Article

Bioresin infused then cured mycelium-based sandwich-structure biocomposites: Resin transfer molding (RTM) process, flexural properties, and simulation

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Abstract

A new approach to manufacture biocomposite sandwich structure is introduced with all materials naturally derived, including jute, flax and cellulose textile as reinforcement skin; mycelium-bound agricultural waste as lightweight cores; and a soy-based bioresin as a matrix. This new material could be used to replace many of the plastic products that are widely used today and therefore preventing the production of waste, while increasing efficiencies in the use of nonrenewable resources. This paper focuses on the final step of the seven-step manufacturing process: resin infusion followed by curing in place for the grown then deactivated mycelium sandwich beams. Specific process details that are highlighted include designing and building the preliminary transparent resin transfer molding for resin flow behavior study, design and fabrication of the aluminum permanent mold prototype, three-point bending flexural tests of the resin infused then cured sandwich beams to determine their strengths, and finally, finite element simulation using Abaqus software to simulate the three-point bending process. To obtain the skin reinforcements’ Young’s and shear moduli, tensile and V-groove shear tests were performed based on corresponding ASTM standards. It is concluded that although the skin material is the one that carries most of the loads, the strength of the sandwich structure appears to largely depend on the degree of fungal colonization within the core and bonding between the skin and core. The cured resin increased the beams’ core shear ultimate stress, core shear yield stress, skin ultimate stress and flexural strengths of the sandwich beams by factors of 1.5 ~ 6.5, and the finite element simulation results agreed with the actual situations, which well explained the beams’ most common failure mode in flexural bending.

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... Textile applications are also attracting attention with significant advances being made in the development of very flexible mycelium-based polymer-like materials, with these materials currently sold via third party designers as finished products rather than as raw materials [45] (Fig. 3c). Impregnation of mycelium composites with a soy-based resin followed by curing can further extend their use to semi-structural applications, such as panelling, flooring, cabinetry and other furnishings, however the physical and mechanical properties of these materials are also not known [44,46] (Fig. 3d). ...
... The mycelium constituent of mycelium composites is often blamed for their limited mechanical performance [20,46]. However, recent studies investigating chitin-glucan extracts derived from mycelium have found the mycelium binder to be quite strong (tensile strengths up to 25 MPa [66] and for that of fruiting body extract up to 200 MPa [67]), suggesting that insufficient fungal growth density limiting mycelium binder quantity and mycelium binder to substrate filler interface are more likely to be responsible for limited mechanical performance. ...
... Mycelium composites are being increasingly used as low-density cores bonded between two thin laminate facings called skins in sandwich structures [23,46,98]. Skins can be any sheet material, from metals such as aluminium [98], to natural materials such as woven jute, flax or cellulose [23]. ...
Article
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Mycelium composites are an emerging class of cheap and environmentally sustainable materials experiencing increasing research interest and commercialisation in Europe and the United States for construction applications. These materials utilise natural fungal growth as a low energy bio-fabrication method to upcycle abundant agricultural by-products and wastes into more sustainable alternatives to energy intensive synthetic construction materials. Mycelium composites have customisable material properties based on their composition and manufacturing process and can replace foams, timber and plastics for applications, such as insulation, door cores, panelling, flooring, cabinetry and other furnishings. Due to their low thermal conductivity, high acoustic absorption and fire safety properties outperforming traditional construction materials, such as synthetic foams and engineered woods, they show particular promise as thermal and acoustic insulation foams. However, limitations stemming from their typically foam-like mechanical properties, high water absorption and many gaps in material property documentation necessitate the use of mycelium composites as non- or semi-structural supplements to traditional construction materials for specific, suitable applications, including insulation, panelling and furnishings. Nonetheless, useful material properties in addition to the low costs, simplicity of manufacture and environmental sustainability of these materials suggest that they will play a significant role in the future of green construction.
... [10] Among these materials, natural fiber-reinforced polymers are gaining popularity as a potential replacement for glass fiberreinforced polymer composites due to their numerous advantages such as low cost, biodegradability, low carbon footprint, acceptable mechanical properties, and society's emphasis on environmental issues and sustainability. [11][12][13][14][15][16][17] Biocomposite materials that combine natural fiber and biopolymers, which lead to fully biodegradable final products, are attracting much interest from many researchers. ...
... lignin (12-13%), and pectin (0.2%), these fibers are the most promising reinforcement materials extracted from the ribbon of the plant stem, [12] and has been used in many prior biocomposite materials manufacturing studies to reinforce other types of matrix. [13][14][15][16][17][18] In this paper, the prepreg sheet feedstocks for a custom-designed LOM 3D printing process were made using woven fabrics made from degummed jute fibers reinforcing both synthetic and bio-thermoplastic polymers. Mechanical properties of LOM 3D-printed biocomposite structures were measured, compared, and then analyzed. ...
Article
The mechanical properties of woven natural fiber reinforced polymers additively manufactured through Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) technology are investigated in this paper. The benefits of both the material and manufacturing process were combined into a sustainable practice, as a potential alternative to traditional synthetic composite materials made from nonrenewable crude oil with limited end-of-life alternatives. Woven jute fiber reinforcements are used to strengthen both synthetic and bio- thermoplastic polymers in creating highly biodegradable composite structures. Such materials, as one of the prospective alternatives for synthetic composites, can be used in many engineering fields such as automobile panels, construction materials, and commodity and recreational products including sports and musical instruments. A LOM 3D printer prototype was designed and built by the authors. All woven jute/polymer biocomposite test specimens made using the built prototype in this study had their mechanical (both tensile and flexural) properties assessed using ASTM test standards and then compared to similar values measured from pure polymer specimens. Improved mechanical characteristics were identified and analyzed. Finally, SEM imaging was performed to identify the polymer infusion and fiber-matrix bonding conditions.
... Various su strates are compared in scientific analyses or combined as mixtures in different propo tions. Combinations of various substrates in scientific experiments, described in 85 scie tific publications [21,[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][40][41][42]45,46,[49][50][51][52][53][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68]70,[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]111,112], are p sented in Figure 8. The size of the circle shows the popularity of the substrate and the lin indicate the most frequently used comparisons of substrates in scientific publications. ...
... The addition of glucose to the lignocellulose material results in the lesser degradation of holocellulose at the preliminary stage of degradation caused by fungi. Figure 9 illustrates lignocellulose substrates linked with various fungus species in original articles related to Mycelium-based Composites [21,[23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][40][41][42]45,46,[49][50][51][52][53][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68]70,[72][73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]111,112]. As with Figures 7 and 8, the size of the circle shows the popularity of the mushroom species or substrate, and the lines indicate the most common combinations of fungal species and substrates in scientific publications. ...
Article
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Mycelium-Based Composites (MBCs) are innovative engineering materials made from lignocellulosic by-products bonded with fungal mycelium. While some performance characteristics of MBCs are inferior to those of currently used engineering materials, these composites nevertheless prove to be superior in ecological aspects. Improving the properties of MBCs may be achieved using an adequate substrate type, fungus species, and manufacturing technology. This article presents scientifically verified guiding principles for choosing a fungus species to obtain the desired effect. This aim was realized based on analyses of scientific articles concerning MBCs, mycological literature, and patent documents. Based on these analyses, over 70 fungi species used to manufacture MBC have been identified and the most commonly used combinations of fungi species-substrate-manufacturing technology are presented. The main result of this review was to demonstrate the characteristics of the fungi considered optimal in terms of the resulting engineering material properties. Thus, a list of the 11 main fungus characteristics that increase the effectiveness in the engineering material formation include: rapid hyphae growth, high virulence, dimitic or trimitic hyphal system, white rot decay type, high versatility in nutrition, high tolerance to a substrate, environmental parameters, susceptibility to readily controlled factors, easy to deactivate, saprophytic, non-mycotoxic, and capability to biosynthesize natural active substances. An additional analysis result is a list of the names of fungus species, the types of substrates used, the applications of the material produced, and the main findings reported in the scientific literature.
... For example, Islam et al. (2018) developed a computational model that can predict the behavior of mycelium-based materials in parametric regimes that are not easily accessible by experimenting. There are also studies to predict the behavior of mycelium in hybrid use as a core for sandwich structures (Jiang et al. 2019;Wong et al. 2019). Jiang et al. (2019) also created a cost model for sandwich structures built with MBC to calculate the equivalent annual cost of composite manufacturing. ...
... There are also studies to predict the behavior of mycelium in hybrid use as a core for sandwich structures (Jiang et al. 2019;Wong et al. 2019). Jiang et al. (2019) also created a cost model for sandwich structures built with MBC to calculate the equivalent annual cost of composite manufacturing. ...
Chapter
Scholars and industries are studying the use of fungi-based materials as sustainable alternatives for materials in the several industries. Fungi are the decomposers of nature. They secrete enzymes through their vegetative root that is called mycelium and break down biopolymers of organic matter to simpler structures of carbon-based nutrients. Mycelium-based composites (MBC) are the most widely used form of fungi-based materials. These are foam-like, light-weight, and biodegradable composite materials. Since MBC do not depend on fossil fuels during production, are renewable, and create no waste throughout their life cycle, their use in architectural applications are being increasingly explored. In this chapter, we review the ongoing efforts to explore and enhance material properties of MBC to render them more suitable for the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. In the AEC industry, MBC are currently used as insulation panels, load-bearing masonry components, and cores for sandwich structures. In this chapter, we review the methods used to enhance the material properties of MBC. Since material properties of MBC depend on various cultivation and post-processing factors, the effect of the growth factors on the final material outcome are reviewed from scholarly papers written and published from 2012 to 2021 related to MBCs and their use in design, architecture, and construction industry.
... Other researchers have also employed flax fiber to make green composites for sandwich structures [8,9]. ...
