestras around the world. Nevertheless, research examining how auditions are evaluated by panel members remains sparse. The purpose of this brief research note is to present findings from a pilot project examining the feedback content of audition panellists during a realistic mock audition. Feedback received by 16 academy members of an internationally renowned orchestra was analysed using inductive content analysis. A key finding of this study was that panellists tended to provide much more feedback related to improving expressivity (61.8%), compared to feedback on technique (24.5%) or other factors (e.g., tuning; 13.7%). As advancing our understanding of how orchestra auditions are evaluated may have considerable practical implications for how music educators can aid students in preparing for a successful transition to the professional circuit, we hope our pilot project might spur on future work investigating this important topic.
Skilled motor performance is essential in sports, the performing arts, various occupations, and many daily activities. Scientists and practitioners alike are therefore interested in understanding the conditions that influence the performance and learning of movement skills, and how they can be utilized to optimize training. In OPTIMAL theory, three motivational and attentional factors are key: enhanced expectancies for future performance, the performer’s autonomy, and an external focus of attention. We review recent evidence suggesting that each factor contributes independently to strengthen the coupling of goals to actions. This work has implications ranging from fostering more effective skill development in novice learners, to increasing the efficiency of athletes’ and musicians’ performance, and to facilitating the success of patients in regaining functional capabilities.
Orchestra auditions form a critical career challenge for many aspiring classical musicians. Hence, emerging professional musicians – defined as promising musicians entering the professional circuit without having yet established full-time employment – require effective practice and performance strategies to manage the demands of auditions. The purpose of this collective case study was to gain an in-depth and contextualized understanding of such practice and performance management strategies in relation to mock orchestra auditions. Data was collected using an intensive qualitative approach, combining semi-structured interviews with regular structured monitoring interviews, with eight musicians. Content analysis revealed that participants, on average, engaged in 33 hours of music-related activities per week, during which they adopted self-regulating strategies (i.e., strategic goal setting, structuring practice, monitoring practice, and reflecting on progress) to a varying degree. Furthermore, participants used different performance management strategies to cope with the pressure of auditions (i.e., practicing under pressure, imagery, relaxation, cognitive reframing, routines, attentional control, and substance use). Overall, the data suggests that the emerging musicians possessed several different practice and performance strategies, but showed great variation in the use of such strategies and had a preference for long practice hours. Potential implications for music education organisations aiming to prepare students for auditions are discussed.
Although the effects of focus of attention (FOA) on the performance of gross motor skills are now well understood, less is known about the role of FOA in naturalistic classroom settings where learners are engaged in the ongoing acquisition and refinement of complex motor skills. The purpose of this study, the first of its kind, was to explore how music teachers focus learners’ attention on physical actions (internal focus) and on the effects of those actions (external focus). We recorded three experienced band directors teaching beginner classes (sixth graders) and completed a content analysis of video recordings to describe (a) teachers’ use of internally focused (IF) and externally focused (EF) verbalizations and (b) patterns among IF and EF verbalizations. These teachers most often directed student attention to internal aspects of performance, and they also paired IF and EF statements to clearly convey how those actions affect external outcomes. Although our descriptive multiple case study design precludes generalization, these data suggest possibilities for future studies that could explore relationships between teachers’ FOA verbalizations and skill development in music classrooms.
Objective:
The vast majority of motor learning studies investigating focus of attention have found that an external focus of attention (focusing on the effect of a movement) results in enhanced performance and learning, compared to an internal focus of attention (focusing on the body movement itself). The present study attempts to determine if the high incidence of internal focus of attention instruction that has been reported in the realm of athletics is replicated in voice training.
Methods:
Two hundred and seventy-eight singers, who were at least 18 years old and taking voice lessons, were recruited to participate in an anonymous research survey entitled "Instructions given to singers in voice lessons." The main six questions asked singers to report phrases or instructions that their studio voice teachers gave them in regard to posture, breathing and/or support, tone clarity and/or onset of tone, space and/or resonance, articulation, and reducing tension.
Results:
Approximately 50.83% of the total responses were classified as inducing an external focus, 39.42% were classified as internal focus, 6.48% used a combination of both internal and external focus, and 3.27% were categorized as miscellaneous.
Conclusions:
The results of this study indicate that voice teachers use both external and internal attentional focus directives in the voice studio. Given the robust body of literature supporting the use of external focus, it is noteworthy that the current study found that external focus is used more often than internal focus in voice training.
Feedback instruction is a proven modality for the alteration of motion patterns. There are no existing data
on the contribution of strength training, when combined with feedback instruction, to the altering of lower
extremity biomechanics. Thus the purpose of the current study was comparison of strength training program
with external and internal focus of attention strategies on kinetic and functional factors in athletes with
plyometric pattern. 36 athlete females (handball, Basketball and vollyball) voluntarily with avarage age
22.3±2.27 years were randomly assigned to strength training with external focus, strength training with
internal focus and strength training groups. Participants completed these training for 8 weeks. Kinetic factors
were measured using force plate during landing, as well as functional movement and movement pattern
respectively were measured by single leg triple hop test (SLTH) and landing error scoring system. One-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the effect of strength training with external focus group training
significantly was better than two others groups in Peak vertical ground reaction (p=0.039), posterior ground
reaction force (p=0.046), mediolateral time to stability (p=0.032), single leg triple hop test (p=0.041) and
landing error scoring system scores (p=0.030). But there was no significant between-group difference in
anteroposterior time to stability (p=0.312). Subjects in strength training with external focus group showed
significantly within-group changes in all variables except anteroposterior time to stability from posttest to
pretest. Programs that include both strength training and movement education through external focus of
attention may be necessary in order to prevent ACL injuries and increase athletic performance.
