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European Journal of Sustainable Development (2018), 7, 3, 255-264 ISSN: 2239-5938
Doi: 10.14207/ejsd.2018.v7n3p255
|¹Professor of International Relations. Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia.
2Law Professor. Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, Colombia.
Approaching Resilience for Climate Change Adaptation
in Complex Milieus: The Case of Vulnerable
Neighborhoods in Cartagena de Indias
Mauricio Luna-Galván1, Iván Vargas-Chaves2, PhD.
ABSTRACT
Tackling related climate change impacts and extreme weather events in urban areas located in
developing countries is increasingly becoming a challenge for several stakeholders. Responses to
such impacts are being framed and addressed by strategies and policies under the climate change
adaptation and mitigation frameworks. However, approaching resilience and adaptive capacities are
ever more in need in complex neighborhoods, especially when these are facing climate impacts such
as flooding. Framing social dimensions into that adaptive capacity in complex urban systems
characterized by poverty, exclusion and the poor public services access makes harder their living
standards. Thereby, frameworks taking into account social elements and key indicators of
inclusiveness, contribute to the understanding of the social fabrics based on the living conditions of
disadvantaged localities.
This special issue explores resilience in the wake of climate-related events such as flooding in
neighborhoods with striking social, economic and environmental conditions. Studying the case of
the flood-suffering neighborhood of Fredonia in Cartagena, Colombia, will shed light on this
particular issue by providing relevant evidence that the levels of climate impacts and hazards
occurring in vulnerable urban areas in developing countries, rely on particular social traits that
ultimately undermine adaptation efforts for resilience, hence becoming a social problem.
Keywords: Climate Change Adaptation; Climate Events; Resilience; Urban Complexities; Urban Inclusiveness;
Vulnerable Neighborhoods.
1. Introduction
Globally, the impacts of climate-related disasters are increasing, and there may
be exacerbated in cities due to interactions of climate and vulnerabilities caused by three
drivers: urbanization; the weakness and incapacities of governments; and the
development and expansion of cities in high risk-sites (Seto & Satterthwaite, 2010;
Dodman, Bicknell & Satterthwaite, 2012).
Urban centers concentrate a large proportion of the most at risk from the effects of
climate change especially in developing countries in comparison to developed countries
(Levy & Patz, 2015: 315; World Bank, 2014). The impacts have brought in recent years
the question of how to evolve more resilient urban communities in hazard-prone areas.
Coastal cities such as Cartagena, Colombia, are already exposed to higher precipitation,
sea level rise and erosion causing large floods that will likely exacerbate these hazards
(Bernstein et al, 2007). Relevant risk factors generally increase impacts, and these are
determined by existing social and spatial segregation (Satterthwaite, 2009).
256 European Journal of Sustainable Development (2018), 7, 3, 255-264
Published by ECSDEV, Via dei Fiori, 34, 00172, Rome, Italy http://ecsdev.org
Populations suffering the effects, are characterized for being in low-income populations
at low latitudes, places where important climate-sensitive health outcomes (eg,
malnutrition, diarrhea, and malaria) are highly prevalent and where vulnerability to these
outcomes is greatest’’. Impacts further disrupt buildings, transportation, waste
management, water supply and drainage systems, electricity, and fuel supplies, thus
making urban infrastructure less resilient (Levy & Patz, 2015: 312-313).
The imperative to reduce urban’s residents vulnerability to the many direct and indirect
impacts of it, faces multiple challenges as they must cope with serious constraints on
their capacity to adapt to them (Dodman, Bicknell & Satterthwaite, 2012; Satterthwaite,
2010), that is particularly evidenced in complex contexts in developing countries with
higher levels of poverty and inequality gaps, and the city of Cartagena, Colombia sheds
lights on that specific context (Plan 4C, 2014).
In the name of adaptation ‘‘many cities have to adapt to environmental conditions, site
characteristics, and natural resources available to be able to function, whereby
infrastructure is required to protect some areas and ensuring provision for water’’(Seto &
Satterthwaite, 2010; Dodman, Bicknell & Satterthwaite, 2012).
However, such adaption process is largely influenced by stakeholders involved with
market forces that fail to achieve social equity, and inclusiveness in communities for
resilient transformations (Stevenson & Petrescu, 2016). Turning adaptation into a
response of urban planning towards developing social versus physical resilience
improving drainage and provision for coping with heavy rainfall in neighborhoods with a
lack of social cohesion (Stevenson & Petrescu, 2016; Seto & Satterthwaite, 2010).