Article
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Within the range of composite laminates for structural applications, sandwich laminates are a special category intended for applications characterized by high flexural stresses. As it is well known from the technical literature, structural sandwich laminates have a simple configuration consisting of two skins of very strong material, to which the flexural strength is delegated, between which an inner layer (core) of light material with sufficient shear strength is interposed. As an example, a sandwich configuration widely used in civil, naval, and mechanical engineering is that obtained with fiberglass skins and a core of various materials, such as polyurethane foam or another lightweight material, depending on the application. Increasingly stringent regulations aimed at protecting the environment by reducing harmful emissions of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide have directed recent research towards the development of new composites and new sandwiches characterized by low environmental impact. Among the various green composite solutions proposed in the literature, a very promising category is that of high-performance biocomposites, which use bio-based matrices reinforced by fiber reinforcements. This approach can also be used to develop green sandwiches for structural applications, consisting of biocomposite skins and cores made by low-environmental impact or renewable materials. In order to make a contribution to this field, a structural sandwich consisting of high-performance sisal–epoxy biocomposite skins and an innovative renewable core made of balsa wood laminates with appropriate lay-ups has been developed and then properly characterized in this work. Through a systematic theoretical–experimental analysis of three distinct core configurations, the unidirectional natural core, the cross-ply type, and the angle-ply type, it has been shown how the use of natural balsa gives rise to inefficient sandwiches, whereas performance optimization is fully achieved by considering the angle-ply core type [±45/90]. Finally, the subsequent comparison with literature data of similar sandwiches has shown how the optimal configuration proposed can be advantageously used to replace synthetic glass–resin sandwiches widely used in various industrial sectors (mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, etc.) and in civil engineering.
... Traditional manufacturing methods, such as manual lay-up and vacuum bagging, tend to have lower initial capital investment but higher labour costs [45,55]. In contrast, automated processes like resin transfer moulding and pultrusion, while requiring significant upfront investment in machinery and tooling, offer reduced labour costs and improved production efficiency in the long run [63,64]. Recent innovations in additive manufacturing and robotic assembly enhance cost-effectiveness by minimizing material waste and optimizing production times. ...
Article
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Wood sandwich panels are widely utilized in residential, commercial, and industrial settings due to their excellent thermal insulation characteristics, ease of installation, and high strength-to-weight ratio. This review provides an overview on experimental outcomes demonstrating the structural integrity and versatility of wood sandwich panels. It highlights recent advancements in meeting payload requirements and their effectiveness in reducing costs and weights for prefabricated houses. The review focuses on structural applications and material efficiency, showcasing their roles in lightweight, durable constructions for retrofitting and new projects. The potential of novel, sustainable materials in construction is explored, addressing current challenges and emphasizing the diverse applications and environmental benefits of wood-based sandwich panels, underscoring their importance in advancing energy-efficient and sustainable construction.
... In comparison, sisal composites have higher tensile and flexural moduli than jute composites. Jiang et al. [20,21] developed a new seven-step manufacturing process for making woven natural fiber-reinforced lightweight cores made using agricultural waste bounded by mycelium and soy-based bioresin as a matrix. The woven natural fiber skin material is the one that carries most of the loads, while the cured resin increased the sandwich structure's shear ultimate stress, core shear yield stress, skin ultimate stress, and flexural strengths of the sandwich beams by factors of 1.5 to 6.5. ...
Article
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The mechanical properties of woven jute fiber-reinforced PLA polymer laminates additively manufactured through Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) technology are simulated using the finite element method in this work. Woven jute fiber reinforcements are used to strengthen bio-thermoplastic PLA polymers in creating highly biodegradable composite structures that can serve as one of the environmentally friendly alternatives for synthetic composites. A LOM 3D printer prototype was designed and built by the authors. All woven jute/PLA biocomposite laminated specimens made using the built prototype in this study had their tensile and flexural properties measured using ASTM test standards. These laminated structures were modeled using the ANSYS Mechanical Composite PrepPost (ACP) module, and then both testing processes were simulated using the experimentally measured input values. The FEA simulation results indicated a close match with experimental results, with a maximum difference of 9.18%. This study served as an exemplary case study using the FEA method to predict the mechanical behaviors of biocomposite laminate materials made through a novel manufacturing process.
... They observed a significant improvement in tensile/flexural composite strengths, with tensile strengths increasing by a factor of 3 (0.24 MPa), and flexural strengths increasing by a factor of 2 (0.87 MPa). Jiang et al. (Jiang et al., 2017) (Jiang et al., 2019), fabricated a structural sandwich panel using mycelium composites. They also reported a significant improvement in their flexural strengths. ...
Article
This study investigates the compressive deformation and the effect of structural architecture on the compressive strength of bioprocessed mycelium biocomposites reinforced with laterite particles. In the mycelium blocks, lignocellulosic hemp hurds function as reinforcing and nutritional substrates. The mycelium acts as a supportive matrix, binding the hemp hurds and the laterite particles which are integrated for further reinforcement to improve the compressive strength of the composite. The compressive behavior of the composites is elucidated using a combined approach of experimental and theoretical studies. The deformation mechanisms are investigated via in-situ observations of the specimens under uniaxial compressive loading. The experiments show that the compressive deformation results in progressive micro-buckling in slender specimens, whereas thicker samples exhibit a soft elastic response at small strain levels followed by continuous stiffening at larger strains. Based on the experimental observations and the morphological characterization, a column buckling analysis was developed for the mycelium-hemp composites to further explain the observed deformation phenomena.
... Inclusion of chopped fibers in the foam cores enhanced the energy absorption by 161%, relative to unfilled sandwich composites. Moreover, resin transfer molding was found effective to perfectly bind the sandwich composite panels and enhance the interfacial properties [83]. ...
Article
This cutting-edge review highlights the fundamentals, design, and manufacturing strategies used for sandwich composites. Sandwich composite structures have the advantages of light weight, high strength, impact resistance, stability, and other superior features for advanced applications. In this regard, different core materials have been used in the sandwich composite structures, such as cellular polymer foam, metallic foam, honeycomb, balsa, tubular, and other core geometries. Among these, honeycomb sandwich composite materials have been effectively applied in space engineering, marine engineering, and construction applications. The foremost manufacturing techniques used for sandwiched composite structures include hand lay-up, press method, prepreg method, vacuum bagging/autoclave, vacuum assisted resin infusion, resin transfer molding, compression molding, pultrusion, three-dimensional (3D) printing, four-dimensional (4D) printing, etc. In advanced composite manufacturing, autoclave processes have been the method of choice for the aerospace industry due to less delamination between plies and easy control of thickness dimensions. Moreover, machining processes used for sandwich composites are discussed in this article. In addition to aerospace, the high-performance significance of sandwiched composite structures is covered mainly in relation to automobile engineering and energy absorption applications. The structure-, fabrication-, and application-related challenges and probable future research directions are also discussed in this article.
... Inclusion of chopped fibers in the foam cores enhanced the energy absorption by 161%, relative to unfilled sandwich composites. Moreover, resin transfer molding was found effective to perfectly bind the sandwich composite panels and enhance the interfacial properties [83]. ...
Article
Full-text available
This cutting-edge review highlights the fundamentals, design, and manufacturing strategies used for sandwich composites. Sandwich composite structures have the advantages of light weight, high strength, impact resistance, stability, and other superior features for advanced applications. In this regard, different core materials have been used in the sandwich composite structures, such as cellular polymer foam, metallic foam, honeycomb, balsa, tubular, and other core geometries. Among these, honeycomb sandwich composite materials have been effectively applied in space engineering, marine engineering, and construction applications. The foremost manufacturing techniques used for sandwiched composite structures include hand lay-up, press method, prepreg method, vacuum bagging/autoclave, vacuum assisted resin infusion, resin transfer molding, compression molding, pultrusion, three-dimensional (3D) printing, four-dimensional (4D) printing, etc. In advanced composite manufacturing, autoclave processes have been the method of choice for the aerospace industry due to less delamination between plies and easy control of thickness dimensions. Moreover, machining processes used for sandwich composites are discussed in this article. In addition to aerospace, the high-performance significance of sandwiched composite structures is covered mainly in relation to automobile engineering and energy absorption applications. The structure-, fabrication-, and application-related challenges and probable future research directions are also discussed in this article.
... The materials used with this technique are flax, jute, and cellulose textiles with polymer systems of epoxy and soy-based bioresin systems. Thus, RTM has proven to be an essential and widely used technique for natural composites to produce high-quality laminates (Campilho, 2015;Jiang et al., 2019). Various factors affect the RTM process, such as resin injection time, the permeability of the fiber mats owing to high fiber content, controlling the mold temperature, and cure kinetics of the resin. ...
Chapter
Bio-based fillers (e.g., poplar, switchgrass) have been used to reinforce polymers because of their low cost and sustainable nature. Bio-based polymers are typically produced from natural or renewable resources such as crops and herbaceous fibers. Biocomposites are commonly used in packaging, automotive, and construction applications. The filler types, filler characteristics, polymer types, and polymer characteristics are discussed and compared in this chapter. The biocomposite fabrication, performance (e.g., mechanical and thermal properties), and applications were investigated. At their end of life, biocomposites can be recycled and upcycled through various technologies, including mechanical, thermal, and chemical methods. Compared with carbon fiber–based composites, biocomposites are a cost-effective and sustainable alternative in many applications with low to moderate strength requirements.
... The foam-like chemical and physical characteristics of mycelial-based composites are appropriate for their use in non-structural construction, such as the door cores and insulation panels (MycoComposite™-Ecovative Design n.d.). The soaked mycelium composite in the soy-derived resin can be used for semi-structural construction applications like flooring, paneling, closets, and other decorative purposes (Jiang et al. 2019). The low density and thermal conductivity of mycelium materials provide better insulation features. ...
Chapter
The utilization of biological systems has been receiving considerable attention in the past couple of decades in the development of bio-based functional materials. This has been largely inspired by the use of green, biodegradable, and environmentally sustainable materials for the development of new functional biomaterials. The utilization of renewable resources for the production of materials introduces fast-growing and biodegradable fungal mycelium-derived materials for various applications. Mycelium secretes enzymes and decomposes the substrate to take nutrients for growth and make an interwoven three-dimensional network. The elastic, porous, stiff, and dense mycelia are rich in antioxidants, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory compounds. The properties of mycelium-derived materials are greatly dependent upon the feeding substrate, fungus type, and processing conditions. Both pure mycelial materials and their composites secure an important position in the race of utilization of renewable resources for material synthesis. This chapter summarizes the utilization of mycelium-based materials for numerous applications like cosmetics, medicine, textile, construction, packaging, and the food industry. It also describes the potential of mycelial-derived materials as an alternative to the traditional insulators, packaging materials, and bovine leather. It further explains the importance of mycelium-based functional foods, cosmetics, and medicines.