Keywords: Anterior Cruciate Ligament, Landing Error Scoring System, Focus of Attention, Strength Training, Injury
Prevention.
The concentration of wealth in the hands of a few at the expense of general impoverishment is a major problem in some modern societies. However, there is a general opposition to redistribution policies or to the application of a progressive taxation system. The goal of this research was to explore one factor that might drive the attitudes toward income redistribution: The (de)humanization of high socioeconomic status groups. Previous studies have shown that high socioeconomic status groups tend to be considered as unemotional machines without any concern for others. However, the consequences of mechanizing (vs. humanizing) high socioeconomic status on the interpretation of socioeconomic differences has not been explored yet. We considered that humanizing high socioeconomic status groups might have an unexpected negative effect on attitudes about income inequality and wealth concentration. Specifically, this research aims to determine how humanizing high socioeconomic status groups influences people’s perceptions of the group’s wealth and preferences for income redistribution. We conducted two studies in which we manipulated the humanity (mechanized vs. humanized in terms of their Human Nature traits) of a high socioeconomic status group. Results of these two studies showed that humanizing (vs. mechanizing) high socioeconomic status groups led to lower support for income redistribution/taxation of wealthy groups, through considering that the group’s wealth comes from internal sources (e.g., ambition) rather than external ones (e.g., corruption). These results were independent of the group’s likeability and perceived competence/warmth. The present research provides valuable insight about the possible dark side of humanizing high socioeconomic status groups as a process that could contribute to the maintenance of the status quo and the legitimation of income inequality in our societies.
Am external focus of attention (focusing on the effect of one's actions) compared to an internal focus (focusing on one's movements) is beneficial in a diverse set of tasks. We present two experiments that demonstrate this advantage for isometric plantar flexion. An external focus of attention led to improved short-‐term performance and reduced EMG activity (in Experiment 1). Training with an external focus of attention also led to a long-‐term learning advantage as well, with an improved performance on retention and transfer tests one week later (with a new group of subjects in Experiment 2). Post test surveys suggests that part of this effect can be explained by subjects adopting the training focus during the testing session (in which no focus instructions were given) but mediation analysis suggests that improved retention and transfer performance is not simply a result of the focus adopted during the testing session.
Initial research evidence suggests that learners may benefit from focussing their attention upon the demonstrated movement of a distal point of an action, also known as end-point trajectory matching. In the present study, verbal instructions were used by rowing coaches to promote either an end-point focus (i.e., the oar blade) or an internal focus of attention (i.e., the rower's movements) amongst novice learners. The goal for the learners was to practice and improve the 'catch', which is the instant that the blade of the oar enters and locks onto the water. The learners were coached in 24 training sessions over a six-week period, they then rowed in retention and transfer tests seven weeks later. The End-point group showed improvements in technique (i.e., more effective and efficient oar placement in the water) at the end of the skill acquisition period and also in retention and transfer conditions. The Internal group did not show the same level of improvement by the end of the acquisition phase but did demonstrate some improvements by the retention and transfer tests. This study suggests that paying attention to the end-point is beneficial for novices learning complex, whole body movements (such as rowing) as well as for relatively simple, precision tasks.
We examined two metacognitive judgments, ease of learning (EOL) and judgments of learning (JOL), in music performance. Specifically, we tested whether the extrinsic cue of modality (auditory versus visual presentation), as well as the intrinsic cue of syntax (providing more or less cohesion), would influence such judgments. The participants were piano players in Experiment 1 and other instrumentalists in Experiments 2 and 3. Results showed that modality of the to-be-learned pieces did indeed influence both EOL (all experiments) and JOL (Experiments 2 and 3) ratings. Both ratings were also influenced by syntax (Experiment 3). Thus, successful EOL and JOL were extended to music performance itself. Moreover, unlike in the verbal domain where individuals can often use intrinsic cues but ignore extrinsic cues, both types of cues were used effectively. The findings are interpreted within the framework of cue-utilization theory and salience of cues.
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the optimal focus of attention for novice golfers performing a putting task. Previous research has advocated that novices should adopt a proximal external focus, but this advice has been drawn from research on a relatively complex task (i.e. pitch shot). Research examining golf putting specifically has failed to find an advantage of adopting either a proximal or an internal focus, but experiments have not included a distal focus condition. The present research investigated if adopting a distal external focus of attention would lead to superior putting performance in novices. Following familiarisation with the task, general putting technique, and the concept of attentional focus, 18 participants completed 3 sets of 15 putts in a counter-balanced, within participant design, adopting a different focus of attention for each set (internal, proximal external, and distal external). After every five putts, participants were asked to answer three questions concerning how much they focused on internal, proximal or distal cues. On the completion of the trials, participants were asked to identify if they had a preference for one or other focus. The self-reports indicated that participants adhered to the three instructional conditions. Performance in the distal focus condition was significantly better than performance in the proximal or internal conditions, which did not differ. Significantly more participants preferred a distal focus of attention than would be expected by chance. Task complexity appears to be an important variable in the selection of the optimal external focus of attention for novices.
This study investigated ways to improve the quality of music performance evaluation in an effort to address the accountability imperative in tertiary music education. An enhanced scientific methodology was employed incorporating ecological validity and using recognized qualitative methods involving grounded theory and quantitative methods involving confirmatory factor analyses. By distilling the disciplinary consensus, this approach enabled the specific definition of the constructs and standards used in university student classical music performance examinations, and provided their refinement with the empirical development of standards-based, criterion-specific rating scales for five instrument families. The study found that the examiners in each instrument family used between 15 to 17 constructs and associated descriptors, and at least two general dimensions referring to technical proficiency and another relating to musicality and interpretation. Analyses showed acceptable internal consistency and construct validity for the scales. Findings suggested that, although several construct and general dimension commonalities were found among the items across all scales, the presence of significant instrument-specific differences suggested that the use of generic rating scales may not provide sufficient content validity. Implications for the application of standards in music performance assessment were discussed.