The understanding our role as humans around dysfunctional and unequal social milieus
and organizational actions (Stevenson & Petrescu, 2016) in urban contexts is key for an
effective and comprehensive adaptation (Luna-Galván, Vargas-Chaves & Franco-
Gantiva, 2017). Recent studies have begun to explore this relationship, highlighting the
need to connect bottom-up neighborhood development initiatives, which means
applying an inclusive focus, and it is further treated as human rights issue as ways to
promote social justice and avoid creating new problems or exacerbating existing
problems for vulnerable populations with low-income living in unsafe or marginal
environments (Levy & Patz, 2015: 313)
The understanding of neighborhood-level resilience and its indicators is still an
underdeveloped area of research. The aim is to expand the discourse in this area and
present evidence that explores how the understanding of neighborhood resilience can be
viewed through social dimension in relation to factors that increase vulnerabilities, which
requires a comprehensive understanding of complex social milieus with multiple
stressors and determinants to further explore constraints that diminish the adaptive of
the urban poor (Romero-Lankao, 2007)
The present paper explores the social conditions of communities and individuals in
developing neighborhood resilience by describing vulnerabilities based the inclusive city
indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals, and the contextual complexity of
neighborhoods in order to approach resilience.
M. Luna-Galván, I. Vargas-Chaves 257
© 2018 The Authors. Journal Compilation © 2018 European Center of Sustainable Development.
2. Trends of Climate Change in Urban Areas: Flooding
In tropical climate is likely to produce more extreme weather events, such as
cyclones or hurricanes, and has increased precipitation and flooding in some areas. Poor
and marginalized people who live in flood plains and drought-prone areas are especially
vulnerable to extreme weather events and their adverse consequences on health and
human rights. The underlying reason they generally lack access to protective and
preventive services and lack the socioeconomic resilience to withstand the adverse
consequences of these events. Sea level Rise is another impact that will worsen coastal
erosion, exacerbate storm surges, inundate low-lying areas, and cause salinization of
coastal aquifers (Levy & Patz, 2015: 315).
Consequently, climate change threatens to worsen existing socioeconomic and health
inequalities within and among communities. Among those adverse health consequences
are waterborne and foodborne diseases, malnutrition, violence, and mental health
problems (Levy & Patz, 2015).
Focus on reducing the impact of the hazard, by responding rapidly to flooding, both to
get the floodwaters away from the flooded settlements and to respond to the flood’s
impacts upon people’s health, living conditions, assets and livelihoods. Framing
Resilience and approaching key instruments to build resilience with a robust social
component seems to be a perspective to further explore.
3. Conceptual Framework
The theoretical discussion of resilience frameworks contributes to identify
indicators to assess progress toward practical conceptual framework when tackling
climate events. Integrating climate change adaptation into resilience for disaster
vulnerability reduction involves adding climate resilience to a city’s development vision;
understanding the hazards, vulnerabilities, and risks from a different perspective
(Reckien et al, 2017) in order to formulate and improve climate adaptation strategies.
The current discourse on sustainable neighborhoods development focuses on green
technologies, strategies for smart and efficient use of resources, carbon footprinting and
low-carbon development of neighborhoods (Sharifi, 2016).
However, climate change related disasters amplifies vulnerabilities on people in
developing countries due to inadequate provision of protection for urban populations,
such as provision for drainage that causes flooding, hence requiring rapid responses to
get the floodwaters away from informal settlements that also impacts upon people’s
health, living conditions, assets and livelihoods, making an imperative the focus on the
disadvantaged as critical to address vulnerabilities (Satterthwaite, 2009).
Thereby, differential vulnerability emerges among urban residents due to specific social
and physical geographies and ‘‘driven by four factors: (1) differing levels of physical
exposure; (2) urban development processes that have created a range of built-in risks,
such access to critical infrastructure and urban services; (3) social characteristics that
influence the allocation of resources for adaptation; and (4) access to institutions, and
governance. (Reckien et al, 2017).
258 European Journal of Sustainable Development (2018), 7, 3, 255-264
Published by ECSDEV, Via dei Fiori, 34, 00172, Rome, Italy http://ecsdev.org
Consequently, recent definitions of resilience include elements knowledge, institutional
capacity, and financial and technological resources. Low-income populations in a city will
tend to have lower adaptive capacity than high-income populations due to low quality
housing on safe sites, lack of infrastructure and poor institutions and governance (Seto &
Satterthwaite, 2010)
Policy imperatives for resilience are now driving the need for a robust understanding of
how neighborhood resilience interfaces with complex social context in developing
countries. The capacity of vulnerable populations living in dangerous locations, such as
floodplains, to cope with it and to adapt is influenced largely by the development
context, measured basically by assets, this is particularly relevant as it is described as a
stock of resources upon which individuals and communities enhance their capacity.
