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Becoming a Gatekeeper: Recommendations for Preparing Doctoral Students in Counselor Education
... Gatekeeper identity development begins during doctoral training (Charnley, 2021 Rapp et al., 2018) for future counselor educators and clinical supervisors. Doctoral programs could require students to develop philosophy of gatekeeping statements during supervision or teaching courses followed by a peer review of other students' statements to check for clarity, coherence, attention to multicultural considerations, and quality using the above questions (Smarinsky et al., 2023;Swank & Houseknecht, 2018). ...
... Helping doctoral students focus effort and intention on their philosophy statements frames gatekeeping as a responsibility required by all counseling professionals which can reduce reluctance and subjective interpretations of gatekeeping responsibilities or gateslipping (Gaubatz & Vera, 2002). Doctoral instructors can use gatekeeping philosophy statements as another tool to help ensure greater cohesion and understanding of gatekeeping expectations required of counseling and counselor education (Rapp et al., 2018). ...
... Counselor educators and clinical supervisors may revisit the philosophy of gatekeeping statements to help remind themselves to maintain impartial and balanced perspectives that promote eudaimonia. Furthermore, counselor educators and clinical supervisors should update their philosophy of gatekeeping statements to reflect their evolving multicultural competence plus awareness of diversity and equity issues within the field (Rapp et al., 2018). Counselor educators and clinical supervisors should also regularly review and revise their philosophy of gatekeeping statements as research, definitions of gatekeeping, ACA Codes of Ethics (2014), advocacy and leadership competencies (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2018), models of gatekeeping, best practices, regulations, policies, and theories evolve. ...
Writing gatekeeping philosophy statements may help develop gatekeeper identities and improve gatekeeping practices. While many have composed philosophy of teaching, researching, and supervising statements, few, if any, have crafted philosophy of gatekeeping statements. In this article, we propose doctoral students, counselor educators, and supervisors create philosophy of gatekeeping statements to enhance their gatekeeping practices. We offer strategies for constructing gatekeeping philosophy statements. Implications for use and future research of philosophy of gatekeeping statements are provided.
... Roles and Responsibilities participate in remediation processes, which aligns with existing literature (Rapp et al., 2018). Participants felt they were practicing certain roles (especially teaching and supervision) blindly without all the necessary information needed. ...
... Although the inclusion of doctoral students in remediation processes might not always be possible due to privacy laws, participants discussed the need for empowerment over remediation that involves their role with the students. Further, training doctoral students in remediation and gatekeeping represents a vital skill needed after completing a doctoral degree (Freeman et al., 2020;Rapp et al., 2018;Smarinsky et al., 2023). ...
... Although there is a growing body of literature regarding remediation in counselor education (e.g., Freeman et al., 2019;Freeman et al., 2020;Rapp et al., 2018;Salpietro et al., 2021), attention is absent to the roles of CEDs who may be involved with remediation indirectly as co-instructors or supervisors. Additional research is needed to provide best practices for the inclusion of CEDs in remediation procedures. ...
Aspiring counselor educators in CACREP-accredited programs must learn to be counselors, teachers, supervisors, researchers, and leaders. These roles can overlap, creating multiple complex relationships during their programs. To examine these roles, we conducted a constructivist grounded theory investigation of how counselor education doctoral students (n = 9) balanced multiple roles and relationships and boundary crossings. We utilized chain referral sampling and continued until we reached theoretical saturation. We used semi-structured interviews conducted via videoconferencing (ZOOM) for data collection and coded the interviews using two main phases: an initial phase and a focused coding phase. We
used member checks by sending participants preliminary findings for feedback. The resulting theory describes two distinct stakeholders in the management of the multiple roles and relationships in counselor education: the students and the program. Students were responsible for balancing roles and responsibilities while considering professional growth, ethics, and boundary setting. The program was responsible for providing a growth-fostering environment and mentorship. Ultimately, the process of navigating MRRs involves early discussion of MRRs, intentionality of program placement, assistance with boundaries and ethical decisions, and exposure to remediation and gatekeeping.
... Despite providing delineated standards for counselor educators regarding their gatekeeper role, lack of clarity on gatekeeping guidelines (Brown-Rice & Furr, 2019;McCaughan & Hill, 2015) and the absence of universal standards for application (Rapp et al., 2018) contributed to the gateslipping (the failure of gatekeeping practices in counselor education programs [Gaubatz & Vera, 2002]) of students with problems of professional competency (PPC; Brown-Rice & Furr, 2016;Kallauger & Mollen, 2017). Brown-Rice and Furr (2019) cautioned that "educators' failure to engage in these gatekeeping and remediation practices will result in a dysfunctional system that leaves the future of the counseling profession to subpar practitioners" (p. ...
... There is a robust body of research regarding the gatekeeping practices and remediation procedures of counselor educators (Brown-Rice & Furr, 2014;Demyan et al., 2018;Freeman et al., 2016;Homrich et al., 2014;Schuermann et al., 2018;Shen-Miller et al., 2015;Rapp et al., 2018). However, Schuermann et al. (2018) noted the scarcity of literature specific to counselor educators' experiences in their gatekeeper roles. ...
... These sentiments echo those put forth by Brown-Rice and Furr (2016), who highlighted a disconnect between knowledge of remediation practices and the ability to implement remediation in practice. The identified lack of studies outlining counselor educators' attitudes and experiences about their gatekeeper role (Levine et al., 2019;Rapp et al., 2018;Schuermann et al., 2018) created a shortfall in the literature regarding procedural insights, understanding of processes, level of competency, perceived barriers, and other professional knowledge regarding counselor educators' roles as gatekeepers. ...
Gatekeeping is an ethical imperative consigned to all counselor educators. While gatekeeping has been studied from the general perspective of counselor educators, no studies exist which examine the perspectives of new adjunct counselor educators’ gatekeeping in online settings. As online clinical mental health counseling programs continue to increase in number, so too does the burgeoning reliance on adjunct faculty to meet program needs. The purpose of this research study was to examine the perceptions of new adjunct counselor educators’ self-efficacy to perform their gatekeeper role in online clinical mental health counseling programs. A generic qualitative inquiry was conducted using Bandura’s 1977 and 1986 self-efficacy theory as a theoretical framework to explore the perceptions of 12 new online adjunct counselor educators as they reflected on their online gatekeeping experiences. Semi-structured interviews were used to elucidate participants’ gatekeeping self-efficacy perceptions, which were conducted virtually over Zoom (education edition). After a two-cycle coding process was applied, the research data were analyzed using the theoretical analysis procedure outlined by Percy et al. in 2015. NVivo was used to aid the coding application to ensure a thorough analysis of the raw data. The findings of this research study suggest six contributing factors are influencing the online gatekeeping self-efficacy perceptions of new adjunct counselor educators: (a) gatekeeper role confusion, (b) experiential opportunities, (c) connection and inclusion, (d) emotional excitation, (e) barriers inherent to online settings, and (f) cultural bias and broaching trepidation. The limitations of the research study are reviewed. Implications for the broader community of stakeholders are discussed, and recommendations for future research are provided.