At moderate intensity, an external focus of attention leads to improved running economy compared with an internal focus. In this experimental study, we assessed whether this finding also holds for running at high intensity levels despite predictions of Tenenbaum’s (2001) model. The model holds that an external attentional strategy would not be maintainable at high intensities. Twenty trained runners ran 3 × 10 min on a treadmill at a speed corresponding to 85% of their maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max). For each of the three 10-min blocks, they were instructed to focus their attention on different cues (internal: breathing, external: video, control: no instructed focus). Dependent measures were oxygen consumption (VO₂), heart rate, blood lactate, and Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE). Results revealed a significant effect of attentional focus on VO₂. An external focus can be applied during high-intensity running and is beneficial in terms of running economy compared with an internal focus. This finding sheds new light on the model proposed by Tenenbaum and its predictions about an unavoidable internal focus at high intensities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
When well-learned motor skills fail, such as when elderly persons fall or when athletes "choke under pressure," it is assumed that attention is directed toward the execution of the action. Research findings suggest that this controlled execution and subsequent inferior performance depend on a dominant left-hemispheric activation. In a series of 3 experiments, we tested whether increasing right-hemispheric activation by the use of hemisphere-specific priming extenuates motor skill failure. We compared the performances of a sample of experienced athletes in different sports (soccer, tae kwon do, and badminton) in a pressure-free situation with that performed under pressure. As expected, the hemisphere-specific priming extenuated a performance decrease after pressure induction when compared with a control condition. The results suggest that hemisphere-specific priming may prevent motor skill failure. It is argued that this hemispheric priming should be task dependent and can be understood as a functional regulation of the activation in the hemispheres. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
An external focus of attention has been shown to result in superior motor performance compared to an internal focus of attention. This study investigated whether this is due to enhanced levels of movement automatization, as predicted by the constrained action hypothesis (McNevin, Shea, & Wulf, 2003). Thirty healthy participants performed a cyclic one-leg extension-flexion task with both the dominant and non-dominant leg. Focus of attention was manipulated via instructions. The degree of automatization of movement was assessed by measuring dual task costs as well as movement execution parameters (i.e., EMG activity, movement fluency, and movement regularity). Results revealed that an external focus of attention led to significantly better motor performance (i.e., shorter movement duration) than an internal focus. Although dual task costs of the motor task did not differ as a function of attentional focus, cognitive dual task costs were significantly higher when attention was directed internally. An external focus of attention resulted in more fluent and more regular movement execution than an internal focus, whereas no differences were found concerning muscular activity. These results indicate that an external focus of attention results in more automatized movements than an internal focus and, therefore, provide support for the constrained action hypothesis.
Wulf and colleagues (e.g., Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999) have demonstrated that the adoption of an external focus of attention is preferable for the learning of complex motor tasks. The present investigation extends the attention focus literature in two ways: (a) it compared the effectiveness of three different foci (internal, proximal external, and distal external) in a sample of skilled performers in a naturalistic environment, and (b) it examined the use of attentional foci under conditions of anxiety. Thirty-three skilled male golfers were assigned to one of three attentional focus groups and completed five blocks of ten pitch shots, three in neutral conditions and two in anxiety conditions. Results from two separate mixed model analyses of variance (ANOVAs) indicated that regardless of anxiety condition, those assigned to a distal external focus of attention performed most accurately (p < 0.05), whereas assignment to an internal focus of attention was associated with the least accurate performance (p < 0.05). Findings offer support for the constrained action hypothesis and point to the importance of skilled performers adopting a distal external focus, especially in competition.
Attunement to visual information has been suggested to mediate the performance advantage associated with adopting an external focus of attention (e.g., Al-Abood, Bennett, Moreno Hernandez, Ashford, & Davids, 2002; Magill, 1998). We tested this hypothesis by examining the extent to which online visual information underpins the external focus advantage. The study examined skilled golfers on a putting task under one of three attentional focus conditions: control (no instructions), irrelevant (tone counting), and external (movement effect focus), with either full or occluded vision. In addition to task performance, the effect of attentional focus and vision on between-trial movement variability was examined. We found a significant advantage for an external focus of attention in the absence of vision. The results of the movement variability analysis further indicated that external focus was not mediated by the online use of vision. We discuss these findings in the context of traditional cognitive perspectives to external focus effects.
A growing body of research has demonstrated that the type of information emphasized in the verbal instructions given to individuals can significantly influence subsequent move-ment production as a function of the direction of attentional focus. Specifically, Wulf and colleagues (for reviews, see Wulf, 2007; Wulf & Prinz, 2001) have consistently shown that instructions or feedback which direct performers' and learners' attention toward their own bodily movements (an internal focus of attention) results in poorer movement execution and learning when compared to instructions which emphasize directing atten-tion toward the intended effects of the movements (an external focus of attention). Such findings have been demonstrated with sports skills (e.g., golf: Wulf, Lauterbach, & Toole, 1999; soccer: Wulf, McConnel, Gärtner, & Schwarz, 2002), core movements skills (e.g., Novices threw darts during two sessions (one week apart) using either internal or external attentional focusing instructions. During session one, participants used internal instructions for half the throws and external instructions for the other half of the throws, whereas session two required the use of only one strategy for all throws. Accuracy during session one was not affected by attentional strategy, although a significant interaction indicated that accuracy is influenced when changing from one strategy to the other. After session one, significantly more participants reported a preference for the external instructions. During session two, the external strategy group was significantly more accurate than the internal group. Of those using the external strategy, participants indicating an internal strategy preference after prac-tice were significantly less accurate than those who indicated a preference for the external strategy. Participants rated their preferred strategy as requiring less effort than the alternative.