Those resources encompass a set of elements that include financial assets (incomes or
access to credit), physical assets (quality of housing, possessions), natural assets (land or
rights to ecosystem services), social assets such as family, and human assets (health and
skills); bases and knowledge, and community resources (e.g. for coping the quality and
inclusiveness of community organizations that provide or manage safety nets and other
short and longer term responses); protective infrastructure and public services (Moser,
2006; Moser & Satterthwaite, 2010; Pelling, 2003; Tyler & Moench, 2012).
Based on the above, climate hazards typically erode multiple types of assets and further
impoverish such groups. profoundly affect human rights and social justice. These
consequences threaten civil and political rights and economic, social, and cultural rights,
including rights to life, access to safe food and water, health due to high prevalence of
climate-related diseases, and security (Levy & Patz, 2015)
If adaptation to Climate Change are actions aiming to avoid loss of assets and reduce
vulnerability of a system to short-term climate shocks for individual or a household to
the adverse impacts of extreme climate events (Seto & Satterthwaite, 2010), resilience’s
responses should focused on complex context to address risk reduction. ‘Resilience’ is
rooted both in ecology and the other in sustainable livelihoods. The two dimensions of
resilience drawn from ecology, namely the ability to bounce back quickly and the ability
to withstand disturbance, also have a history in engineering and risk preparedness
(Alexander, 2013; Stein et al, 2013), with a relevant emphasis over vulnerability, as
communities can do for themselves and how to strengthen their capacities, which is a
way to move away from a ‘victim’ perspective (Schipper & Langston, 2015)
The IPCC defines resilience as ‘the ability of a social or ecological system to absorb
disturbances while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning, the
capacity of self-organization, and the capacity to adapt to stress and change.’ (Bernstein
et al, 2007). Stockholm Resilience Center defines as ‘the capacity to deal with change and
continue to develop’ (Constas, Frankenberger & Hoddinott, 2014), as ‘a capacity that
enables households and communities to maintain a minimum threshold condition when
exposed to shocks and stresses’.
In such way, social approach for adaptation is needed in resilience, as focused on the
support systems and capacities of human communities and individual to thrive in
response to climate events and to promote social justice (Stevenson & Petrescu, 2016).
Support systems to enhance resilience include foremost physical infrastructure and
ecosystems, however peripherical neighborhoods lacks those. One key element in the
M. Luna-Galván, I. Vargas-Chaves 259
© 2018 The Authors. Journal Compilation © 2018 European Center of Sustainable Development.
resilience framework are agents in urban systems, comprised by individuals and
households (Tyler & Moench, 2012). Resilience depends crucially on the socially
differentiated capacities of different groups and individuals. Poverty, gender, ethnicity
and age have all been documented as contributing to differential vulnerability of social
groups in cities to climate hazards, through features such as the quality of housing,
location and access to services or social networks (Moser & Satterthwaite, 2010; Pelling,
2003; Tyler & Moench, 2012). Problematic to define in specific context, needs to be
characterized in order to elaborate a framework and a specific set of actions in the
neighborhood.
Another element of the resilience framework are the Institutions that respond to climate
events, such as institutions of property and tenure, of social inclusion or marginalization
and of collective action influence the vulnerability of particular social groups (Adger,
Arnell & Tompkins, 2005). Those institutions enable, support, or constrain and inhibit,
the capacities of vulnerable urban groups and their engagement in decision making (Tyler
& Moench, 2012).
Aspects of inclusiveness become relevant in resilience framework, those capabilities and
capacities of agents and institutions are key to thrive in response to climate change and
its impacts (Brown, Kraftl, & Pickerill, 2012). As vulnerable citizens, we must understand
our role as humans in dysfunctional social environments in the planning and action of
climate change.
The majority of the urban poor and marginal populations face the greatest risks due to
climate change due to the lack power and access to resources, adequate urban services,
and functioning infrastructure. Fostering greater equity and justice within climate action
increases a city’s capacity to respond to climate change and improves human wellbeing,
social capital, and related opportunities for sustainable social and economic development
(Reckien et al, 2017).