... In their role as mentors, CES faculty intentionally observe the interaction of gatekeeping and psychological safety along a continuum (Harrichand et al., 2022). On the contrary, Rapp et al. (2018) reported a discrepancy between the established value of gatekeeping in CACREP standards (2024, 6.B.2., 6.B.3.) and doctoral students' comprehension of its development and training. The authors recommended further research into doctoral student gatekeeping development and training in response to this understanding (Rapp et al., 2018). ...
... On the contrary, Rapp et al. (2018) reported a discrepancy between the established value of gatekeeping in CACREP standards (2024, 6.B.2., 6.B.3.) and doctoral students' comprehension of its development and training. The authors recommended further research into doctoral student gatekeeping development and training in response to this understanding (Rapp et al., 2018). The authors also explored the effects of gatekeeping training in counselor education and offer training and curriculum recommendations that are grounded in academic literature. ...
Student retention is a growing concern for educators and institutions of higher education. Previous research has suggested that mentoring is an effective strategy for increasing retention of students in counseling programs. The purpose of this article is to present evidence in support of mentoring within doctoral-level counseling programs. Several recommendations are documented.
... Yet, counselor educators' gatekeeper identity development across their entire careers remains ambiguous. Conceptually, a few researchers have advocated for doctoral training programs to teach gatekeeping practices and foster gatekeeper identity development in doctoral students (Corley et al., 2020;DeDiego & Burgin, 2016;Rapp et al., 2018). Empirically, qualitative researchers have found doctoral students reported varying understanding of their roles with gatekeeping based on their developmental level, exposure to experiential learning activities, and awareness of gatekeeping responsibilities (Corley et al., 2020;Freeman et al., 2020). ...
... It is critical for doctoral programs to help doctoral students develop complex and contextually aware perspectives on gatekeeping. Doctoral faculty should create activities for doctoral students using the bioecological model to identify their evolving beliefs, values, and potential blindspots (Corley et al., 2020;Rapp et al., 2018). Experiential activities, such as case studies or role plays, may help doctoral students develop gatekeeper identities and utilize ethical codes (exosystem). ...
Using Bronfenbrenner's bioecological system theory as a framework, we propose an individual's gatekeeper identity development occurs through interactions within multiple social contexts. We conducted a thematic analysis of 11 counselor educators' experiences gatekeeping within each bioecological system. Implications for counselor educators to promote gatekeeper identity development are provided.
... Additionally, some authors offered suggestions for interventions to be used in the classroom, including growth groups (Zhu, 2018), creative interventions to increase empathy (Bell, 2018), video grand rounds (Crowe, Dotson-Blake, Vazquez, & Malone, 2018), community service learning projects (Lloyd-Hazlett, 2018), and self-compassion as self-care (Nelson, Hall, Anderson, Birtles, & Hemming, 2018). Rapp, Moody, and Stewart (2018) presented recommendations for attending to gatekeeping in doctoral curricula. Finally, Foster (2018) explored suggestions for using relational skills to engage students in online environments. ...
... Historically, the counselor education and supervision literature has shown a stark lack of attention to doctoral-level preparation (Barrio Minton, Wachter Morris, & Yaites, 2014;Barrio Minton et al., 2018). In 2018, the profession saw the emergence of articles on teaching preparation, mentorship of doctoral students, and preparation of supervisors (e.g., Harris et al., 2018;Herbert et al., 2018;Rapp et al., 2018;Waalkes et al., 2018), all areas notably lacking in previous literature. A growing cluster of mentorship articles often cut across counselor educators' most common roles; for example, examinations of research mentorship (Anekstein & Vereen, 2018a, 2018b and teaching mentorship (Baltrinic et al., 2018). ...
The authors reviewed 114 articles regarding counselor education and supervision published in professional counseling journals during 2018. The articles represented a range of methodologies, providing insight into current supervision, teaching and training, stakeholder experiences, and professional issues. Implications include a need for research regarding online teaching and learning as well as exploring supervision’s influence on counseling skill and effectiveness.
... The goddess parallel (Byrne, 2000) for counselor development comes in the form of the practicum/internship/clinical supervisor. This individual functions as a model of exemplary practice in the profession (Gockel & Burton, 2014;Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018). They possess the skills the student seeks. ...
... Included in the counselor identity are the mandatory directives to ensure professional conduct is maintained that supports client autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence of work, justice, fidelity, and veracity towards others (American Counseling Association, 2014). If a student shows signs they cannot uphold these values, it is the duty of the gatekeeper to provide an opportunity for remediation (Rapp et al., 2018). If these efforts prove unsuccessful, an unfortunate end to this professional journey is a potential consequence. ...
The use of the monomyth to shape the narratives of fiction with deep meanings, while feeling both new and recognizable, is consistently experienced across all cultures throughout time. As past publications have utilized this approach to subconscious symbolism to explain many experiences, it has not yet been utilized to explain the process of counselor development. The structures utilized in this exploration of the Hero’s Journey concept include the seminal work Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell (1949) being applied to the structure of counseling development as reviewed by Rønnestad and Skovholt (2003). Each stage of the journey will be translated into an understanding of how students grow from before their master’s program through their senior years as experts in the counseling field. The following article will engage this metaphor to explore the narrative of a counseling student on their quest to become a counseling professional through use of the stages from the monomyth as used to describe the Hero’s Journey.
... This process is also called gatekeeping and is directly addressed in Section F.6.b of the ACA Code of Ethics (2014). Several articles have been written regarding the practice within both counselor education and clinical practice (Bhat, 2005;Brown-Rice & Furr, 2015;Nelson et al., 2010;Rapp et al., 2013;Rust et al., 2013). This indicates the importance of gatekeeping in maintaining client welfare and the integrity of the counseling profession. ...
The expansion of the use of technology in counseling has implicated counseling professionals in considering how to legally and ethically incorporate it into all facets of practice, including university and clinical supervision settings. In this article, we provide scholarship-backed recommendations for doing so as well as provide suggestions for incorporating psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral (CBT) supervision models into telesupervision.
... Implications for CEs in doctoral programs include preparing students for the ethical, interpersonal, multicultural, and systemic nature of gatekeeping (Rapp et al., 2018). Doctoral programs should host dialogues with early-career CEs to learn about their first-hand experiences of gatekeeping, particularly exploring issues of power/positionality, collaboration, and decision-making with future colleagues. ...
Gatekeeping is a responsibility for all counselor educators (CEs). Little is known about how CEs work with their colleagues to enact gatekeeping in counselor education programs. This grounded theory study explored 12 diverse CEs’ gatekeeping experiences, creating an ecological model of the Faculty Microsystem during gatekeeping that illuminates important conditions, processes, and interactions during gatekeeping in counselor education. Implications for counselor educators and doctoral students on the nature of collaboration during gatekeeping are described.