... Both MycoWorks and Ecovative developed long-term experimental research collaborations with engineers to test the mechanical, thermal and biological properties of mycelium. Ross worked with Travaglini et al (2013Travaglini et al ( , 2014Travaglini et al ( , 2015Travaglini et al ( , 2016 while McIntyre collaborated with teams led by agricultural engineers Matthew Pelletier et al. (2013) and Alexander Zeigler et al. (2016), mechanical engineers Lai Jiang and Daniel Walczyk (Jiang et al., 2014a(Jiang et al., , 2014b(Jiang et al., , 2015(Jiang et al., , 2016(Jiang et al., , 2017a(Jiang et al., , 2017b(Jiang et al., , 2018 and Mohammed Islam et al. (2017). They found mycelium boards performed well enough on stability, strength and thermal insulation to compete with other comparable products on the market, which seemed to indicate that the products would be viable for use in the building industry. ...
Article
Full-text available
Architects, artists and engineers around the world have been experimenting with the potential of mycelium, the vegetative body of a fungus, as a future building material for the past 15 years. It shares many of the positive material attributes of polystyrene but unlike the synthetic material it is fully sustainable and completely biodegradable. Mycelium has also proved to be simple to grow at scale. Its capacity to rapidly grow its tangled hyphae in a multiplicity of directions, digesting nothing more than organic waste, has shown promise for the production of a variety of materials for the building industry. But despite this, mycelium has struggled to find a market within the building industry. Drawing on the literature, this article argues that the challenges have been psychological, aesthetic and economic, rather than technical. Western industrial systems have conditioned us to expect material cultures to be clean, precise and durable. Mycelium is messy and some fungi are known pathogens. Like any living creature it can be unpredictable. Further, while the materials for growing mycelium are cheap, initial production costs for mass production and distribution typical of industrial fabrication are high. The risk for investors in the absence of an assured market stymied early forays into production. But as the environmental crisis becomes more urgent, there is evidence of a growing interest in finding new avenues for production. Centralised large-scale production is only one way forward. Another, which learns from early failures, is mass production through a multiplicity of micro-scale, do-it-yourself systems.
... In recent years, mushroom mycelia have shown favorable characteristics for developing sustainable biomaterials. Such types of mycelia include mycelial biocomposites [3,4], mushroom leather [5], foams [6], and mycoboards [7]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Sustainable substitutes for leather can be made from mushroom mycelium, which is an environmentally friendly alternative to animal and synthetic leather. Mycelium-based leather is derived from Polyporales, in which lignocellulosic material is used as the substrate. The plasticizing and crosslinking of mycelial mats with various reagents might affect the leather properties and mycelial architecture. This study investigated the physicochemical and mechanical properties of mycelium-based leather (MBL) samples, including the hygroscopic nature, thermal stability, cell wall chemistry, density, micromorphology, tensile strength, elongation rate, and Young’s modulus. Micromorphological observations confirmed the mycelial networks and their binding performance, verifying their efficacy as a substitute leather. The most significant effects were observed after treatment with 20% polyethylene glycol, which resulted in an increase in Young’s modulus and tensile strength. Furthermore, the samples generally exhibited a high density (1.35, 1.46 g/cm3) and tensile strength (7.21 ± 0.93, 8.49 ± 0.90 MPa), resembling leather. The tear strength reached as low as 0.5–0.8 N/mm. However, the tensile and tear strength may be affected by leather processing and the tuning of mycelial growth. Nevertheless, high-density mycelia are shown to be suitable for the production of MBL, while mycofabrication and strain selection are sustainable for novel industrial applications of MBL.
... The physicochemical, mechanical and thermodynamic characteristics of the mycelium-based bio-composites allow them to be successfully used in the construction, architecture, and design, textile, packaging and other industries for non-structural (insulation and door cores), semi-structural (paneling, flooring, cabinetry, and furnishing), and specific applications [3,70,103,109,[112][113][114][115]. Foam-like mycelium bio-composites due to their thermodynamic properties and acoustic absorbance show great potential for thermal and acoustic insulation in construction industry, packaging, and infrastructure development [116]. ...
Article
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The agricultural waste with lignocellulose origin is considered to be one of the major environmental pollutants which, because of their high nutritional value, represent an extremely rich resource with significant potential for the production of value added bio-products. This review discusses the applications of higher fungi to upcycle abundant agricultural by-products into more sustainable materials and to promote the transition to a circular economy. It focuses on the main factors influencing the properties and application of mycelium composites – the feedstock, the basidiomycete species and their interaction with the feedstock. During controlled solid state cultivation on various lignocellulose substrates, the basidiomycetes of class Agaricomycetes colonize their surfaces and form a three-dimensional mycelium net. Fungal mycelium secretes enzymes that break down lignocellulose over time and are partially replaced by mycelium. The mycelium adheres to the residual undegraded substrates resulting in the formation of a high-mechanical-strength bio-material called a mycelium based bio-composite. The mycelium based bio-composites are completely natural, biodegradable and can be composted after their cycle of use is completed. The physicochemical, mechanical, and thermodynamic characteristics of mycelium based bio-composites are competitive with those of synthetic polymers and allow them to be successfully used in the construction, architecture, and other industries.
... In addition, the biocomposite can reach high mechanical strength and density reduction, depending on the type of cultivation substrate, fungal isolate, growth, and processing conditions, being these properties associated with thermoplastics, expanded polystyrene (EPS) or acoustic absorption panels [15,16]. The use of the biocomposite may include films or sheets [11], packaging, thermal insulation, fire resistant materials [7,12,15,16,31,32], semi-structured materials such as panels, decking floors and acoustic tiles [3,9,10,13], [33] and sandwich structures [4][5][6]34] materials for artists and designers to make furniture and decorative objects [10,[35][36][37]. ...
Article
The manufacture of mycelial matrix biocomposite and vegetable reinforcement involves control of the substrate proportion, choice of isolate and drying conditions. The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of different drying heat treatments on the mechanical, physical, chemical and thermal responses of the biocomposite composed by the fungal isolate Pycnoporus sanguineus associated with coconut powder and wheat bran. The mycelium grew randomly on the substrate, degraded it and acted as a binder between the particles. In addition, a dense and compact mycelial network was formed on the surface. The time and temperature significantly affected physical, mechanical properties and microstructure of the biocomposite. Overall, a lightweight biocomposite was obtained with a compressive strength between 134-200 kPa.
... Liquid compound molding [5] (LCM) is used to make components made of FCRP [7]. One of the LCM techniques is called Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer (VARTM). ...
Chapter
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In this study, the influence of the use of synthetic and natural fiber in the characterization of permeability in composite materials was analyzed. The Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Process (VARTM) was applied to glass fiber samples Chopped Strand Mat and Fourcroia mercadilla, known as “cabuya”, to observe the advance of the epoxy resin flow front IN2. Additionally, a sandwich-type hybrid reinforcement with the aforementioned fibers was used and its incidence on the permeability of the compound was measured. The cabuya fiber achieves a reduction of 4. 38% at infusion time compared to fiberglass. In addition, the use of cabuya natural fiber within the compound decreases the infusion time in 7.40% with respect to the 12.14% presented by fiberglass. To determine the permeability of the different fibers, the experimental procedure was used through Darcy’s Law. The calculated permeability was; 7.3628 × 10⁻¹¹ m², 8.5765 × 10⁻¹¹ m², 1.0065 × 10⁻¹⁰ m² for fiberglass, woven cabuya and hybrid material respectively.
... The mechanical characteristics of the sandwich structure depend on the matrix and fiber reinforcement material used for its manufacturing, and especially on the core structural topology. The wide diversity in terms of structural design used as core material in the sandwich composite gave birth to different manufacturing techniques [1,2]. Recently, the additive manufacturing (3D printing) process is considered as one of the most advanced manufacturing techniques. ...
Article
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Meta-sandwich composites with three-dimensional (3D) printed architecture structure are characterized by their high ability to absorb energy. In this paper, static and fatigue 3-point bending tests are implemented on a 3D printed sandwich composites with a re-entrant honeycomb core. The skins, core and whole sandwich are manufactured using the same bio-based material which is polylactic acid with flax fiber reinforcement. Experimental tests are performed in order to evaluate the durability and the ability of this material to dissipate energy. First, static tests are conducted to study the bending behaviour of the sandwich beams, as well as to determine the failure parameters and the characteristic used in fatigue tests. Then, fatigue analyses were carried out to determine the fatigue resistance of these structures. The effects of the core density on the stiffness, hysteresis loop, energy absorption and loss factor, for two loading level, are determined. Moreover, the behaviour of this sandwich composite with re-entrant honeycomb core is compared with that of sandwiches with different core topologies. The results show that sandwich with high core density dissipate more energy, which results higher loss factors. The determined properties offer the most sensitive indicators of sandwich composite damage during its lifetime. This work aims to determine the static and fatigue properties of this material, thus, study its potential applications in industry.
... The most common finishing method used is oven-drying, resulting in a foam-like composite (for example, Holt et al., 2012). Other processing methods include heat-pressing at the end of the incubation stage (Appels et al., 2018a;Pelletier et al., 2017) and a pre-shaped laminated woven-textile skin with a mycelium-based foam core (Jiang et al., 2018). Notably, as depicted in Table A, all the featured papers of Jiang et al. presented in this review relate to various stages of a single study, thus shifting the fraction of laminate and foam core processing in relation to other categories in Fig. 3. Furthermore, as indicated in Section 2.3, additional fabrication possibilities are constantly presented through company websites and other media platforms, introducing new material possibilities that are currently not featured in the literature. ...
Article
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Healthy material alternatives based on renewable resources and sustainable technologies have the potential to disrupt the environmentally damaging production and consumption practices established throughout the modern industrial era. In this study, a mycelium–nanocellulose biocomposite with hybrid properties is produced by the agitated liquid culture of a white‐rot fungus (Trametes ochracea) with nanocellulose (NC) comprised as part of the culture media. Mycelial development proceeds via the formation of pellets, where NC is enriched in the pellets and depleted from the surrounding liquid media. Micrometer‐scale NC elements become engulfed in mycelium, whereas it is hypothesized that the nanometer‐scale fraction becomes integrated within the hyphal cell wall, such that all NC in the system is essentially surface‐modified by mycelium. The NC confers mechanical strength to films processed from the biocomposite, whereas the mycelium screens typical cellulose–water interactions, giving fibrous slurries that dewater faster and films that exhibit significantly improved wet resistance in comparison to pure NC films. The mycelium–nanocellulose biocomposites are processable in the ways familiar to papermaking and are suggested for diverse applications, including packaging, filtration, and hygiene products.