The visual component of music performance as experienced in a live concert is of central importance for the appreciation of music performance. However, up until now the influence of the visual component on the evaluation of music performance has remained unquantified in terms of effect size estimations. Based on a meta-analysis of 15 aggregated studies on audiovisual music perception (total N = 1,298), we calculated the average effect size of the visual component in music performance appreciation by subtracting ratings for the audio-only condition from those for the audio-visual condition. The outcome focus was on evaluation ratings such as liking, expressiveness, or overall quality of musical performances. For the first time, this study reveals an average medium effect size of 0.51 standard deviations — Cohen’s d; 95% CI (0.42, 0.59) — for the visual component. Consequences for models of intermodal music perception and experimental planning are addressed.
A performer’s focus of attention has been shown to influence motor performance and learning in a variety
of motor skills. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of an external and internal focus of attention on discus throwing. Participants (N=20; mean age: 22 years, SD: 1.58) were recruited from an undergraduate male student population that had limited experience with the task. Using a within-participants design, all participants completed five maximum effort trials under each attentional focus condition (external and internal). The results of a repeated-measures ANCOVA revealed that participants had a significantly more effective performance in external focus of attention condition compared with the internal attentional focus. These findings are in line with the previous studies showing enhanced motor performance as a result of using external versus internal focus of attention. Therefore, it is suggested that coaches and practitioners give instructions that promote an external focus of attention.
The primary purpose of this study was to investigate if focusing attention externally produced faster movement times compared to instructions that focused attention internally or a control set of instructions that did not explicitly focus attention when performing an agility task. A second purpose of the study was to measure participants' focus of attention during practice by use of a questionnaire. Participants (N = 20) completed 15 trials of an agility "L" run following instructions designed to induce an external (EXT), internal (INT) attentional focus or a control (CON) set of instructions inducing no specific focus of attention. Analysis revealed when participants followed the EXT instructions they had significantly faster movement times compared to when they followed the INT and CON set of instructions; consistent with previous research the INT and CON movement times were not significantly different from each other. Qualitative data showed when participants were in the external condition they focused externally 67% of the time. When they were in the internal condition they focused internally 76% of the time, and when they were in the control condition they did not use an internal or external focus of attention 77% of the time. Qualitative data also revealed participants in the EXT, INT, and CON conditions switched their focus of attention at a frequency of 27, 35, and 51% respectively.
Movement is critical to surviving and thriving, to expression, to thought. It is a foundational capability, enabling many other human activities, and sometimes the vehicle for extraordinary human achievement. Movement is a product of the events and processes of the mind, brain, and body, as well as a reflection of diverse influences, from the physical, social, and cultural environment to the body's structure and function. Movement has often been a subject of philosophical discourse, part of the triumvirate of mind, brain, and body. Despite this history, in many ways, movement may never have been so integral in psychological thought as it is today, as reflected in the burgeoning research related to the concept of embodiment, as well as the revelations regarding the mirror neuron system. In embodiment, motor actions precede and sometimes influence thought, language, and emotions (see Glenberg, 2010, for a review). Embodiment highlights the shared architecture and interconnectedness of motor, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of behavior-a principal theme in this essay.
Music, an abstract stimulus, can arouse feelings of euphoria and craving, similar to tangible rewards that involve the striatal dopaminergic system. Using the neurochemical specificity of [(11)C]raclopride positron emission tomography scanning, combined with psychophysiological measures of autonomic nervous system activity, we found endogenous dopamine release in the striatum at peak emotional arousal during music listening. To examine the time course of dopamine release, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging with the same stimuli and listeners, and found a functional dissociation: the caudate was more involved during the anticipation and the nucleus accumbens was more involved during the experience of peak emotional responses to music. These results indicate that intense pleasure in response to music can lead to dopamine release in the striatal system. Notably, the anticipation of an abstract reward can result in dopamine release in an anatomical pathway distinct from that associated with the peak pleasure itself. Our results help to explain why music is of such high value across all human societies.
This study examined whether the learning advantages of an external focus of attention relative to an internal focus, as demonstrated by Wulf, Hööß, and Prinz (1998), would also be found for a sport skill under field-like conditions. Participants (9 women, 13 men; age range: 21–29 years) without experience in golf were required to practice pitch shots. The practice phase consisted of 80 practice trials. One group was instructed to focus on the arm swing (internal focus), whereas another group was instructed to focus on the club swing (external focus). One day after practice, a retention test of 30 trials without instructions was performed. The external-focus condition was more effective for performance during both practice and retention.
This study examined whether the learning advantages of an external focus of attention relative to an internal focus, as demonstrated by Wulf, Höss, and Prinz (1998), would also be found for a sport skill under field-like conditions. Participants (9 women, 13 men; age range: 21-29 years) without experience in golf were required to practice pitch shots. The practice phase consisted of 80 practice trials. One group was instructed to focus on the arm swing (internal focus), whereas another group was instructed to focus on the club swing (external focus). One day after practice, a retention test of 30 trials without instructions was performed. The external-focus condition was more effective for performance during both practice and retention.