... For example, it invites critical reflection on how one is defining problematic behavior and determining if a behavior is problematic or a reflection of deviating from the cultural norm (Letourneau, 2016). When working with ICS this consideration is essential as culture, diversity of values and beliefs, and level of acculturation can influence and impact how problematic behaviors emerge, are perceived, and consequently how the observed PPC is remediated (Goodrich & Shin, 2013;Letourneau, 2016;Rapp et al., 2018). ...
While research on counselor training practices have primarily looked at the experiences of American students studying in U.S.- based counselor education programs, there is a need to understand the experiences of international students in counselor training programs. An emerging body of literature has begun to investigate various experiences of international students; little research however has looked specifically at the experiences of international students with the gatekeeping process. This chapter aims to address these critical questions by reviewing research on the experiences of international students. It will then delve into the definition of trauma- informed gatekeeping and its relevance to international student populations. Finally, the chapter will conclude by offering counseling programs actionable strategies for implementing trauma- informed gatekeeping approaches to working with international students.
... In the gatekeeping process for the counseling profession, offering corrective feedback is often the initial step toward learning and remediation (CACREP, 2015, Standard 6.B;Foster & McAdams III, 2009;Goodrich & Shin, 2013;Rapp et al., 2018). However, supervisors tend to have difficulty providing corrective feedback, thus offering evidence for Yalom and Leszcz's (2005) theory that the feedback exchange is an unusual and difficult transaction for both the giver and the receiver (Rogers et al., 2019;Stinchfield et al., 2019;Swank & McCarthy, 2013). ...
Corrective feedback can be a difficult endeavor in supervision. This article focuses on the following six principles of humanistic education that can facilitate corrective feedback: a nonthreatening environment, affective bias, self‐evaluation, connectedness, self‐determination, and personal growth orientation. These principles offer a framework for providing culturally sensitive supervision and corrective feedback. Implications for counseling supervision are included.
... Typically, literature related to doctoral counselor education centers on how to improve doctoral programs (Preston et al., 2020;Snow & Field, 2020) or investigations of the perspective of doctoral students' training or supervision experience (Kemer et al., 2019;Nelson et al., 2008;Protivnak & Foss, 2009). Only in recent years, literature focused on the doctoral student supervisor has emerged (e.g., Harris et al., 2018;Herbert et al., 2018;Rapp et al., 2018;Waalkes et al., 2018). Yet, a lack of emphasis on doctoral student supervisor support for counselors-in-training (CITs) remains. ...
Counselor education doctoral students are often required to supervise master-level counselors-in-training as part of their supervision internship. While practical, this arrangement places doctoral students and their supervisees in potentially compromised situations, given their lack of experience in these respective roles. This article offers a toolbox of strategies doctoral student supervisors can use to facilitate their work with counselors-in-training. These strategies address focus areas identified through prior research. Doctoral student supervisors are encouraged to use this toolbox in conjunction with the support and guidance of their faculty supervisor as they navigate clinical supervision.
... Power is also awarded to the supervisee through accrediting bodies, such as the American Psychological Association (APA) and the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP). However, it is only through these accrediting bodies that guidelines are in place to entitle supervisees to specific training experiences and to protect supervisees from abusive practices (Rapp et al., 2018). Therefore, although supervisees may have more power in their mesosystem, they only hold this privilege through the hierarchal power that other bodies possess and provide. ...
Training in clinical psychology involves the facilitation of supervision in the context of a larger training model. More importantly, power dynamics inherent in supervision and training may be overlooked. Several theoretical approaches to therapy, including feminist and multicultural theories, address power dynamics in the supervisory dyad; however, the role of power dynamics throughout a training system have yet to be addressed despite their existence on multiple levels of a training environment. The authors apply an ecological systems approach to supervision and training, highlighting the influence of power throughout all levels of the training system. Recommendations for empowerment of supervisees using an ecological systems approach to training and supervision are provided. An applied example of a training program is described to present a working model of empowering supervision through an ecological systemic training perspective. Lastly, excerpts from the perspective of trainees in empowering and disempowering training sites are also presented.
... Discussion among faculty individual and collective views of the purpose of remediation could support more collaborative and effective intervention. These participants also advocated for mentorship experiences for doctoral students, as there is a dearth of literature on the preparation of doctoral students as gatekeepers (Rapp et al., 2018). ...
Despite evidence that remediation is effective, little is known about counselor educators’ experience with remediation. In this consensual qualitative study, authors interviewed counselor educators (N=11) to better understand remedial practices and identify effective strategies. Findings have implications for the remediation of master’s-level students in counselor education.
... We conclude by offering potential courses of action and consequences, along with recommendations for the best possible outcome. At present, there is limited research about ethical examples at the doctoral supervision level (Grunhaus et al., 2018), although doctoral supervisors may experience a myriad of ethical dilemmas, including (but not limited to) gatekeeping, management of the supervisory alliance and boundaries, dual and multiple relationships, and multicultural issues (Ancis & Ladany, 2010;Dickens et al., 2016;Minor et al., 2013;Pakdaman et al., 2015;Rapp et al., 2018;Scarborough et al., 2006). This article addresses this gap in the literature by exploring a dilemma that includes common ethical issues faced within the context of doctoral supervision. ...
This article is based on the second place–winning submission to the 2019 American Counseling Association Graduate Student Ethics Competition for Doctoral Degree Students. The fictional ethical dilemma presents three perspectives within doctoral supervision (i.e., a doctoral supervisor, supervisees, and faculty supervisor) related to grappling with master's-level school counseling supervisees. A selected ethical decision-making model is used to delineate the problems and dimensions of the dilemma and offer courses of action in response to the ethical dilemma. Implications for counselors, supervisors, and counselor educators are discussed.
... Another way is changing the interview process, specifically, the writing component in which there was a move to assess students' commitment to social justice aspects of counseling. While gatekeeping is prevalent in counselor education (Rapp et al., 2018), this process allowed faculty to understand developmentally where students were in regard to their own reflection in power and privilege. Evidence was presented in the increase of diversity in the past and incoming cohorts of students. ...
Utilizing self-study methodology, the researchers sought to understand their practices in developing school counselors and counselor educators who acknowledge and resist anti-Black racism and marginalization to prevent harm through complacency. Given counselor education’s existence as overwhelmingly white and Eurocentric, the authors investigate disrupting the heteronormative structures inherent in counseling and the academy with the prioritizing of race, systemic inequities, and cyclical trauma in their faculty roles (e.g., teaching, supervising, and service) in efforts to shift a profession slow to address society’s ever-changing mental health needs. The team of counselor educators from different states in the northeast use a thematic analysis to highlight their challenges and successes at each institution, and within the broader counselor education and academic context.