... Techniques used to deal with continuous biofibers include machine press, filament winding, pultrusion, compression molding, resin transfer molding (RTM), or sheet molding compounds (all of which either involve many manual operations or deal with a single or a few fiber strands, leading to excessive lead time). For instance, Misri et al. [20] measured split-disk properties of kenaf yarn fiber-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites using filament winding method; Jiang et al. [21][22][23] reported utilizing jute, flax, and cellulose textiles as part facial reinforcements in the manufacturing of fungal mycelium-based sandwich biocomposites with vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM). Techniques used to address discontinuous biofibers include both extrusion and injection molding. ...
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Purpose This paper aims to summarize the up-to-date research performed on combinations of various biofibers and resin systems used in different three-dimensional (3D) printing technologies, including powder-based, material extrusion, solid-sheet and liquid-based systems. Detailed information about each process, including materials used and process design, are described, with the resultant products’ mechanical properties compared with those of 3D-printed parts produced from pure resin or different material combinations. In most processes introduced in this paper, biofibers are beneficial in improving the mechanical properties of 3D-printed parts and the biodegradability of the parts made using these green materials is also greatly improved. However, research on 3D printing of biofiber-reinforced composites is still far from complete, and there are still many further studies and research areas that could be explored in the future. Design/methodology/approach The paper starts with an overview of the current scenario of the composite manufacturing industry and then the problems of advanced composite materials are pointed out, followed by an introduction of biocomposites. The main body of the paper covers literature reviews of recently emerged 3D printing technologies that were applied to biofiber-reinforced composite materials. This part is classified into subsections based on the form of the starting materials used in the 3D printing process. A comprehensive conclusion is drawn at the end of the paper summarizing the findings by the authors. Findings Most of the biofiber-reinforced 3D-printed products exhibited improved mechanical properties than products printed using pure resin, indicating that biofibers are good replacements for synthetic ones. However, synthetic fibers are far from being completely replaced by biofibers due to several of their disadvantages including higher moisture absorbance, lower thermal stability and mechanical properties. Many studies are being performed to solve these problems, yet there are still some 3D printing technologies in which research concerning biofiber-reinforced composite parts is quite limited. This paper unveils potential research directions that would further develop 3D printing in a sustainable manner. Originality/value This paper is a summary of attempts to use biofibers as reinforcements together with different resin systems as the starting material for 3D printing processes, and most of the currently available 3D printing techniques are included herein. All of these attempts are solutions to some principal problems with current 3D printing processes such as the limit in the variety of materials and the poor mechanical performance of 3D printed parts. Various types of biofibers are involved in these studies. This paper unveils potential research directions that would further widen the use of biofibers in 3D printing in a sustainable manner.
... Haneef et al. [20] Effect of fungal growth on mechanical properties of biomassfungi composite material Appels et al. [21] Effect of genetic modification and environment conditions (light conditions and CO 2 concentration) on fungal density Appels et al. [11] Effect of factors such as biomass type, fungal species and processing technique (no pressing, cold pressing, or heat pressing) on morphology, density and mechanical properties of products using the molding-based process Islam et al. [10,22] Morphological and mechanical behavior of fungal mycelium (root structure of fungi) Jiang et al. [19,24] Manufacturing of biocomposite sandwich structures using biomass-fungi composite and a commercial bioresin, with addition of natural fiber textiles (jute and hemp) Jiang et al. [23] A cost model of a molding-based manufacturing method to produce biocomposite parts printed using the sterilized 3D printer. The sample was printed using a print speed of 15 mm/s and an air pressure of 3.5 bar. ...
Article
This paper reports a 3D printing based manufacturing method using biomass-fungi composite material. The biomass is derived from waste agricultural materials. The fungi grow through the biomass and bind the biomass together. The novel method comprised the preparation of a printable biomass-fungi mixture. After printing, the fungi grew inside the printed sample over a few days. The feasibility of this new method was demonstrated by a preliminary experiment. In comparison to molding based manufacturing processes, 3D printing can facilitate greater flexibility in design and print custom designs for packaging and construction applications.
... These natural fiber composites have limited structural mechanical properties in terms of strength and stiffness, compared to those of the composites reinforced by conventional fibers. Meanwhile, it has been shown that the use of glass, aramid and carbon fibers as reinforcing materials in the fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) with biobased matrices have similar mechanical properties with FRPs having petro-based matrices [12][13][14]. In the past decade, numerous studies have been conducted on the use of bio-based resins [15][16][17]. ...
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Toward sustainability of the polymer-matrix composites, this study aimed to prepare and evaluate glass fiber reinforced (GFR) biocomposites of totally bio-based furan resin, and their partial comparison with those from phenolic resin (resole type) commonly used in the composite industry. Thus, the bio-resin, poly(furfuryl alcohol), PFA, was synthesized using a sulfonic acid catalyst. Furan biocomposite with woven glass fiber (GF), the GF modified with (3-aminopropyl)-triethoxy silane, and various percentages of talc filler were prepared. The mechanical properties of the GFR composite specimens were studied using three-point bending test, tensile test, and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. Flexural strength was enhanced from 202 to 240 MPa by employing modified fibers, while using 1, 3 and 5 wt% of talc, it reached to 235, 252 and 228 MPa, respectively. Simultaneous use of the modified fibers and 3 wt% of talc significantly improved the flexural strength up to 327 MPa. The scanning electron microscope images evidently confirmed an increase in fiber-matrix adhesion in samples with modified fibers and talc. Thermogravimetric analysis established a promotion of thermal properties as a result of the apparent initial decomposition temperature, which was more obvious for the modified fiber containing samples. Finally, the superiority of the bioresin was proved by comparing to its petro-based counterpart in acidic, basic, and organic solvents. Thus, in many common uses, the inexpensive sustainable PFA bioresin can be considered as a promising alternative to the non-sustainable phenolic resin originated from petroleum resource.
... However, considering the relative high cost compared with traditional ureaformaldehyde resin, only a few bio-based adhesives are applied in practice. Mycelium as a group of diverse unicellular, multicellular or syntactical spore-producing organism, can grow on agricultural and industrial waste materials like rice hulls, wheat, bagasse, wood, bamboo, etc [7][8][9]. As the mycelium grows, a network of branching hyphae, primarily composed of chitin, binds the nutritive substrate of biomass together, creates a vast three-dimensional matrix, and also provides mechanical strength to the materials [10,11]. ...
Article
A kind of novel sustainable mycelium/cotton stalk composite were prepared in laboratory by growing white rot fungus of Ganoderma lucidum on cotton stalk and stored in a block mold followed by hot-pressing process. To improve the mechanical properties, the composites were, respectively, subject to water immersion prior to hot-pressing at various water uptake (20%, 30%, 40% and 50%). The mechanical properties including flexural and internal bonding properties were tested. The results showed that with increasing water uptake, the mechanical properties of the composites increased at first after reaching the maximum at water uptake of 30 wt% in accordance with the saturation point of cotton stalk. Therefore, the water contributed to the good interface between mycelium and cotton stalk particles, where the flexural and internal bonding strength met the standard for non-load bearing particleboard listed in ANSI A208.1-2016. However, at water uptake higher than 30 wt%, no further improvement occurred due to the excessive water located in cell lumen rather than in the cell wall.
... The most common finishing method used is oven-drying, resulting in a foam-like composite (for example, Holt et al., 2012). Other processing methods include heat-pressing at the end of the incubation stage (Appels et al., 2018a;Pelletier et al., 2017) and a pre-shaped laminated woven-textile skin with a mycelium-based foam core (Jiang et al., 2018). Notably, as depicted in Table A, all the featured papers of Jiang et al. presented in this review relate to various stages of a single study, thus shifting the fraction of laminate and foam core processing in relation to other categories in Fig. 3. Furthermore, as indicated in Section 2.3, additional fabrication possibilities are constantly presented through company websites and other media platforms, introducing new material possibilities that are currently not featured in the literature. ...
Article
Recent convergence of biotechnological and design tools has stimulated an emergence of new design practices utilizing natural mechanisms to program matter in a bottom-up approach. In this paper, the fibrous network of mycelium—the vegetative part of fungi—is employed to produce sustainable alternatives for synthetic foams. Current research on mycelium-based materials lacks essential details regarding material compositions, incubation conditions, and fabrication methods. The paper presents the results of ongoing research on employing mycelium to provide cleaner architecture and design products with sustainable lifecycles. The paper opens with a critical review of current projects, products, and scientific literature using mycelium in design and architecture. In the second section, material properties of varied fungi-substrate compositions and fabrication methods are evaluated and compared through changes in essential chemical parameters during fermentation, visual impression, water absorbency, and compression strength tests. Then, potential architecture and design implications related to the material properties are discussed. Results indicate a clear correlation between fungi, substrate, mold properties, and incubation conditions on final material characteristics, depicting a clear effect on material density, water absorbency, and the compressive strength of the final bio-composite. Finally, two primary case studies demonstrate implications for mycelium-based composites for circular design and architectural applications. The study shows that in order to produce desirable designs and performance within an inclusive circular approach, parameters such as material composition and fabrication conditions should be considered according to the target function of the final product throughout the design process.
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The additive manufacturing (AM) landscape has significantly transformed in alignment with Industry 4.0 principles, primarily driven by the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and digital twins (DT). However, current intelligent AM (IAM) systems face limitations such as fragmented AI tool usage and suboptimal human-machine interaction. This paper reviews existing IAM solutions, emphasizing control, monitoring, process autonomy, and end-to-end integration, and identifies key limitations, such as the absence of a high-level controller for global decision-making. To address these gaps, we propose a transition from IAM to autonomous AM, featuring a hierarchical framework with four integrated layers: knowledge, generative solution, operational, and cognitive. In the cognitive layer, AI agents notably enable machines to independently observe, analyze, plan, and execute operations that traditionally require human intervention. These capabilities streamline production processes and expand the possibilities for innovation, particularly in sectors like in-space manufacturing. Additionally, this paper discusses the role of AI in self-optimization and lifelong learning, positing that the future of AM will be characterized by a symbiotic relationship between human expertise and advanced autonomy, fostering a more adaptive, resilient manufacturing ecosystem.