Experiments 1-2 examined generic knowledge and episodic memories of putting in novice and expert golfers. Impoverished episodic recollection of specific putts among experts indicated that skilled putting is encoded in a procedural form that supports performance without the need for step-by-step attentional control. According to explicit monitoring theories of choking, such proceduralization makes putting vulnerable to decrements under pressure. Experiments 3-4 examined choking and the ability of training conditions to ameliorate it in putting and a nonproceduralized alphabet arithmetic skill analogous to mental arithmetic. Choking occurred in putting but not alphabet arithmetic. In putting, choking was unchanged by dual-task training but eliminated by self-consciousness training. These findings support explicit monitoring theories of choking and the popular but infrequently tested belief that attending to proceduralized skills hurts performance.
The present experiment was designed to test the predictions of the constrained-action hypothesis. This hypothesis proposes that when performers utilize an internal focus of attention (focus on their movements) they may actually constrain or interfere with automatic control processes that would normally regulate the movement, whereas an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) allows the motor system to more naturally self-organize. To test this hypothesis, a dynamic balance task (stabilometer) was used with participants instructed to adopt either an internal or external focus of attention. Consistent with earlier experiments, the external focus group produced generally smaller balance errors than did the internal focus group and responded at a higher frequency indicating higher confluence between voluntary and reflexive mechanisms. In addition, probe reaction times (RTs) were taken as a measure of the attention demands required under the two attentional focus conditions. Consistent with the hypothesis, the external focus participants demonstrated lower probe RTs than did the internal focus participants, indicating a higher degree of automaticity and less conscious interference in the control processes associated with the balance task.
Previous studies (e.g., Wulf, Höss, & Prinz, 1998) have shown that motor learning can be enhanced by directing performers' attention to the effects of their movements ("external focus"), rather than to the body movements producing the effect ("internal focus"). The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that increasing the distance between the body and the action effects might further enhance the learning advantages associated with an external focus of attention. The distance of the external effect was manipulated by instructing three groups of participants learning to balance on a stabilometer to focus on markers attached to the platform located at different distances from their feet. Specifically, two groups were to focus on distant markers on the outside ("far-outside") or inside ("far-inside") of the platform, respectively, whereas another group was instructed to focus on markers close to their feet ("near"). In a retention test administered after two days of practice, all three external-focus groups showed generally more effective balance learning than an internal-focus control group. In addition, the far-outside and far-inside groups demonstrated similar performances, and both were more effective than the near group. Furthermore, the far-outside and far-inside groups showed higher-frequency movement adjustments than the near group. These results suggest that focusing on more distant effects results in enhanced learning by promoting the utilization of more natural control mechanisms. The findings are in line with a "constrained action" hypothesis that accounts for the relatively poorer learning associated with an attentional focus directed towards effects in close proximity to the body, or towards the body itself.
A simulated baseball batting task was used to compare the relative effects of attending to extraneous information (tone frequency) and attending to skill execution (direction of bat movement) on performance and swing kinematics and to evaluate how these effects differ as a function of expertise. The extraneous dual task degraded batting performance in novices but had no significant effect on experts. The skill-focused dual task increased batting errors and movement variability for experts but had no significant effect on novices. For expert batters, accuracy in the skill-focused dual task was inversely related to the current level of performance. Expert batters were significantly more accurate in the skill-focused dual task when placed under pressure. These findings indicate that the attentional focus varies substantially across and within performers with different levels of expertise.
This paper highlights the not-so-obvious but compelling reasons why the same supportive audiences that can help performers attain their highest potential also may increase performers' risk of choking under pressure. Drawing primarily from social psychology research and theory, we conclude that audience support magnifies performance pressure and induces performers to avoid failure rather than seek success during the most critical moments of performance contests. Although supportive audiences can inspire performers to excel when motivation would otherwise be lacking, audiences may also lead performers towards maladaptive self-monitoring and overcautiousness when the stakes are highest. The increased self-focus that supportive audiences induce can disrupt the automatic execution of the skills performers possess. Dispositional and situational moderators of the relationship between audience support and performance are reviewed.
Motor performance in familiar tasks is often advantaged when performers focus on the effects of their movements rather than on the movements themselves. But, this phenomenon has yet to be studied systematically in the context of vocal production. I evaluated 20 trained singers’ vocal tone as they varied their focus of attention. Each participant performed a short vocalise, a phrase of “My Country ’Tis of Thee,” and a prepared solo piece under six different conditions in which they focused attention on either keeping the vibrato steady, the position of their soft palate, directing their sound to points in the room at three different distances from the singer, or imagining “filling the room” with sound. Each session began with singers performing with no focus instructions, which served as a baseline for comparison. Expert listeners rated all performances on seven variables. Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) revealed significant effects for the evaluation variables of ring and overall tone quality in all singing tasks. Ratings were higher for ring and overall tone quality when the focus of attention moved farther from the singer.
Musicians often play under circumstances in which pressure may lead to anxiety and performance deterioration. Theories suggest that a drop in performance is due to a shift in focus of attention towards task-irrelevant information. In this study, we asked music students to report what they think and where they focus attention in three situations: when they play under pressure (Study 1; n = 81), the moment just before choking under pressure and when they try to recover after a mistake (Study 2; n = 25). Focus of attention was examined using retrospective verbal reports and point-spread distributions. Besides a notable focus on music-related information (36.9%), music students reported a considerable number of worries and disturbing thoughts (26.1%) during playing under pressure (Study 1). Just before choking, they showed even more worries and disturbing thoughts (46.4%) at the cost of music-related focus (21.1%) (Study 2), as also confirmed by the point-spread distributions. During recovery after a mistake, attention was mainly focused on music-related information (53.0%) and less on thoughts that give confidence (18.5%) and physical aspects (16.6%). It is advisable to help music students with improving their performance, for example, by attentional control training or providing training with elevated levels of anxiety.