... Doctoral student gatekeeping training may inadvertently create dual relationship conflicts between master's students and doctoral students if there are pre-existing relationships. Although a faculty mentor's sharing of a student's gatekeeping context may help doctoral students learn, faculty should balance this with the need to maintain the student's confidentiality (Rapp et al., 2018). ...
Emotionally intense gatekeeping experiences can require counselor educators to engage in a complicated, time- and energy-consuming, and draining series of events that can last years and involve legal proceedings. Research related to counselor educators’ experiences of intense emotions while gatekeeping remains limited. The aim of this transcendental phenomenological study was to investigate counselor educators’ (N = 11) emotionally intense gatekeeping experiences. Five themes emerged from the data: early warning signs, elevated student misconduct, dismissal, legal interactions, and change from experience. By being transparent about their feelings and challenges regarding emotionally intense gatekeeping experiences, counselor educators may compel other faculty, counselors in the field, and doctoral students to be better prepared for emotional gatekeeping experiences.
... The counselor's performance is strongly influenced by the quality of mastery of the four competencies based on individual attitudes, values, and propensities that support. Counselor's academic and professional competence integrated to build the integrity of pedagogical, personal, social, and professional competencies (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018). The establishment of the counselor's academic ability is a formal level education process (S-1) in the Guidance and Counseling field, which leads to the awarding of a Bachelor of Education (S.Pd) academic diploma in the Guidance and Counseling field. ...
Personality counselor competence in the implementation of guidance and counseling, one of them in group guidance services are needed to be a competent counselor. It will continue to increase, in line with the development of counseling, especially to foster enthusiasm and be one of the reasons that students have an interest in participating in group counseling services. Attention plays a significant role in the lives of students and has a tremendous impact on attitudes and behavior. Through the provision of group guidance services, students are directed to participate in group discussion activities and function to prioritize the development of communication and socialization skills.
... Effectively, by improving communication about expectations and assessments, faculty can possibly contribute to improving the quality of students graduating from rehabilitation counseling programs. It has also been recently suggested that this improvement can begin during doctoral training; that curricula and discussion at this level will enhance gatekeeping by future counselor educators (Rapp, Moody, & Stewart, 2018). Of course, it is important to understand additional barriers to this in terms of attitudes and perceived behavioral control as well. ...
Using the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), the current study explores underlying causes for a lack of gatekeeping discussion and action in rehabilitation counseling. Rehabilitation educators and program directors from both CORE and CACREP-accredited rehabilitation counseling programs participated in the online Gatekeeping Attitudes and Procedures Survey (GAPS). Results indicate that, while attitudes towards gatekeeping were positive, programs lack formalized procedures. TPB aids in understanding that attitudes towards gatekeeping may not influence educator behavior on the matter. Implications include further research into this area to better understand the relationship between gatekeeping and rehabilitation counselor education, as well as the impact of gatekeeping on student and faculty experiences.
A content analysis of literature from the past seven years was conducted to describe current trends within ethics identified in the counseling literature, focusing on the counseling specialties of clinical mental health, rehabilitation, and school counseling. A review of 72 articles resulted in the emergence of five key topics and following themes: (a) Multicultural counseling and diversity, (b) ethical dilemmas and ethical decision-making, (c) use of social media, telehealth, and technology, (d) supervision, and (e) other ethics topics. Findings from the analysis provided up-to-date information on trends within ethics that were frequently addressed in the counseling literature. Implications for education, practice, and future research are also discussed.
This study cataloged the occupational outcomes attained by 2946 counselor education graduates who completed their doctoral degrees between 2014 and 2022. A position as a full‐time counselor educator was the most common occupation; this outcome could be predicted from the institutional affiliations, Carnegie Classifications, and locations of graduates' doctoral‐degree‐granting universities.
This chapter explores practical strategies and best practices for integrating cultural competence into online graduate counseling programs and supervision models. It emphasizes the critical role of counselor educators in modeling and fostering self-awareness among counselors-in-training, highlighting ethical considerations and the importance of cultural competence. The chapter broadens the understanding of minority identities beyond traditional demographics, expanding on the inclusion of diverse cultural characteristics and experiences into the concept of identity. It underscores the significance of self-awareness in education and practice by offering case studies and self-assessment tools for continuous improvement. The chapter provides a comprehensive guide for improving self-awareness and cultural competency in online curricula by integrating cultural awareness and ethical adherence and highlighting the need for continuous professional development.
Remediation and gatekeeping in counselor education can be a scary and stressful process for students and faculty alike. While mandated by the American Counseling Association's 2014 Code of Ethics and the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), there is little guidance related on how to approach gatekeeping, particularly in a growth-oriented manner. Even the term “impairment,” as referenced in sections C.2.g. and F.5.b. of the Code is problematic, as it is used in the Americans with Disabilities Act to designate a person with disability. This chapter, per the author, will propose more appropriate nomenclature and an approach to gatekeeping utilizing trauma-informed practices (TIP). While gatekeeping may continue to be anxiety provoking, the use of trauma-informed principles such as safety, collaboration, and empowerment may help the process be more successful for all involved.
Little is known about counselor educators’ experiences of gatekeeping doctoral students. Using an interpretative phenomenological approach, we examined counselor educators’ experiences of gatekeeping doctoral students during the dissertation. Themes included (a) interventions, (b) prior student gatekeeping interactions, and (c) recommendations for gatekeeping during the dissertation. Implications and suggestions for research are provided.
The authors surveyed 210 adults ages 56 to 97 to better understand which variables affect perceptions of aging. A correlational design was used to determine whether wellness and resilience predicted positive age perception and internalized ageism among this group. Both variables were found to significantly predict age perception, and the data supported an interaction effect between age and resilience when predicting internalized ageism. Results may inform counselors, counselor educators, and other professionals who work with older adults.
Although negative age stereotypes have been found to predict adverse outcomes among older individuals, it was unknown whether the influence of stereotypes extends to brain changes associated with Alzheimer's disease. To consider this possibility, we drew on dementia-free participants, in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, whose age stereotypes were assessed decades before yearly magnetic resonance images and brain autopsies were performed. Those holding more-negative age stereotypes earlier in life had significantly steeper hippocampal-volume loss and significantly greater accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques, adjusting for relevant covariates. These findings suggest a new pathway to identifying mechanisms and potential interventions related to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. (PsycINFO Database Record
Scholars argue about whether age stereotypes (beliefs about old people) are becoming more negative or positive over time. No previous study has systematically tested the trend of age stereotypes over more than 20 years, due to lack of suitable data. Our aim was to fill this gap by investigating whether age stereotypes have changed over the last two centuries and, if so, what may be associated with this change. We hypothesized that age stereotypes have increased in negativity due, in part, to the increasing medicalization of aging. This study applied computational linguistics to the recently compiled Corpus of Historical American English (COHA), a database of 400 million words that includes a range of printed sources from 1810 to 2009. After generating a comprehensive list of synonyms for the term elderly for these years from two historical thesauri, we identified 100 collocates (words that co-occurred most frequently with these synonyms) for each of the 20 decades. Inclusion criteria for the collocates were: (1) appeared within four words of the elderly synonym, (2) referred to an old person, and (3) had a stronger association with the elderly synonym than other words appearing in the database for that decade. This yielded 13,100 collocates that were rated for negativity and medicalization. We found that age stereotypes have become more negative in a linear way over 200 years. In 1880, age stereotypes switched from being positive to being negative. In addition, support was found for two potential explanations. Medicalization of aging and the growing proportion of the population over the age of 65 were both significantly associated with the increase in negative age stereotypes. The upward trajectory of age-stereotype negativity makes a case for remedial action on a societal level.