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The production of plastics has increased exponentially in the past two decades, with packaging making up a large portion of usage. Environmental concerns have surged due to the disposal of plastic waste, with only a small percentage being recycled while the rest is either burned or ending up in landfills. As a result, there is a growing need for alternatives, including biodegradable materials like mycelium, the structural part of fungi. While mycelium holds promise for technical applications, the manufacturing process is mainly manual, which hampers efficiency and scaling to large scale series applications. Therefore, automating the manufacturing process of mycelium-based products has the potential to improve precision, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of the manufacturing. One potential method of automation is the Fiber Injection Molding (FIM) process. The characteristics of this process is the injection of a mixture of structural fibers and a thermoplastic binder into a mold by means of a large volume airflow. This study aims to investigate the applicability of the FIM process for manufacturing natural products bound by mycelium and the required adaptions to an existing plant, using two different types of fungal spores, namely Trametes Versicolor and Pleurotus Ostreatus. The spores were grown on fibers of hemp, straw, and wood and form-filling was conducted via FIM. The results of the study include a summary of the challenges faced when using FIM for manufacturing mycelium-based products, optimized process parameters and concepts for adapted machinery equipment. The study found that FIM is a suitable method for producing mycelium-based products, and the optimal process parameters varied depending on the type of fungal spores and fiber used. However, the study also identifies some challenges, such as the transportation of materials in the large airflow. In conclusion, the FIM process can be used to manufacture mycelium-based products effectively.
Article
Mycelium materials represent a new class of environmentally friendly materials for structural applications that can grow on low‐cost organic waste while achieving satisfactory thermal or acoustic insulation properties. The aim of this study is to grow a biocomposite of mycelium on flax tows and then use it as a reinforcement with a geopolymer matrix. To achieve this, three species of mycelium were selected, a culture process was carried out, and then samples of the composite were synthesized with a geopolymer matrix. To determine the utility in terms of structural applications, the density, compressive strength, and thermal conductivity of the samples were tested. Scanning electron microscope images were also taken to observe the microstructure. The results indicate that it is possible to produce a mycelium composite with a geopolymer matrix. A lower density was achieved for all samples than for the geopolymer without reinforcement. The coefficient of thermal conductivity was reduced only for the sample with one of the mycelia. The compressive strength for biocomposites was between 12.1 MPa–14.2 MPa, this value is enough for some engineering applications.
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Recent years have shown a surge in interest in incorporating living systems into materials research to synthesize functional materials using biological resources. Among these, mycelium-based materials, notably biofoam, have emerged as innovative solutions for repurposing organic wastes that were previously considered unusable. The growth of mycelium, vital for the synthesis of biofoam, is influenced by a multuple of factors including substrate composition, moisture content, temperature, nutrient availability, pH levels, oxygen concentration, and measures for contamination control. Additionally, physical stimulation techniques have been explored to enhance mycelium growth, ranging from cold stress-induced adaptations to electrical shock-induced modifications and optimization of sound treatments and light exposure. This review highlights the growing interest in biofoam composite materials, a novel class of environmentally friendly and cost-effective materials that are gaining popularity, for advancing sustainable construction practices. Biofoam composites use organic fungal growth as a low-energy bio-fabrication process to transform abundant agricultural byproducts and waste into viable alternatives to energy-intensive manufactured building materials. Their versatility in composition and manufacturing methods allows them to be used in a wide range of applications, including insulation and door cores, panelling, flooring, and furniture components. Notably, biofoams outperform synthetic foams and engineered wood in terms of thermal insulation, sound absorption, and fire resistance, making them highly promising for construction industry. Besides, due to its customizable composition and production method, biofoam can be used in the replacement of foams, leather, wood, and plastics in a variety of applications such as water treatment and filtration, medical supplies and healthcare applications. However, despite their remarkable properties, biofoam typically serve as non- or semi-structural supplements to traditional construction materials due to inherent limitations. Nevertheless, the useful material properties of these materials, combined with their low cost, ease of manufacture, and environmental sustainability, imply that they will have an important part to play in the development of environmentally friendly materials in the future.
Article
The mycelium-based materials (MBMs) are produced by growing the vegetative part of the mushroom-forming fungi-from Dikarya group: phylum Basidiomycota and Ascomycota, on different organic substrates, mostly due to containing important mycelium characteristics: septa and anastomosis. Moreover, function of these composites can be further tuned by controlling the species of fungus, the growing conditions, and the processing methods to meet a specific mechanical requirement in their further applications. The material formed after full colonization of the substrate, needs to be exposed to dry heating in order to remove the moisture content and to inactivate the mycelium, giving us the lightweight, and biodegradable material with great potential to replace fossil-based and synthetic materials such as polyurethane and polystyrene. Their low carbon footprint, low energy and processing cost, biodegradability, low heat conductivity, high acoustic absorption, and fire safety qualities were some of the main characteristics that encouraged the use of mycelium based composites (MBCs) in the construction and building sector, especially as paneling, insulation, and furniture materials. Since mycelium products are quite new and there is limited industry peer-reviewed testing data available, there is a need for standardized mechanical properties, universal testing requirements and published standards (ISO, ASTM) to ensure that qualification and testing programs can be developed to support the manufacture and use of MBCs.
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Humanity's use of natural fibers dates back to prehistoric times, being essential materials for the protection and production of utensils and tools. Lignocellulosic fibers can be defined as fibrous plant material produced in photosynthesis, in which the main chemical component is cellulose. Agricultural residues consist mainly of plant fibers and are critical for making natural composite materials, adsorbent fibers, and nanostructured-based cellulose materials. This chapter will discuss some advanced applications of lignocellulosic fibers in biocomposites synthesis and adsorption of crude oils. Initially, we will discuss the main components of vegetable fibers relating to their structure/properties in chemical terms. Afterward, some examples of fungal/plant fiber biocomposites will be presented, focusing on the new mechanical properties of these materials. Subsequently, the excellent adsorbent properties of lignocellulosic fibers will be discussed as an attractive alternative for oily wastewater treatment.
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Mycelium biocomposites are eco-friendly, cheap, easy to produce, and have competitive mechanical properties. However, their integration in the built environment as durable and long-lasting materials is not solved yet. Similarly, biocomposites from recycled food waste such as seashells have been gaining increasing interest recently, thanks to their sustainable impact and richness in calcium carbonate and chitin. The current study tests the mycelium binding effect to bioweld a seashell biocomposite 3D-printed brick. The novelty of this study is the combination of mycelium and a non-agro–based substrate, which is seashells. As well as testing the binding capacity of mycelium in welding the lattice curvilinear form of the V3 linear Brick model (V3-LBM). Thus, the V3-LBM is 3D printed in three separate profiles, each composed of five layers of 1 mm/layer thickness, using seashell biocomposite by paste extrusion and testing it for biowelding with Pleurotus ostreatus mycelium to offer a sustainable, ecofriendly, biomineralized brick. The biowelding process investigated the penetration and binding capacity of the mycelium between every two 3D-printed profiles. A cellulose-based culture medium was used to catalyse the mycelium growth. The mycelium biowelding capacity was investigated by SEM microscopy and EDX chemical analysis of three samples from the side corner (S), middle (M), and lateral (L) zones of the biowelded brick. The results revealed that the best biowelding effect was recorded at the corner and lateral zones of the brick. The SEM images exhibited the penetration and the bridging effect achieved by the dense mycelium. The EDX revealed the high concentrations of carbon, oxygen, and calcium at all the analyzed points on the SEM images from all three samples. An inverted relationship between carbon and oxygen as well as sodium and potassium concentrations were also detected, implying the active metabolic interaction between the fungal hyphae and the seashell-based biocomposite. Finally, the results of the SEM-EDX analysis were applied to design favorable tessellation and staking methods for the V3-LBM from the seashell–mycelium composite to deliver enhanced biowelding effect along the Z axis and the XY axis with <1 mm tessellation and staking tolerance.
Article
Mycelium composites have gained attention in recent years for its environmental credentials and low-cost manufacturing. This emerging material has shown comparable strength to polystyrene foams and particle boards, resulting in its consideration as a sustainable alternative for many applications. Researchers have worked to improve many of mycelium composites properties; however, its strength has seen particular focus. The subject of this review is the methods of hybridization and reinforcement explored to strengthen mycelium composite boards and foams. The result of these methods is highly varied, with most having little effect on improving mycelium composites beyond control samples. Methods which did improve strength were often impractical and/or weaker than samples in which no hybridization or reinforcement was used. While mycelium composites remain an interesting solution for more sustainable materials, methods of hybridization and reinforcement do not appear to be contributing to viable improvements which could be applied to new applications.
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Traditional wood composites are produced with synthetic, formaldehyde-based adhesives, commonly made from fossil-derived constituents, such as urea, phenol, melamine, etc. Along with their undisputable advantages, these adhesives are characterized by certain problems, connected with the emission of hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including free formaldehyde emission from the finished wood composites, which is carcinogenic to humans and harmful to the environment. The growing environmental concerns, connected with the adoption of circular economy principles, and the new, stricter legislative requirements for the emission of harmful VOCs, e.g., free formaldehyde, from wood composites, have posed new challenges to researchers and industrial practice, related to the development of sustainable, eco-friendly wood composites, optimization of the available lignocellulosic raw materials, and use of alternative resources. This reprint presents a collection of 10 high-quality original research and review papers providing examples of the most recent advances and technological developments in the fabrication, design, characteristics, and applications of eco-friendly wood and wood-based composites.