Focus of attention and its effects on skilled motor performance has become an important line of research in the motor learning domain. Numerous studies have demonstrated that an external focus of attention (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). Thus, small differences in the wording of instructions or feedback given by teachers can have a significant impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of motor skill performance. In this paper, we review some of the attentional focus studies that are relevant to ballet performance. In addition, we report the findings of a survey among professional ballet dancers (N = 53) that we conducted to determine their typical attentional focus while performing certain movements. The results showed that the majority adopted internal foci, or combinations of internal and external foci, most of the time. This suggests that there is room for improvement for performance and teaching. We provide examples of how external foci can be promoted in ballet practice.
Effective motor performance is important for surviving and thriving, and skilled movement is critical in many activities. Much theorizing over the last few decades has focused on how certain practice conditions affect the processing of task-related information to affect learning. Yet, existing theoretical perspectives do not accommodate significant recent lines of evidence demonstrating motivational and attentional effects on performance and learning. These include research on (a) conditions that enhance expectancies for future performance, (b) variables that influence learners’ autonomy, and (c) an external focus of attention on the intended movement effect. Here we propose the OPTIMAL (Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning) theory of motor learning. We suggest that motivational and attentional factors contribute to performance and learning by strengthening the coupling of goals to actions. We provide explanations for the performance and learning advantages of these variables on psychological and neuroscientific grounds. We describe a plausible mechanism for expectancy effects rooted in responses of dopamine to the anticipation of positive experience and temporally associated with skill practice. Learner autonomy acts perhaps largely through an enhanced expectancy pathway. Further, we consider the influence of an external focus for the establishment of efficient functional connections across brain networks that subserve skilled movement. We speculate that enhanced expectancies and an external focus propel performers’ cognitive and motor systems in productive “forward” directions and prevent “backsliding” into self- and non-task focused states. Expected success presumably breeds further success and helps consolidate memories. We discuss practical implications and future research directions.
Abstract The self-invoking trigger hypothesis was proposed by Wulf and Lewthwaite (2010) as a mechanism underlying the robust effect of attentional focus on motor learning and performance. One component of this hypothesis, relevant beyond the attentional focus effect, suggests that causing individuals to access their self-schema will negatively impact their learning and performance of a motor skill. The purpose of the present two studies was to provide an initial test of the performance and learning aspects of the self-invoking trigger hypothesis by asking participants in one group to think about themselves between trial blocks - presumably activating their self-schema - to compare their performance and learning to that of a control group. In Experiment 1, participants performed 2 blocks of 10 trials on a throwing task. In one condition, participants were asked between blocks to think about their past throwing experience. While a control group maintained their performance across blocks, the self group's performance was degraded on the second block. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to practice a wiffleball hitting task on two separate days. Participants returned on a third day to perform retention and transfer tests without the self-activating manipulation. Results indicated that the self group learned the hitting task less effectively than the control group. The findings reported here provide initial support for the self-invoking trigger hypothesis.
The present study was designed to fill a gap in the literature on attentional focus and sports performance. Specifically, in contrast to most previous studies in which an external focus was directed at an implement, we used a gymnastics skill that did not involve the use of an implement. Furthermore, while most studies used only outcome measures of performance, we also assessed movement quality. Twelve-year-old gymnasts performed a maximum vertical jump with a 180-degree turn while airborne, with their hands crossing in front of their chest during the turn under three different focus conditions. Under the external focus condition, participants were asked to focus on the direction in which a tape marker, which was attached to their chest, was pointing after the turn. Under the internal focus condition, they were asked to focus on the direction in which their hands were pointing after the turn. Under the control condition, no focus instructions were given. The external focus condition resulted in both superior movement form and greater jump height than did the other two conditions, which produced comparable results. The present findings show that, similar to other tasks, the performance of form-based skills can be enhanced relatively easily by appropriate external focus instructions.
Golf, as with most complex motor skills, requires multiple different brain functions, including attention, motor planning, coordination, calculation of timing, and emotional control. In this study we assessed the correlation between swing components and brain connectivity from the cerebellum to the cerebrum. Ten female golf players and 10 age-matched female controls were recruited. In order to determine swing consistency among participants, the standard deviation (SD) of the mean swing speed time and the SD of the mean swing angle were assessed over 30 swings. Functional brain connectivity was assessed by resting state functional MRI. Pro-golfers showed greater positive left cerebellum connectivity to the occipital lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe and both frontal lobes compared to controls. The SD of play scores was positively correlated with the SD of the impact angle. Constant swing speed and back swing angle in professional golfers were associated with functional connectivity (FC) between the cerebellum and parietal and frontal lobes. In addition, the constant impact angle in professional golfers was associated with improved golf scores and additional FC of the thalamus.
Over the past 15 years, research on focus of attention has consistently demonstrated that an external focus (i.e., on the movement effect) enhances motor performance and learning relative to an internal focus (i.e., on body movements). This article provides a comprehensive review of the extant literature. Findings show that the performance and learning advantages through instructions or feedback inducing an external focus extend across different types of tasks, skill levels, and age groups. Benefits are seen in movement effectiveness (e.g., accuracy, consistency, balance) as well as efficiency (e.g., muscular activity, force production, cardiovascular responses). Methodological issues that have arisen in the literature are discussed. Finally, our current understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the attentional focus effect is outlined, and directions for future research are suggested.
We investigated brain activity in elite, expert, and novice archers during a simulated archery aiming task to determine whether neural correlates of performance differ by skill level.