Older military veterans are at greater risk for psychiatric disorders than same-aged non-veterans. However, little is known about factors that may protect older veterans from developing these disorders. We considered whether an association exists between the potentially stress-reducing factor of resistance to negative age stereotypes and lower prevalence of the following outcomes among older veterans: suicidal ideation, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants consisted of 2031 veterans, aged 55 or older, who were drawn from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study, a nationally representative survey of American veterans. The prevalence of all three outcomes was found to be significantly lower among participants who fully resisted negative age stereotypes, compared to those who fully accepted them: suicidal ideation, 5.0% vs. 30.1%; anxiety, 3.6% vs. 34.9%; and PTSD, 2.0% vs. 18.5%, respectively. The associations followed a graded linear pattern and persisted after adjustment for relevant covariates, including age, combat experience, personality, and physical health. These findings suggest that developing resistance to negative age stereotypes could provide older individuals with a path to greater mental health.
Importance:
There have been recent calls for increased access to mental health services, but access may be limited owing to psychiatrist refusal to accept insurance.
Objective:
To describe recent trends in acceptance of insurance by psychiatrists compared with physicians in other specialties.
Design, setting, and participants:
We used data from a national survey of office-based physicians in the United States to calculate rates of acceptance of private noncapitated insurance, Medicare, and Medicaid by psychiatrists vs physicians in other specialties and to compare characteristics of psychiatrists who accepted insurance and those who did not.
Main outcomes and measures:
Our main outcome variables were physician acceptance of new patients with private noncapitated insurance, Medicare, or Medicaid. Our main independent variables were physician specialty and year groupings (2005-2006, 2007-2008, and 2009-2010).
Results:
The percentage of psychiatrists who accepted private noncapitated insurance in 2009-2010 was significantly lower than the percentage of physicians in other specialties (55.3% [95% CI, 46.7%-63.8%] vs 88.7% [86.4%-90.7%]; P < .001) and had declined by 17.0% since 2005-2006. Similarly, the percentage of psychiatrists who accepted Medicare in 2009-2010 was significantly lower than that for other physicians (54.8% [95% CI, 46.6%-62.7%] vs 86.1% [84.4%-87.7%]; P < .001) and had declined by 19.5% since 2005-2006. Psychiatrists' Medicaid acceptance rates in 2009-2010 were also lower than those for other physicians (43.1% [95% CI, 34.9%-51.7%] vs 73.0% [70.3%-75.5%]; P < .001) but had not declined significantly from 2005-2006. Psychiatrists in the Midwest were more likely to accept private noncapitated insurance (85.1%) than those in the Northeast (48.5%), South (43.0%), or West (57.8%) (P = .02).
Conclusions and relevance:
Acceptance rates for all types of insurance were significantly lower for psychiatrists than for physicians in other specialties. These low rates of acceptance may pose a barrier to access to mental health services.
As Australia's population ages, there is concern that mental health professionals may not be prepared to deal with the increasing number of older people. The present study conducted a postal survey of Australian psychologists and counselors to ascertain whether older clients are less likely to be diagnosed with depression and are regarded less favorably than younger clients. Respondents received one of two versions of a vignette describing a depressed female client. The vignettes differed only in whether the fictitious client was aged 42 or aged 72. Responses were received from 414 psychologists and 293 counselors, representing a response rate of 38%. In general, response patterns did not differ between psychologists and counselors. Most respondents correctly identified depression regardless of the client's age. Attitudes toward treating the older client were consistently less favorable than for the younger client. The older client was rated as significantly less able to develop an adequate therapeutic relationship, to have a poorer prognosis, and to be less appropriate for therapy; and the therapists felt less competent in treating her and were less willing to accept her as a client. The evidence of an age bias has significant implications for the education and training of psychologists and counselors.
The authors identify, analyze, and summarize prior research from 117 research articles and books that deal with age stereotypes in the workplace. They discover and report the most prevalent and well-supported findings that have implications for human resource management. These findings are described in terms of prevalent age stereotypes that occur in work settings, evidence refuting age stereotypes, and moderators of age stereotypes. The authors provide recommendations for practice and future research.
Ageism has been found to exist throughout a wide variety of societal institutions. Whether it also exists in social networking
sites has not been previously considered. To explore this possibility, we conducted a content analysis of each publicly accessible
Facebook group that concentrated on older individuals. The site “Descriptions” of the 84 groups, with a total of 25,489 members,
were analyzed. The mean age category of the group creators was 20–29; all were younger than 60 years. Consistent with our
hypothesis, the Descriptions of all but one of these groups focused on negative age stereotypes. Among these Descriptions,
74% excoriated older individuals, 27% infantilized them, and 37% advocated banning them from public activities, such as shopping.
Facebook has the potential to break down barriers between generations; in practice, it may have erected new ones.
Approximately 5.6 million to 8 million Americans 65 years of age or older have mental health or substance-use disorders, and the Institute of Medicine (IOM) estimates that their numbers will reach 10.1 million to 14.4 million by 2030.(1) Yet the American Geriatrics Society estimates that there are fewer than 1800 geriatric psychiatrists in the United States today and that by 2030 there will be only about 1650 - less than 1 per 6000 older adults with mental health and substance-use disorders. The IOM's 2012 workforce report on this topic, aptly subtitled In Whose Hands?, confirms that we will never . . .
Examinations of privilege have historically focused on gender and race. By placing privilege within the context of oppression, the authors offer an expanded view of the domains of privilege that include sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, age, differing degrees of ableness, and religious affiliation.
Los exámenes del privilegio se han enfocado históricamente en el género y la raza. Colocando el privilegio dentro del contexto de la opresión, los autores ofrecen una vista ensanchada de los dominios del privilegio que incluye la orientación sexual, la posición socioeconómica, la edad, difiriendo los grados de habilidad, y de la afiliación religiosa.