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Design of the built environment is becoming gradually more important to maintain the quality of life and biodiversity. Integration of architecture and biology has great potential since biotechnology and biology’s developments lead to understanding how nature works. Interdisciplinary studies, which are inspired by nature and related to the fields of science and biology/biotechnology, have a principal place in today’s design strategies. A new approach that integrates living organisms into the design that goes beyond inspiration from nature is “biodesign via bio-collaboration.” Enhancing the interest of several communities and industries in mycelial research to demonstrate the potential of mycelium in architectural design and construction sectors is one of our primary goals. In this chapter, the authors aim to address the potential of mycelium use for biocomposite production in construction. This chapter focuses both on discussing mycelium in the design and construction sectors to create a bio-based material and to further understanding of the physical limits, properties, and potential of mycelium-based biocomposite products, by utilizing the same fungal type (Pleurotus ostreatus) with similar production processes. Two research groups collaborated on this study. Biodesign Team Turkey worked on mycelium composites with a focus on understanding the mechanics of textile reinforcement and its optimization; a group at Stuttgart University focused on demonstrating construction methods and their potential use via fabrication of a structural element prototype. Our findings indicate that by controlling the environment and the organism’s colonization process, it is possible to use mycelium with fabric reinforcement as an in situ construction approach for the future of architectural projects. However, the stability of the final product, as well as long-term endurance to environmental conditions require further research and improvement.
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Humankind has long studied natural systems to understand their complexity and to find motivation and inspiration for improving knowledge and design capabilities for a number of varied applications. These concepts are summarized in a term that has been used as the main keyword in many important research areas: biomimicry. Among all research fields, materials science has been, perhaps, the most influenced by nature. This chapter delivers the basic concepts of hierarchical structures and their universal/diverse features in order to present the most influential natural materials and compounds and their employment in synthetic made-up composites for tissue engineering and industrial applications. Later, we also show how artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms have contributed to improve the characterization and design of natural and bio-inspired materials, optimizing the computational tools and overcoming the limitations of traditional approaches. We conclude with a deliberation to discuss future opportunities in the field.
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The Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) process is one of the fundamental fabrication methods in composite material fields in aerospace and non-aerospace industries. It is a designation for a technology where, in general, a fiber preform is placed in a closed mold leaving a gap to allow the resin to be injected and impregnate the fibers. While, traditionally in aerospace manufacturing, autoclave which is known as an expensive process is utilized in the curing process of the parts. Thus, out-of-autoclave (OOA) manufacturing techniques is seeking to replace the autoclaving with a new process without compromising the quality parts. In this study, a newly developed RTM machine that has temperature and pressure controllers is used to produce hinge aircraft parts as a trial. This RTM machine has successfully injected a good quality of hinge part with a weight reduction of about 50% compares to the commercial. In conclusion, the RTM process has strong possibilities to develop and design for aircraft manufacturing parts to meet the future demand of less expensive aircraft part manufacturing.
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Mycelium composites are a class biopolymeric composites, consisting of cost-effective and environmentally sustainable materials. Globally, this class of composites is currently experiencing burgeoning research interest. With increasing pressure on cheaper materials with sustainable and ‘green’ credentials, mycelium composites hold some promise in this space, particularly in the construction industry, where the cost-performance indicator is a critical consideration. This material type uses the biological phenomenon of fungal growth to transition agri-waste materials to low-cost and low energy-embodied construction materials. Mycelium composites are inherently lossy in constitution and hence, have natural thermal and acoustic insulating properties. They have also shown impressive fire-resistant properties. These lossy properties, however, do not attribute good mechanical properties to mycelium composites, which are further compounded by its low hydrophobicity. However, some recent developments in the processing of the mycelium composites using 3D printing technologies by chemical manipulation of its constituents and self-healing mycelium structures, point this class of composites towards more flexural, robust, and strength-based semi-structural applications.
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Building envelopes are multifunctional interfaces sustaining and ensuring flows of matter and energy and thus can be technically challenging. Roof shingles, for instance, are designed to be weather-resistant, aesthetical, and easy to install, but moisture infiltration (and unwanted biological growth) compromises their durability. To address this issue, we propose fast-drying shingles with biologically inspired designs integrated in roofs. Oak “sun” leaves, known to be structurally equipped for fast heat and moisture dissipation, were considered for their dissected shape and aerodynamic properties. Residential-grade shingles were shaped with leaf-like elements, layered, and assembled into testing prototypes. Their evaporative performance and drying process was studied with thermal imaging and weight tracking, in warm and cold environments. Under conditions favorable to dissipation, the dissected shingle elements dried faster, approaching ambient temperatures earlier. The receding of surface moisture was prompted by the lobes and border tips of the leaf-like designs, less affected by airflow direction. The dissected designs also provided effective channeling of liquid water and reduced shingle surface area, which may lead to material savings. Design concepts for graded roofing and leveraged evaporative cooling from the shingles, integrated with a rainwater-storage system, are described. Additional structural refinements and biological role models for shingle innovation are proposed. Our findings may be exploited in novel building envelopes and demonstrate that the unique approach of biomimetics can guide design efforts toward better management of heat and moisture in building construction.
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Mycelium-based composites (MBCs) have attracted growing attention due to their role in the development of eco-design methods. We concurrently analysed scientific publications, patent documents, and results of our own feasibility studies to identify the current design issues and technologies used. A literature inquiry in scientific and patent databases (WoS, Scopus, The Lens, Google Patents) pointed to 92 scientific publications and 212 patent documents. As a part of our own technological experiments, we have created several prototype products used in architectural interior design. Following the synthesis, these sources of knowledge can be concluded: 1. MBCs are inexpensive in production, ecological, and offer a high artistic value. Their weaknesses are insufficient load capacity, unfavourable water affinity, and unknown reliability. 2. The scientific literature shows that the material parameters of MBCs can be adjusted to certain needs, but there are almost infinite combinations: properties of the input biomaterials, characteristics of the fungi species, and possible parameters during the growth and subsequent processing of the MBCs. 3. The patent documents show the need for development: an effective method to increase the density and the search for technologies to obtain a more homogeneous internal structure of the composite material. 4. Our own experiments with the production of various everyday objects indicate that some disadvantages of MBCs can be considered advantages. Such an unexpected advantage is the interesting surface texture resulting from the natural inhomogeneity of the internal structure of MBCs, which can be controlled to some extent.
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Biofiber-based polymer composites have seen tremendous growth in the last decade and are expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 11.8% from 2016 to 2024. Biofiber composites are 25%–30% stronger than glass fiber of the same weight, which make them a potential player in the manufacturing industry. In this chapter, we present the advances and application of biofiber-based polymer composite in aerospace, automotive, military and defense, construction, and electronics followed by a recycling comparison study between synthetic, hybrid, and complete biofiber polymer composites. In the later part of the chapter, the advances in multiscale analysis, manufacturing methods, and pretreatment in biofiber and polymer composites are presented. At the end of the chapter, the future prospects of biofiber-based polymer composites are discussed.
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The mycelium materials incubating Pleurotus ostreatus fungi based on different substrate compositions were developed, the main components of which were poplar sawdust and cottonseed hull in different proportions. The hyphae on the surface of the samples become dense from appearance due to the addition of cottonseed hull. The Fourier Transforms Infrared analysis revealed that the cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin in substrates of all samples were degraded in different degrees owing to utilization by hyphae growth. The morphology and mechanical properties of the mycelial materials changed as the substrate compositions varied. The difference of properties among all mycelium materials was mainly attributed to the growth of mycelium and different substrate compositions. And the mycelium material (the ratio of poplar sawdust to cottonseed hull was 1) exhibited highest strength and lowest compression set, indicating that its size recovery capability was best. In comparison, the substrate of this material was more favorable to the growth of the mycelium and it showed optimal comprehensive performance among all samples. The mycelium material showed good potentiality for packaging application.
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This paper studies the mechanical properties of bio-epoxy resins blended with synthetic epoxy resins (epoxamite). The bio-epoxy resins were derived from Jatropha methyl esters through epoxidation method. They were formulated with epoxamite and hardener at different compositions and then cured at different temperature and time settings. The cured blends were subjected to tensile and flexural tests using Instron machine. Tensile and flexural strength of the mixtures were compared with the 100% epoxamite in order to evaluate the suitability of bio-epoxy resins as an alternative to synthetic epoxy resins with respect to mechanical properties. Tensile strength of 100% epoxamite is 38.32 MPa and flexural strength is 63.32 MPa. The mixtures of bio-resins and epoxamite demonstrated very low mechanical strengths compared to the 100% epoxamite. Therefore, they are not suitable to be used as an alternative to synthetic epoxy resins in industrial applications. However, they may find other usage due to high reactivity of the bio-epoxy resins.
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Mycelium-based bio-composite materials have been invented and widely applied to different areas, including construction, manufacturing, agriculture, and biomedical. As the vegetative part of a fungus, mycelium has the unique capability to utilize agricultural crop waste (e.g., sugarcane bagasse, rice husks, cotton stalks, straw, and stover) as substrates for the growth of its network, which integrates the wastes from pieces to continuous composites without energy input or generating extra waste. Their low-cost and environmentally friendly features attract interest in their research and commercialization. For example, mycelium-based foam and sandwich composites have been actively developed for construction structures. It can be used as synthetic planar materials (e.g., plastic films and sheets), larger low-density objects (e.g., synthetic foams and plastics), and semi-structural materials (e.g., paneling, flooring, furniture, decking). It is shown that the material function of these composites can be further tuned by controlling the species of fungus, the growing conditions, and the post-growth processing method to meet a specific mechanical requirement in applications (e.g., structural support, acoustic and thermal insulation). Moreover, mycelium can be used to produce chitin and chitosan, which have been applied to clinical trials for wound healing, showing the potential for biomedical applications. Given the strong potential and multiple advantages of such a material, we are interested in studying it in-depth and reviewing the current progress of its related study in this review paper.
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Fungi are efficiently used to produce a variety of medicinal compounds, functional foods, and environmentally sustainable raw materials for a wide range of consumer goods due to their distinctive biological properties. Mycelium, the vegetative structure of filamentous fungi, acts as a natural, self-assembling adhesive as it grows, binding the fragments of organic substrates, leading to the production of fungal mycelium-based biocomposites (MBCs). These biocomposites are biodegradable alternatives for many synthetic polymers, such as polystyrene, and are therefore considered as a widely applicable, emerging class of renewable materials. MBCs are excellent examples of circular materials, ensuring a cradle-to-cradle (C2C) design, in which biodegradable products can be returned to the ecosystem after its use. Diverse species of fungi can be used to produce MBCs together with a range of agricultural and other plant-based lignocellulosic substrates. Several business start-ups, by innovative investors, are globally leading in mycelium-based product manufacturing. MBCs, including both mycelium-based foams (MBFs) and mycelium-based sandwich composites (MBSCs), are known for their potential industrial applications, such as packaging materials, architectural design, construction, fashion, and automotive insulation products. Both the mycelium binder and substrate type have an immense impact on the significant material properties of MBCs, including their hydrophobicity, acoustic nature, thermal insulation, and fire resistance. This chapter summarizes the diversity of the fungi used to produce MBCs as well as their potential feeding substrates, manufacturing process, physical and mechanical properties, innovative applications, and future directions for related research endeavours.