Success in shooting sports depends on complex mental routines just before the shot, when the brain prepares to execute the movement.
During functional magnetic resonance imaging, 40 elite, expert, or novice archers aimed at a simulated 70-meter-distant target and pushed a button when they mentally released the bowstring.
At the moment of optimal aiming, the elite and expert archers relied primarily on a dorsal pathway, with greatest activity in the occipital lobe, temporoparietal lobe, and dorsolateral pre-motor cortex. The elites showed activity in the supplementary motor area, temporoparietal area, and cerebellar dentate, while the experts showed activity only in the superior frontal area. The novices showed concurrent activity in not only the dorsolateral pre-motor cortex but also the ventral pathways linked to the ventrolateral pre-motor cortex. The novices exhibited broad activity in the superior frontal area, inferior frontal area, ventral prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex, superior parietal lobule, and primary somatosensory cortex.
The more localized neural activity of elite and expert archers than novices permits greater efficiency in the complex processes subserved by these regions. The elite group's high activity in the cerebellar dentate indicates that the cerebellum is involved in automating simultaneous movements by integrating the sensorimotor memory enabled by greater expertise in self-paced aiming tasks. A companion article comments on and generalizes our findings.
Abstract The authors examined the individual and combined influences of 2 factors that have been shown to benefit motor learning: an external focus of attention and enhanced performance expectancies. Another purpose of this study was to gain further insight into the mechanisms underlying these variables. In a factorial design, participants learning a novel motor skill (i.e., throwing with the non-dominant arm) were or were not given external focus instructions, and were or were not provided bogus positive social-comparative feedback to enhance their expectancies. This resulted in 4 groups: external focus, enhanced expectancy, external focus/enhanced expectancy and control. External focus instructions and enhanced expectancies had additive benefits for learning: the external focus/enhanced expectancy group demonstrated the greatest throwing accuracy on both retention and transfer tests, while the accuracy scores of the external focus and enhanced expectancy groups were lower, but higher than those of the control group. Furthermore, self-efficacy was increased by both external focus and enhanced expectancy, and predicted retention and transfer performance. Positive affect was heightened in the enhanced expectancy and external focus/enhanced expectancy groups after practice and predicted transfer performance. The findings suggest that the learning benefits of an external focus and enhanced expectancies mediate learning through partially different mechanisms.
To test the extent to which learners performing a simple keyboard passage would be affected by directing their focus of attention to different aspects of their movements, 16 music majors performed a brief keyboard passage under each of four focus conditions arranged in a counterbalanced design—a total of 64 experimental sessions. As they performed the test passage, participants were directed to focus their attention on either their fingers, the piano keys, the piano hammers, or the sound produced. Complete MIDI data for all responses were digitally recorded by software written specifically for this experiment. Consistent with findings obtained in tests of other physical skills, the results show that performance was most accurate and generalizable when participants focused on the effects their movements produced rather than on the movements themselves, and that the more distal the focus of attention, the more accurate the motor control.
Recent research on the processes underlying musical performance anxiety indicates that cognitive and physiological factors are both involved. The cognitive disturbances centre around worries concerning potential catas- trophes, performance quality and exaggerated beliefs about the importance of any particular musical performance. It is argued that stage fright and more general stresses in musicians' careers are related. A survey of career stress in professional orchestral musicians and student musicians is described. Finally, the implications for coping strategies in the management of stage fright are outlined.
An experiment was carried out to investigate the cognitive mechanisms responsible for performance degradation under pressure in music. The experiment was designed to compare the predictions of two theories, distraction and explicit monitoring. Distraction theory (Eysenck, 1992) explains performance degradation as a result of attentional shifts to task-irrelevant information. Explicit monitoring theory (Baumeister, 1984; Masters, 1992) postulates that performance degradation is due to increased attention to step-by-step control of skill processes. A total of 72 novice musicians were given individual lessons on basic note and rhythm reading skills. They were then trained on a keyboard task under one of three conditions (single-task, dual-task, video-monitoring) before being exposed to either a high-pressure or low-pressure post-test. Results showed that pressure led to skill failure in the single-task and dual-task groups, but resulted in improved performance of the video-monitoring group. These results were consistent with explicit monitoring theory. Furthermore, video-monitoring training was found to ameliorate the performance deficits normally caused by high pressure. Finally, the present study found no evidence that trait anxiety influences the effect of pressure on performance. Copyright
Lohse, Sherwood, and Healy (2010) found that an external focus of attention (FOA) improved performance in a dart-throwing task and reduced the time taken between throws, but using the time between trials as a measure of preparation time is relatively crude. Thus, the current experiment analyzed how FOA affects accuracy and pre-movement time in an isometric force production task, to study how FOA affected motor planning. In the current experiment, training with an external focus improved the accuracy of the isometric force production task during training and during retention and transfer testing. During training, an external FOA also significantly reduced pre-movement time in early trials. These findings are interpreted as reduced explicit control of movement as a function of an external FOA, and help to integrate FOA research with other motor control phenomena and neuropsychological theories of motor control.
Research has found an advantage for an external focus of attention in motor control and learning; instructing subjects to focus on the effects of their actions, rather than on body movements, can improve performance during training and retention testing. Previous research has mostly concentrated on movement outcomes, not on the quality of the movement itself. Thus, this study combined surface electromyography (EMG) with motion analysis and outcome measures in a dart throwing task, making this the first study that includes a comprehensive analysis of changes in motor performance as a function of attentional focus. An external focus of attention led to better performance (less absolute error), decreased preparation time between throws, and reduced EMG activity in the triceps brachii. There was also some evidence of increased variability for kinematic measures of the shoulder joint under an external focus relative to an internal focus. These results suggest improved movement economy with an external focus of attention.