This paper is about ageist stereotypes dressed-up in the garb of myth that biases perceptions and experiences of being old. The paper argues current ''mythmaking'' about aging perpetuates that which it intends to dispel: ageism. It considers how traditional myths and folklore explained personal experience, shaped social life, and offered meaning for the unexplainable. The current myths of aging perform these same functions in our culture; however, they are based on half-truths, false knowledge, and stated as ageist stereotypes about that which is known. Current myths of aging found in the media and literature of aging are not myths as such, but ''straw man'' statements that attempt to inform; however, they reinforce misconceptions and wrong information about aging as experienced by the vast majority of older people. Recent studies in the cognitive sciences are reviewed to provide insight about the mind's inherent ability to construct categories, concepts, and stereotypes as it responds to experience. These normal processes need to be better understood, particularly regarding how social stereotypes are constructed. Finally, the paper argues that ageist stereotypes when labeled as ''myth'' even in the pursuit of the realities of aging, neither educate the public about the opportunities and challenges of aging nor inform social and health practitioners about the aged. Three research and educational strategies are outlined for critical studies in aging and educational gerontology.
Discussions of aging and mental health widely assume that ageism among mental health providers is an important factor limiting access to mental health services for older adults. Given the widespread citation of ageism as a problem, we critically review the history of the ageism construct, and evidence for its existence in both mental health and medical professionals. There is surprisingly little empirical evidence for age bias among mental health providers. Considerable evidence does suggest differential medical treatment for older adults in such diverse areas as physician–patient interaction, use of screening procedures, and treatment of varied medical problems, although it is unclear whether age bias accounts for these differences. We suggest that innovations in delivery of psychological services, such as collaborative medical/psychological care in primary care settings, may ultimately prove more useful in improving access to mental health services than efforts to combat ageism.
Age is the only social category identifying subgroups that everyone may eventually join. Despite this and despite the well-known growth of the older population, age-based prejudice remains an understudied topic in social psychology. This article systematically reviews the literature on ageism, highlighting extant research on its consequences and theoretical perspectives on its causes. We then identify a crucial gap in the literature, potential intergenerational tensions, speculating how a growing-older population-and society's efforts to accommodate it-might stoke intergenerational fires, particularly among the younger generation. Presenting both sides of this incipient issue, we review relevant empirical work that introduces reasons for both optimism and pessimism concerning intergenerational relations within an aging society. We conclude by suggesting future avenues for ageism research, emphasizing the importance of understanding forthcoming intergenerational dynamics for the benefit of the field and broader society.
Previous studies showed that negative self-stereotypes detrimentally affect the cognitive performance of marginalized group members; however, these findings were confined to short-term experiments. In the present study, we considered whether stereotypes predicted memory over time, which had not been previously examined. We also considered whether self-relevance increased the influence of stereotypes on memory over time.
Multiple waves of memory performance were analyzed using individual growth models. The sample consisted of 395 participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging.
Those with more negative age stereotypes demonstrated significantly worse memory performance over 38 years than those with less negative age stereotypes, after adjusting for relevant covariates. The decline in memory performance for those aged 60 and above was 30.2% greater for the more negative age stereotype group than for the less negative age stereotype group. Also, the impact of age stereotypes on memory was significantly greater among those for whom the age stereotypes were self-relevant.
This study shows that the adverse influence of negative self-stereotypes on cognitive performance is not limited to a short-term laboratory effect. Rather, the findings demonstrate, for the first time, that stereotypes also predict memory performance over an extended period in the community.
Objectives
Understanding the factors that promote quality of life in old age has been a staple of social gerontology since its inception and remains a significant theme in aging research. The purpose of this article was to review the state of the science with regard to subjective well-being (SWB) in later life and to identify promising directions for future research.
Methods
This article is based on a review of literature on SWB in aging, sociological, and psychological journals. Although the materials reviewed date back to the early 1960s, the emphasis is on publications in the past decade.
Results
Research to date paints an effective portrait of the epidemiology of SWB in late life and the factors associated with it. Although the research base is large, causal inferences about the determinants of SWB remain problematic. Two recent contributions to the research base are highlighted as emerging issues: studies of secular trends in SWB and cross-national studies.
Discussion
The review ends with discussion of priority issues for future research.
This study explored aspects of stigmatization for older adults who live in residential care or assisted living (RC-AL) communities and what these settings have done to address stigma.
We used ethnography and other qualitative data-gathering and analytic techniques to gather data from 309 participants (residents, family and staff) from six RC-AL settings in Maryland. We entered the transcript data into Atlas.ti 5.0. We analyzed the data by using grounded theory techniques for emergent themes.
Four themes emerged that relate to stigma in RC-AL: (a) ageism in long-term care; (b) stigma as related to disease and illness; (c) sociocultural aspects of stigma; and (d) RC-AL as a stigmatizing setting. Some strategies used in RC-AL settings to combat stigma include family member advocacy on behalf of stigmatized residents, assertion of resident autonomy, and administrator awareness of potential stigmatization.
Findings suggest that changes could be made to the structure as well as the process of care delivery to minimize the occurrence of stigma in RC-AL settings. Structural changes include an examination of how best, given the resident case mix, to accommodate care for persons with dementia (e.g., separate units or integrated care); processes of care include staff recognition of resident preferences and strengths, rather than their limitations.
This research found that older individuals with more positive self-perceptions of aging, measured up to 23 years earlier, lived 7.5 years longer than those with less positive self-perceptions of aging. This advantage remained after age, gender, socioeconomic status, loneliness, and functional health were included as covariates. It was also found that this effect is partially mediated by will to live. The sample consisted of 660 individuals aged 50 and older who participated in a community-based survey, the Ohio Longitudinal Study of Aging and Retirement (OLSAR). By matching the OLSAR to mortality data recently obtained from the National Death Index, the authors were able to conduct survival analyses. The findings suggest that the self-perceptions of stigmatized groups can influence longevity.
Although age-related hearing loss is one of the most prevalent conditions affecting older individuals, little research has
been conducted on the social-psychological factors that might contribute to it. The present study examines whether older individuals'
age stereotypes predict screened hearing over time. The sample consisted of 546 community-dwelling persons, aged 70 to 96
years old. Participants with more negative and more external (i.e., related to physical appearance) age stereotypes demonstrated
worse screened hearing at 36 months, after adjusting for baseline-screened hearing, age, and other relevant variables. These
findings suggest that age stereotypes influence older individuals' sensory perception.
Along with race and gender, people commonly use age to categorize—and form stereotypes about—others. Of the three categories, age is the only one in which the members of the in-group (the young) will eventually join the out-group (the old). Although ageism is found cross-culturally, it is especially prevalent in the United States, where most people regard growing older with depression, fear, and anxiety. Older people in the United States are stigmatized and marginalized, with often devastating consequences.
Although researchers have paid a great deal of attention to racism and sexism, there has been a dearth of research on ageism. A major reason for this neglect is that age prejudice is still considered socially acceptable. As baby boomers approach retirement age, however, there has been increased academic and popular interest in aging. This volume presents the current thinking on age stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination by researchers in gerontology, psychology, sociology, and communication. The book presents theoretical and empirical findings on the origins and effects of ageism, as well as suggestions on how to reduce ageism for the approaching "graying of America."