Article
Mycelium biocomposites represent a potential sustainable lightweight alternative materials due to their low energy consumption and lack of pollution to the environment. However, the low compression strength of mycelium biocomposites limits its application. In this study, three fungal strains (Pleurotus ostreatus, Oudemansiella radicata, and Acremonium sp.) were incubated in substrates (cotton stalk, wheat bran, and natural reinforcement particles (NRPs)) to obtain mycelium biocomposites. The physico-mechanical properties, morphological properties, and thermogravimetric analysis were examined. The colonization periods of the mycelium biocomposites varied with the different fungi, and adding NRPs to the substrates obviously improved the physico-mechanical properties of the mycelium biocomposites. The Pleurotus ostreatus biocomposites with 37.5% NRP had the highest UCS strength of 508 kPa and Young’s modulus of 38.5 MPa, which satisfies the requirements of backfill materials in geotechnical engineering, and its cohesion and internal friction angle were 178 kPa and 21.8°, respectively, based on triaxial tests. Moreover, although the addition of NRP will increase the density of the material, the density of mycelium biocomposites with NRP (0%–37.5%) only ranged from 0.310 g/cm³ to 0.413 g/cm³. The water absorption characteristics of the mycelium biocomposites with NRP were similar to those without NRP. The permeability coefficient decreased slightly with increasing NRP content, and the decreased percentage was related to the mycelium growth. All mycelium biocomposites showed lower thermal stability but a higher residue mass than EPS (expanded polystyrene). The results illustrate that the mycelium biocomposites proposed in this study could be used as lightweight backfill materials that are widely needed in geotechnical engineering.
Article
Mycelium composites grow in a symbiotic relationship with the substrate forming entangled networks of branching fibers. The structure of mycelium resembles filter sheets used in air filtration systems. Owing to their porous character, mycelium composites have been studied and developed as sound absorbent materials, insulation materials, and fire-resistant materials. Herein, we investigated the potential utilization of the filter-like, porous characteristics of mycelium for adsorbing atmospheric particulate matter (PM). First, we compared the PM adsorption performance of mycelium composites grown on four different substrates (hemp, rice straw, lacquer tree wood chips, and oak wood chips) with a widely used architectural exterior material, a stone panel (Pocheon granite). Second, we examined the micro-morphology of the mycelium composite panel surfaces by capturing images at 200x and 1000x using scanning electron microscopy. Third, we examined the water absorption rate of the mycelium composite panels with different substrates. The PM adsorption performance of the mycelium composites were superior to that of the Pocheon granite. The PM adsorption performance of the mycelium composite panels varied depending on the type of the substrate. However, the relationship between the micro-morphology of the surface and the PM adsorption performance could not be defined. We also observed that the mycelium composite panels with the higher PM adsorption performance exhibited a higher rate of water absorption. This study shows that mycelium composite panels have potential to be developed as atmospheric PM adsorbing material.
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A fully biobased composite was developed using a natural resin from the Elaeagia Pastoensis Mora plant, known as Mopa-Mopa reinforced with fique fibers. Resin extraction was through solvent processing reaching an efficient extraction process of 92% and obtaining a material that acted as a matrix without using any supplementary chemical modifications as it occurs with most of the biobased resins. This material was processed by the conventional transform method (hot compression molding) to form the plates from which the test specimens were extracted. From physicochemical and mechanical characterization, it was found that the resin had obtained a tensile strength of 15 MPa that increased to values of 30 MPa with the addition of 20% of the fibers with alkalization treatment. This behavior indicated a favorable condition of the fiber-matrix interface in the material. Similarly, the evaluation of the moisture adsorption in the components of the composite demonstrated that such adsorption was mainly promoted by the presence of the fibers and had a negative effect on a plasticization phenomenon from humidity that reduced the mechanical properties for all the controlled humidities (47%, 77% and 97%). Finally, due to its physicochemical and mechanical behavior, this new biobased composite is capable of being used in applications such as wood–plastic (WPCs) to replace plastic and/or natural wood products that are widely used today.
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Roller infusion by nip rollers is widely used in the infusion industry with broad applications, which is also adopted as one of the 7 steps of a newly developed manufacturing process for making fungal mycelium based biocomposites. One important technical issue related to infusion textile reinforcements for such biocomposites is how to predict and control the infusion fluid penetration depth, which directly affects the quality and performances of the preformed textile skins. Currently, the analytical relations between the modeling parameters and the final infusion penetration depth are still not well understood. Few studies have been performed on such topic and some of which used oversimplified assumptions. A new analytical model is developed in this paper and the infusion penetration curves are plotted based on certain input parameters including infusion speed, infusion fluid flow rate, and clamping forces of the two rollers, etc. The model calculated results are then validated by experiments that are performed with the same parameters. The measured parameters of prepared non-Newtonian starch-based natural glue are used both in the modeling and experiments and the results are close enough for model validation.
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A new approach to manufacturing biocomposite sandwich structures is introduced. Materials used in the biocomposite are natural textile reinforcement, mycelium-bound agricultural waste as core, and bioresin. This paper focuses on three specific steps of the manufacturing process: filling pre-stamped textile shells with core mixture; allowing the core material to grow thereby binding reinforcement particles and textile skins into a unitized preform; and oven drying said preform to drive off moisture and inactivate the mycelium. Specific process details that are highlighted include design and thermoforming of growth trays, tray sterilization, filling trays with mycelium-inoculated substrates filling and allowing growth to occur, and finally conduction and convection drying/inactivation followed by grown parts conduction and convection drying. To study the new material's stiffness using different materials and under different processing conditions, specimen dimensions were based on ASTM D7250 and C393 standards. All dried samples were tested in flexure by three-point bending method to determine the stiffness and strength of the resin-less preforms and to identify optimal material combinations. INTRODUCTION Advanced polymer matrix composites (PMCs) are comprised of strong, rigid reinforcements (e.g., glass and carbon fibers) bonded together by durable polymers (e.g., epoxy, polyester, nylon) to form laminate skins, which can then be made into sandwich structures using lightweight cores (e.g. honeycomb, balsa). These materials provide significant benefits over conventional engineering materials (e.g., steel and
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The manufacture and use of natural, textile-reinforced and shaped skins to replace rigid tooling for fungal mycelium-based, biocomposite sandwich structures are investigated. The motivation is a new manufacturing process proposed for such biocomposites that includes: cutting individual natural textile plies; impregnating multi-ply layups with natural glue conducive to mycelium growth; simultaneously forming, sterilizing and setting impregnated skins; filling formed skins with mycelium-laden agri-waste; allowing mycelium to colonize and bind together core substrate and skins into a unitized preform; high temperature drying that also inactivates fungus; and infusing skins with bioresin using resin transfer molding. Aspects of Steps 2-6 related to the preform shells are the particular focus of this paper. Three-point bending tests are performed on dry, natural glue-bonded, four-ply specimens in a full-factorial experimental design, and test results are analyzed statistically using ANOVA to assess process parameter effects and sensitivities along with environmental condition effects. New specimens are then made using the optimized process and tested for beam bending in creep within an environmental chamber that mimics the actual mycelium growth environment for three days. Two- and six-ply specimens loaded to provide identical maximum tensile stress in flexure are then tested, and useful conclusions are drawn based on all creep test results. Finally, preforms in the shape of a viable commercial product are filled with mycelium-inoculated substrate, grown and dried, and part quality is evaluated based on the amount of skin ingrowth and deviation of the measured shape from the desired shape.
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Sustainable composites that use renewable materials and provide better end-of-life options are of great interest to industry. This paper describes an investigative study into high-production manufacturing approaches for a biocomposite material with these characteristics consisting of natural fiber reinforcement and agricultural waste cores bound together by a fungal mycelium matrix that grows in and around everything. Specific processes investigated include cutting of reinforcement plies (woven jute textile in this case), impregnating individual plies a temporary glue binder, stacking and forming laminates or 'skins', drying and sterilization of formed skins, and assembling all components that comprise a composite sandwich structure prior to the mycelium growth phase. Optimal processes are determined according to a number of metrics such as shortest cycle time, lowest cost, lowest energy consumption, and best product quality. The final manufacturing processes were selected based on the results of this comparative study.
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This paper describes research related to manufacturing of composite parts and resin infusion preforms with new materials based on a fungal mycelium-based binder developed and patented by Ecovative Design, LLC (Green Island, NY). Mycelium, the vegetative part of a fungus, acts like a natural, self-assembling glue that digests and binds securely to natural reinforcement materials and agricultural byproducts with essentially no added energy. Laminate structures can consist of natural reinforcement layers (e.g., jute textile, kenaf mat) bound by mycelium, while sandwich structures have laminate skins and core made of agricultural byproducts (e.g., ground corn stover) all bound with together with mycelium. These structures can be used as is or as preforms for infusion with natural resin (e.g., epoxidized linseed oil) to significantly increase strength and stiffness. A new manufacturing system concept for mycelium-based biocomposite laminate and sandwich structures is proposed. The process steps include: (1) cutting natural fiber reinforcement in textile or mat form to the desired ply shape; (2) pre-impregnating each ply with a natural glue; (3) using heated match tools to form, sterilize, and solidify flat stacks of pre-impregnated plies into integral tooling; (4) filling integral tooling (thereby eliminating the need for dedicated molds) with agricultural waste pre-colonized with mycelium; (5) allowing the growing mycelium to bind together and grow into all constituent components under the right conditions to form a completely unitized sandwich preform or part; (6) drying and inactivating (killing) live mycelium in the mycelium-bound structure; and (7) infusing natural resin into the reinforcement skins followed by resin curing if higher part stiffness is required. Proof of concept and process optimization for Steps 1-3 is demonstrated for a shoe-shaped part in preparation for production scale-up.