Jump height is increased when performers are given external focus instructions, relative to an internal focus or no focus instructions (Wulf & Dufek, 2009; Wulf, Zachry, Granados, & Dufek, 2007). The purpose of present study was to examine possible underlying neurophysiological mechanisms of this effect by using electromyography (EMG). Participants performed a vertical jump-and-reach task under two conditions in a counterbalanced order: external focus (i.e., focus on the rungs of the measurement device) and internal focus (i.e., focus on the fingers with which the rungs were to be touched). EMG activity of various muscles (anterior tibialis, biceps femoris, vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, gastrocnemius) was measured during jumps. Jump height was greater with an external compared to an internal focus. While there were no differences in muscle onset times between attentional focus conditions, EMG activity was generally lower with an external focus. These results suggest that neuromuscular coordination is enhanced by an external focus of attention. The present findings add to the evidence that an external focus facilitates the production of effective and efficient movement patterns.
The effects of different types of instructions on complex motor skill learning were examined. The instructions were related either to the participant's own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects of those movements on the apparatus (external focus). The hypothesis tested was that external-focus instructions would be more beneficial for learning than internal-focus instructions. In Experiment 1, the participants (N = 33) performed slalom-type movements on a ski-simulator. The instructions referred to the way in which force should be exerted on the platform that the participant was standing on. The instructions given 1 group of participants referred to the performers' feet (internal focus), whereas the instructions given another group referred to the wheels of the platform, which were located directly under the feet (external focus). The control group was given no focus instructions. All participants practiced the task on 2 consecutive days and performed a retention test on Day 3. Compared with the effects of internal-focus instructions and no instructions, the external-focus instructions enhanced learning. Internal-focus instruction was not more effective than no instructions. In Experiment 2, an attempt was made to replicate the differential effects of external-versus internal-focus instructions with a different task (balancing on a stabilometer). Consistent with Experiment 1, instructing learners (N = 16) to focus on 2 markers on the platform of the stabilometer (external focus) led to more effective learning than instructing them to focus on their feet (internal focus), as measured by a retention test after 2 days of practice. Practical and theoretical implications of those results are discussed.
In research on motor control, the detrimental effect of an internal focus of attention on movement execution of well-learned motor skills is a frequently replicated finding. This experimental study was designed to determine whether this effect is observed with physiological variables during endurance exercise. We examined whether the focus of attention can influence running economy (oxygen consumption at a set running speed). Trained runners had to focus their attention on three different aspects while running on a treadmill. For three consecutive 10-min periods, runners concentrated on the running movement, on their breathing, and on their surroundings. Results showed an increased running economy in the external focus condition. In line with research on motor control, endurance sport also shows that an external focus of attention is better than an internal focus in terms of the physiological performance measure of oxygen consumption.
Choking under pressure is defined as performance decrements under circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance. A model for choking on coordination and skill tasks is proposed, holding that the pressure increases the conscious attention to the performer's own process of performance and that this increased conscious attention disrupts the automatic or overlearned nature of the execution. Six experiments provided data consistent with this model. Three studies showed that increased attention to one's own process of performance resulted in performance decrements. Three other studies showed similar decrements produced by situational manipulations of pressure (i.e., implicit competition, a cash incentive, and audience-induced pressure). Individuals low in dispositional self-consciousness were shown to be more susceptible to choking under pressure than those high in it.
The authors examined how the effectiveness of feedback for the learning of complex motor skills is affected by the focus of attention it induces. The feedback referred specifically either to body movements (internal focus) or to movement effects (external focus). In Experiment 1, groups of novices and advanced volleyball players (N = 48) practiced "tennis" serves under internal-focus or external-focus feedback conditions in a 2 (expertise) x 2 (feedback type) design. Type of feedback did not differentially affect movement quality, but external-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy of the serves than internal-focus feedback during both practice and retention, independent of the level of expertise. In Experiment 2, the effects of relative feedback frequency as a function of attentional focus were examined. A 2 (feedback frequency: 100% vs. 33%) x 2 (feedback type) design was used. Experienced soccer players (N = 52) were required to shoot lofted passes at a target. External-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy than internal-focus feedback did. In addition, reduced feedback frequency was beneficial under internal-focus feedback conditions, whereas 100% and 33% feedback were equally effective under external-focus conditions. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of effect-related, as opposed to movement-related, feedback and also suggest that there is a need to revise current views regarding the role of feedback for motor learning.
The performance and learning of motor skills has been shown to be enhanced if the performer adopts an external focus of attention (focus on the movement effect) compared to an internal focus (focus on the movements themselves) [G. Wulf, W. Prinz, Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: a review, Psychon. Bull. Rev. 8 (2001) 648-660]. While most previous studies examining attentional focus effects have exclusively used performance outcome (e.g., accuracy) measures, in the present study electromyography (EMG) was used to determine neuromuscular correlates of external versus internal focus differences in movement outcome. Participants performed basketball free throws under both internal focus (wrist motion) and external focus (basket) conditions. EMG activity was recorded for m. flexor carpi radialis, m. biceps brachii, m. triceps triceps brachii, and m. deltoid of each participant's shooting arm. The results showed that free throw accuracy was greater when participants adopted an external compared to an internal focus. In addition, EMG activity of the biceps and triceps muscles was lower with an external relative to an internal focus. This suggests that an external focus of attention enhances movement economy, and presumably reduces "noise" in the motor system that hampers fine movement control and makes the outcome of the movement less reliable.