Bradford Books imprint
Resulting from the assumption that older adulthood is a time of decline, there is a dearth of research on the application of wellness counseling with older adults. This article reviews the literature on wellness and older adults, synthesizes wellness with adult development theory, and describes wellness counseling with older adults.
Resilience has been described as a paradigm for aging that is more inclusive than models that focus on physiological and functional abilities. We evaluated a novel program, Resilient Aging, designed to influence marginalized older adults’ perceptions of their resilience, self-efficacy, and wellness. The multi-week group program incorporated an inductive definition of resilience based on group members’ lived experiences. Outcomes evaluation for this pilot study included pre/post-assessments on resilience, self-efficacy, and six wellness variables. Twenty-nine participants completed the program. Pre/post-assessment indicated a statistically significant multivariate change across the eight outcome variables, including increases in resilience, physical wellness, and emotional wellness, and decreases in social wellness and intellectual wellness accounted for most of the multivariate change. Resilient Aging is a participant-centered and strengths-based program that has potential for enhancing participants’ perceptions of resilience and wellness. The program can be administered within community settings to promote resilience and wellness among marginalized older adults.
Medicare reimbursement for counselors would expand older adults' access to mental health services and increase counselors' professional opportunities. To enhance advocacy efforts, the author reviews Medicare's current role in meeting older adults' mental health needs, examines the program's unique political development, and identifies contemporary values that may influence Medicare's future. Implications for counselor advocacy efforts are discussed. © 2016 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
This article discusses how research on ageism has gained more attention, especially as the baby boomers have started retiring, shepherding in an era that some call “the graying of America.” As the population of the country aged 65 and over is projected to double by 2030, it is especially important to study and help reduce age prejudice, so that the lives of older people can be improved. The papers presented in this issue represent some of the best empirical and theoretical work on the influence of ageism on the workplace environment and on healthcare for the older adult. These papers are summarized, and their recommendations for change in policy, law, and education are further highlighted.
The specialty of gerontological counseling has a 20-year history that began with a dearth of information and has progressed to the development of preparation standards and a national certification, both based on a nationally endorsed statement of competencies for gerontological counselors. The question of whether generalization or a specialization will best serve the needs of older persons continues to be central to the development of this specialization. B lake and Kaplan (1975, p. 156) issued a challenge to the counseling profession that began with the statement that "Older people are the forgotten and ignored of APGA" (the American Personnel Guidance Association; now the American Coun-seling Association, ACA). This article describes two decades of re-sponse to that challenge, including five national projects on aging, interest groups in each ACA division, a new division with the adult years as a focus, new graduate courses, a statement of competencies, professional preparation standards, specialty accreditation, and a na-tional certification in gerontological counseling. These developments have led to the emergence of gerontological counseling as a recog-nized specialty within the counseling profession. This article provides an overview of the historical development of gerontological counsel-ing and the current status of this specialty.
The author discusses issues confronted by aging women, particularly those related to ageism and body image, emphasizing society's role in influencing women's perceptions of their bodies. Although body image issues cause anxiety throughout most women's lives, women entering middle age become more conscious of this concern. Problems related to a woman's realization that she no longer conforms to society's standards of youth and beauty include low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety.
The purpose of this study was to understand the relationship among counselors’ self-reported multicultural counseling competence and their attitudes of the geriatric population. A statistically significant negative correlation was found between participants’ attitudes of the geriatric population and their self-reported multicultural counseling competence. Implications for training and practice are provided.
This article explores the evolution of the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs’ (CACREP's) accreditation of program area specialties and how CACREP's decision to accredit specialties as separate programs has affected the counseling profession's ability to view itself as a single profession. The article links the development of CACREP and its accreditation structure to other historical and political events occurring within the profession and includes documentation of CACREP's efforts to self‐correct through policy development that emphasizes counseling first and specialties second.
Older persons constitute an increasingly large population with significant mental health challenges. The authors review outcome research for both diagnosable conditions and late‐life transitions as a basis for evidence‐based practice with this population. Implications for clinical practice in professional counseling, counselor education and supervision, and research are considered.
At the beginning of the 21st century, the new mantra—“successful” and “resourceful” aging—is used interchangeably and intoned often unreflectively by a society eager to find ways to reduce aged-related losses. Yet despite numerous empirical studies and public health promotion strategies directed at ways of aging well, negative images of aging have an enduring vitality. This article examine sageism in a range of political, social, and cultural manifestos that have a productive role in encoding tacit assumptions and stereotypes about older people’s lives. Particular attention is given to the pervasive use of the concept of “dependency,” a stereotypic and productive ageist mechanism that continues to infiltrate what are arguably more inclusive strategies directed toward a global model of aging well. The authors explore some potential strategies to combat stereotypes and warn that aging well initiatives based on individualism and “self-responsibility” risk reproducing existing power relations that continue to inform ageist stereotypes.
Along with race and gender, people commonly use age to categorize—and form stereotypes about—others. Of the three categories, age is the only one in which the members of the in-group (the young) will eventually join the out-group (the old). Although ageism is found cross-culturally, it is especially prevalent in the United States, where most people regard growing older with depression, fear, and anxiety. Older people in the United States are stigmatized and marginalized, with often devastating consequences.
Although researchers have paid a great deal of attention to racism and sexism, there has been a dearth of research on ageism. A major reason for this neglect is that age prejudice is still considered socially acceptable. As baby boomers approach retirement age, however, there has been increased academic and popular interest in aging. This volume presents the current thinking on age stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination by researchers in gerontology, psychology, sociology, and communication. The book presents theoretical and empirical findings on the origins and effects of ageism, as well as suggestions on how to reduce ageism for the approaching "graying of America."
Bradford Books imprint
The authors stress the importance of counseling the elderly and indicate the lack of attention to this field. They make a series of suggestions to establish courses and practicums concerning gerontology. (SE)
Findings of a survey of 304 colleges and universities indicate a felt need by counselor educators for more courses on counseling of the elderly. Although not 1 required course on elderly counseling was reported, almost 3/4 of responding educators favored their inclusion in the curriculum. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Although there is growing evidence that psychological factors affect an individual's susceptibility to respiratory illnesses, psychological predictors of respiratory mortality have received little attention. This study investigated whether an age-specific psychological factor, older individuals' beliefs about their own aging, predicted the likelihood of their dying from respiratory causes (ICD-9: 460-519). The sample was composed of 620 individuals, aged 50-87 years at baseline, who participated in a longitudinal study with six waves. Our research found that individuals with higher baseline positive self-perceptions of aging were significantly less likely to die of respiratory causes over the next 23 years, after controlling for age, functional health, gender, loneliness, marital status, self-rated health, and socioeconomic status (hazard ratio = 0.695; p < 0.005). This is the first study to link individual beliefs about aging to cause-specific mortality. Future research is warranted to further elucidate the relationship between self-perceptions of aging and resistance to respiratory mortality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated age, gender, and health bias by psychologists, social workers, and clinical counselors in diagnosing and treating older clients. 94 professionals (aged 28–75 yrs) comprising 32 licensed professional clinical counselors, 31 social workers, and 30 psychologists completed the Age Bias Questionnaire. Results show that Ss judged older clients significantly less competent and less likely to improve than younger clients. They also judged female clients less competent than male clients, regardless of age. This pattern was consistent across all 3 professions. Length of time in practice had an inverse relationship to judgment of competency. No evidence of health bias was found. Findings suggest the importance of continuing research and professional training in age and gender bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to examine age, gender, training and experience in aging issues, fear of death, and multicultural competence in predicting counseling psychologists’ global attitudes toward older adults and specific clinical judgments concerning a case vignette of an older client. A national sample of 364 practicing counseling psychologists participated in the study. Participants completed a demographic measure, Polizzi's refined version of the Aging Semantic Differential (Polizzi, 200333.