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Biodegradable thermoplastic-based composites reinforced with kenaf fibers were prepared and characterized. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) was selected as polymeric matrix. To improve PLA/fibers adhesion, low amount of a proper reactive coupling agent, obtained by grafting maleic anhydride onto PLA, was added during matrix/fibers melt mixing. Compared with uncompatibilized composites, this compatibilization strategy induces a strong interfacial adhesion and a pronounced improvement of the mechanical properties. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008
Article
This study investigated mechanical properties of biocomposites developed from recycled polylactic acid (PLA) from packaging industry and treated cellulosic fibers from pulp and paper solid waste. Microwave and enzymatic treatments were used for extraction and surface modification of hydrophilic cellulosic fibers. Enzymatic treatment was specifically performed for activation of hydroxyl groups and improvement of adhesion between matrix and fibers including controlling the length of cellulosic fibers with size reduction of around 50% (142 and 127 μm for primary and mixed biosolids, respectively) as compared to microwave treatment. Microwave treatment produced cellulosic fibers of 293 and 341 μm, for primary and mixed biosolids, respectively. Mechanical properties of biocomposites with 2% (w/w) of treated cellulosic fibers (Young's Modulus 887.83 MPa with tensile strain at breakpoint of 7.22%, tensile stress at yield 41.35 MPa) was enhanced in comparison to the recycled PLA (Young's Modulus 644.47 ± 30.086 MPa with tensile strain at breakpoint of 6.01 ± 0.83%, tensile stress at yield of 29.49 ± 3.64 MPa). Scanning electron microscopy revealed size reduction of cellulosic fibers. X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed strong mechanical properties of novel biocomposites.
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Composite materials based on renewable agricultural and biomass feedstocks are increasingly utilized as these products significantly offset the use of fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions in comparison with conventional petroleum- based materials. However, the inclusion of natural fibers in polymers introduces several challenges, such as excess water absorption and poor thermal properties, which need to be overcome to produce materials with comparable properties to the conventional composite materials. Instead of using rather expensive chemical and physical modification methods to eliminate these aforementioned challenges, a new trend of utilizing waste, residues, and process by-products in natural fiber-polymer composites (NFPCs) as additives or reinforcements may bring considerable enhancements in the properties of NFPCs in a sustainable and resilient manner. In this paper, the effects of waste materials, residues or process by-products of multiple types on NFPCs are critically reviewed and their potential as NFPC constituents is evaluated.
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Abstract Natural fibres are increasingly used as reinforcements for thermoplastic composites. Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is a common material extrusion process using (bio)polymers reinforced with natural fibres. However, there is a lack of understanding of the effect of printing parameters on the mechanical properties involved in this new process, and more particularly in the case of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM). Hygromorphic biocomposites represent a novel use of natural fibres for the production of original self-bending devices that actuate in a moisture gradient. By mimicking natural actuators and their bilayer microstructure adapted for seed dispersal, hygromorphic biocomposites take advantage of the hygro-elastic behaviour of natural fibres. The FDM of wood fibre reinforced biocomposites leads to mechanical properties that are strongly dependent on printing orientation (0 or 90°) due to fibre anisotropy. Mechanical properties depend also on printing width (overlapping of filaments), with a lower Young's modulus than in the compressed samples. Indeed, printed biocomposites have a microstructure with relatively high porosity (around 20%) that conjointly leads to damage mechanisms but also water absorption and swelling. The FDM of hygromorphic biocomposites enables a shift towards 4D printing since the material is able to evolve over time in response to an external stimulus. Typical microstructures achieved by printing could be used advantageously to produce biocomposites with a faster moisture-induced bending response compared to compressed samples.
Article
Natural composites of biological matter such as mycological fungi offer several advantages, including freedom from oil feed-stocks, low cost production, and carbon capture and storage. These benefits make mycology materials carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative. Composite materials remain the material of choice for a wide variety of applications, but the high cost of raw materials and complex processing is opening a new avenue for sustainable composites. The vegetative part of fungi, called mycelium, provide a fast growing, safe and inert material as the matrix for a new generation of natural composites, which can serve as replacements for traditional polymeric materials for applications including insulation, packaging, and sandwich panels. As seen in nature, natural foams can provide acceptable mechanical properties, with the benefits of being lightweight, sustainable and inert. In this investigation mechanical testing was conducted to determine the mechanical behavior of a mycelium material, including its elastic and strength properties in tension and compression. As in synthetic polymeric foams the mycelium material exhibited a compressive strength almost three times the tensile strength. Its high specific compressive strength made it a sustainable option as the core of sandwich panels. The strength of the material was found to decrease with increasing moisture content of the material, suggesting that coatings to inhibit moisture diffusion would ensure consistency and performance.
Conference Paper
Advanced composite materials made from non-renewable (synthetic) feed stocks are used in parts that require high specific stiffness and strength and also tailored properties. Bio-composite materials, although not currently able to provide the same level of performance as their synthetic counterparts, are improving as new constituent materials and manufacturing processes are developed. This paper describes an on-going collaboration between Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and an innovative bio-materials company, Ecovative Design, LLC, to demonstrate and manufacture bio-composite laminate and sandwich parts made with mycelium-bound agricultural waste core material, natural textile reinforcement, and vegetable-oil based resins. Particular focus will be on the process whereby dry core and multi-layer textile skins are bound together with mycelium, into a preform that is then vacuum infused with thermally activated bioresin and cured in place.
Article
The use of blends of recycled agricultural plastic and post-consumer high-density polyethylene from municipal solid wastes, as matrices for sustainable eco-composites, was investigated with the aim of boosting the use of recycled materials and reducing the waste plastic environmental impact. It was proposed that proper selection of blends of different waste plastics will allow the production of composites with optimized properties. The two plastics and their blends were characterized by using different spectroscopic techniques and thermal analysis, and measuring the flow curves. The eco-composites were obtained by compounding a selected blend of recycled agricultural plastic and post-consumer polyethylene with different proportions of coupling agent and waste cellulose fibers in a pilot-plant twin-screw extruder. The structure of the final materials and the role of the coupling agent were analyzed by using scanning electron microscopy. Finally, the novel eco-composites were compared to their counterparts without post-consumer polyethylene, revealing that the incorporation of polyethylene increases the strength and stiffness of the eco-composites, without compromising the impact strength. The incorporation of 40 wt% of polyethylene caused increases in moduli as high as 175% for the polymer and 47% for composites with 30% of fibers. The tensile strength increased up to 21% for the same composites. The decreases in processability caused by the incorporation of polyethylene can be corrected by increasing the coupling agent content. The improved balance between stiffness, strength and toughness without compromising processability can increase the recyclability of the polymer and cellulose wastes used in this work.
Article
Sustainability, industrial ecology, eco-efficiency, and green chemistry are guiding the development of the next generation of materials, products, and processes. Biodegradable plastics and bio-based polymer products based on annually renewable agricultural and biomass feedstock can form the basis for a portfolio of sustainable, eco-efficient products that can compete and capture markets currently dominated by products based exclusively on petroleum feedstock. Natural/Biofiber composites (Bio-Composites) are emerging as a viable alternative to glass fiber reinforced composites especially in automotive and building product applications. The combination of biofibers such as kenaf, hemp, flax, jute, henequen, pineapple leaf fiber, and sisal with polymer matrices from both nonrenewable and renewable resources to produce composite materials that are competitive with synthetic composites requires special attention, i.e., biofiber–matrix interface and novel processing. Natural fiber–reinforced polypropylene composites have attained commercial attraction in automotive industries. Natural fiber—polypropylene or natural fiber—polyester composites are not sufficiently eco-friendly because of the petroleum-based source and the nonbiodegradable nature of the polymer matrix. Using natural fibers with polymers based on renewable resources will allow many environmental issues to be solved. By embedding biofibers with renewable resource–based biopolymers such as cellulosic plastics; polylactides; starch plastics; polyhydroxyalkanoates (bacterial polyesters); and soy-based plastics, the so-called green bio-composites are continuously being developed.
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The influence of fiber treatment on the properties of biocomposites derived from grass fiber and soy based bioplastic was investigated with environmental scanning electron microscopy, thermal and mechanical properties measurements. Grass fibers were treated with alkali solution that reduced the inter-fibrillar region of the fiber by removing hemicellulose and lignin, which reduce the cementing force between fibrils. This led to a more homogenous dispersion of the biofiber in the matrix as well as increase in the aspect ratio of the fiber in the composite, resulting in an improvement in fiber reinforcement efficiency. This led to enhancement in mechanical properties including tensile and flexural properties as well as impact strength. Additionally, the alkali solution treatment increased the concentration of hydroxyl groups on the surface, which led to a better interaction between the fibers and the matrix.
Article
Life cycle assessment is a technique to assess environmental aspects associated with a product or process by identifying energy, materials, and emissions over its life cycle. The energy analysis includes four stages of a life cycle: material production phase, manufacturing phase, use phase, and end-of-life phase. In this study, the life cycle energy of fiber-reinforced composites manufactured by using the pultrusion process was analyzed. For more widespread use of composites, it is critical to estimate how much energy is consumed during the lifetime of the composites compared to other materials. In particular, we evaluated a potential for composite materials to save energy in automotive applications. A hybrid model, which combines process analysis with economic input–output analysis, was used to capture both direct and indirect energy consumption of the pultrusion process in the material production and manufacturing stages.
Conference Paper
Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus or most microorganisms, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. It is through the hyphae that a fungus absorbs nutrients from its environment. For most fungi, the ability of nutrition translation from mycelium to fruit body is determined by growth status of hyphae. It is very necessary to study the effect of environmental factors on mycelium growth, and know the befitting environment condition. However, finding a good data acquisition method for measuring the mycelium is the key point. A new method was introduced in the paper. The method is using image identification and space data analysis function of the GIS to acquire development rate of mycelium i.e. hyphae. Pleurotus eryngii under commercial production is taken as example. The effect of different temperature and humidity on mycelium growth was analyzed. It is hoped to explore a new method for scientific and precise measurement the growth status and development rate of mycelium.
Manufacturing of biocomposite sandwich structures using mycelium-bound cores and preforms
  • L Jiang
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Growth opportunities in global composites industry
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Mycology matrix sandwich composites flexural characterization
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Polymer Mateix Composites
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