Polizzi , KG . 2003. Assessing attitudes toward the elderly: Polizzi's refined version of the Aging Semantic Differential. Educational Gerontology, 29: 197–216. doi:10.1080/713844306 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references), a survey of professional bias based on a clinical vignette of a 70-year-old woman (James & Haley, 1995), the Collett–Lester Fear of Death Scale 3.0 (Lester, & Abdel-Khalek, 2003), the Multicultural Counseling Knowledge and Awareness Scale (MCKAS; Ponterotto, Gretchen, Utsey, Rieger, & Austin, 2002), and a Training and Experience Questionnaire. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to investigate the extent to which the selected variables predicted more favorable attitudes toward older adults and less professional bias toward an older client beyond prediction by age and gender. Results revealed that older age and higher total scores on the MCKAS predicted less professional bias in clinical judgments. Gender was a significant predictor of global attitudes toward older adults. Findings suggest that multicultural knowledge, awareness, and skills are important in working with older adults.
This study examines whether greater television exposure predicts older individuals' more negative images of aging, and whether an intervention based on maintaining a television diary of viewing impressions will increase their awareness of the stereotypical and infrequent manner in which elders are presented. Seventy-six individuals, aged 60 to 92, participated. As expected, all participants showed a correspondence between greater television exposure and more negative images of aging. Also as expected, the intervention-group participants developed a greater awareness of how elders are presented on television. Further, the intervention-group participants expressed their intention to watch less television in the future. These findings suggest that the promotion of awareness provides a means of helping elders confront ageism.
For decades, researchers have discovered much about how humans automatically categorize others in social perception. Some categorizations—race, gender, and age—are so automatic that they are termed “primitive categories.” As we categorize, we often develop stereotypes about the categories. Researchers know much about racism and sexism, but comparatively little about prejudicing and stereotyping based on age. The articles in this issue highlight the current empirical and theoretical work by researchers in gerontology, psychology, communication, and related fields on understanding the origins and consequences of stereotyping and prejudicing against older adults. With the aging baby boomer demographic, it is especially timely for researchers to work to understand how society can shed its institutionalized ageism and promote respect for elders.
Americans stereotype elderly people as warm and incompetent, following from perceptions of them as noncompetitive and low status, respectively. This article extends existing research regarding stereotyping of older people in two ways. First, we discuss whether the mixed elderly stereotype is unique to American culture. Data from six non-U.S. countries, including three collectivist cultures, demonstrate elderly stereotypes are consistent across varied cultures. Second, we investigate the persistence of the evaluatively-mixed nature of the elderly stereotype. In an experiment, 55 college students rated less competent elderly targets (stereotype-consistent) as warmer than more competent (stereotype-inconsistent) and control elderly targets. We also discuss the type of discrimination—social exclusion—that elderly people often endure.
As a nation, we face a shortage of individuals to serve our aging population. Therefore, the recruitment of undergraduate students into gerontology programs is an important, although challenging task. The purpose of this study was to determine if students who do not choose to major in gerontology do so because they simply are unaware of the opportunities or because they are uninterested. College students who were not gerontology majors (N = 226) were surveyed to determine whether they were aware of a gerontology major at their university, whether they could define gerontology, and their reasons for not pursuing gerontology. Results suggest that a lack of awareness, rather than a lack of interest, may be responsible for the challenges of recruiting college students into the field of gerontology. This implies that the most efficient path to bolstering our gerontology workforce may be to make students aware of the diverse and rewarding career opportunities in the field of aging.
The present study used the golden section hypothesis, which predicts that people organize information in a ratio of 61.8% positive to 38.2% negative, to examine age-related identities. It was predicted that people would rate identities of the aging population in accordance with a reverse golden section hypothesis. That is, people would assign negative ratings 61.8% of the time and positive ratings 38.2% of the time.
A golden section survey was completed online by 148 participants. Along the top of the survey were 15 identities: child, elderly person, grandparent, middle-aged adult, nurse, musician, adolescent, senior citizen, business person, lawyer, secretary, mental patient, homeless person, retired person, and self. On the left side of the survey were 12 adjective pairs with well-established positive and negative poles: generous-stingy, pleasant-unpleasant, true-false, fair-unfair, active-passive, energetic-lethargic, sharp-dull, excitable-calm, strong-weak, bold-timid, hard-soft, and rugged-delicate.
Elderly person and senior citizen were rated in a manner consistent with the reverse golden section hypothesis. In keeping with previous findings, the self was rated positively precisely 71% of the time. Combined ratings of the remaining identities were consistent with the traditional golden section hypothesis. A prior finding that mental patient and homeless person would produce a reverse golden section pattern was not replicated.
Certain elderly identities evoke a reverse golden section rating pattern. This suggests that such identities have stigma associated with them. Because American society has coupled aging to stigma, people have come to associate negative connotations with certain age-related terms.
Recent trends in counselor education are moving away from a standardized academic track in gerocounseling. In response to this, we surveyed 385 counseling students regarding issues related to gerocounseling, such as their interest in gerocounseling topics, willingness to participate in gerocounseling training, how prepared they feel to work with older adults, and if they would engage in specialized training. Results showed counseling students have a substantial interest in gerocounseling, and many are willing to seek specialized training. Strategies are provided for counselor education faculty who wish to develop a gerocounseling specialization within their program.
Medicare and mental health
- Inc Center For Medicare Advocacy
Center for Medicare Advocacy, Inc. (2013). Medicare and mental health. Retrieved from http://www.medicareadvoca
cy.org/medicare-and-mental-health/
Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging
- B Levy
Levy, B. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging. Current Directions in Psychological
Science, 18, 332-336. doi:10.1111/j.14678721.2009.01662.x
Counseling for wellness: Theory, research, and practice
- J E Myers
- T J Sweeney
Myers, J. E., & Sweeney, T. J. (2005). Counseling for wellness: Theory, research, and practice. Alexandria, VA:
American Counseling Association.