4. Methods
Widening research on resilience at the neighborhood level in specific context
requires the use of mixed methods to find out new elements of analysis on the theories
previously mentioned. A first approximation to the resilient and vulnerability factors in
the neighborhood, mixed use of quantitative and qualitative methods, by conducting a
survey to the senior students in I.E Fredonia (High School), each student in the sample
of 33, provides information about each their household and the neighborhood
conditions.
There is a focus on meeting basic needs, the number of people lacking success to the
basic needs are higher in recent years, dwellers living in poor housing in very poor
quality, overcrowded housing lacking basic infrastructure and services, inadequate
provision for infrastructure in water, sewage, sanitation and drainage. An indication of
the scale of urban problems is the number of people living in informal and illegal
settlements unable to buy or build (Satterthwaite, 2009).
That explains how worsening housing, income and health, and deficiencies in basic
infrastructure. Such problems lead to rethink the way we address the vulnerability of
urban populations to climate change responses to it in an articulated fashion as
260 European Journal of Sustainable Development (2018), 7, 3, 255-264
Published by ECSDEV, Via dei Fiori, 34, 00172, Rome, Italy http://ecsdev.org
processes. Each locality, what is needed is a coherent, integrated response to all
environmental hazards and risks. Urban poor should be seen as critical part of the urban
system (Dodman, Bicknell & Satterthwaite, 2012).
Based on the above, the instrument used was designed by taking the adequate and
pertinent elements provided by the SDG´s goal 11 for inclusive urban centers.
5. Characterizing the Vulnerabilitities of Fredonia Neighborhood
Cartagena de Indias, due to its geographical location and its socioeconomic
characteristics, is a city vulnerable to climate change. Its population, economic activities
and its environment have suffered the consequences of the effects of extreme weather
events in recent years (INVEMAR, 2012)
The mangroves of the ‘’Cienaga de la Virgen have been considerably pressured by the
urban sprawl that has occurred on the southeastern side of the Ciénaga de la Virgen,
which is a large swamp with an important ecosystem in the city. The surrounding
populated areas are facing environmental challes due to the illegal expansion, where
landfills and mangrove felling were made for housing construction. Likewise, as these
homes have no service infrastructure, the dump from their waste goes directly into the
swamp, a situation that greatly affected and affects the mangroves (EPA, 2009;
INVEMAR, 2012).
The neighborhood of Fredonia is characterized as vulnerable as it is one of
neighborhoods with close proximity to la Ciénaga de la Virgen which is highly impacted
by floods, rainfall, and would be affected by sea level rise, as well as an increase in
dengue. These neighborhoods are sensitive due to their poverty conditions and poor
sewerage coverage. In this sector, the use of residential land predominates and coincides
with the area of greatest population expansion in the city (INVEMAR, 2012).
Further inquiry on Climate change related issues in the neighborhoods, have been asking
about the climate events Cartagena is more likely to face, respondents are aware that
impacts will be floods 38%, and hurricanes 24% . Moreover, 37% of the population held
that health problems are associated with environmental factors such as water, air and
noise (Cartagena Cómo Vamos, 2017)
6. Survey Results
Based on the instruments applied on the sample of households in Fredonia
Neighborhood, the surveys yield the following:
Table 1: Questions based on indicators of the SDG goal 11
Yes
No
NR
1. Household with access to basic public services
67%
33%
2. Do you feel safe in the neighborhood
9%
91%
3. House with property rights
91%
9%
4. Dos the house has the protection conditions to face
extreme climate and environmental hazards
70%
26%
3%
5. Is there an easy access to public transport
48%
52%
-
6. Is there a service of solid-waste collection in your area?
76%
24%
-
M. Luna-Galván, I. Vargas-Chaves 261
© 2018 The Authors. Journal Compilation © 2018 European Center of Sustainable Development.
7. Is it close the health services (hospital, clinic)
88%
12%
-
8. Are you covered by a government subsidy/health?
76%
24%
--
9. Regular Water supply
100%
0%
-
10. Access to public transport within 500 mts distance and
less than 20 min
79%
21%
-
11. Participation in community spaces for decision making
40%
60%
-
12. Use of gas to cook at the house
100%
0%
Despite having access to several basic public services, levels of satisfaction are lower.
The service of solid-waste collection has a 58% of satisfaction while 30% are unsatisfied
and 9% very unsatisfied. Health services marks a 48% of satisfaction, while 39% affirm
they are unsatisfied and 9% are very unsatisfied. Furthermore, and based on observation,
the neighborhood is difficult to access, about 700 mts from the major road where almost
and the police station.
In terms of security, the respondents convey the issue as highly critical as shown on the
graphic below.
Graphic 1. Perceptions of security in the neighborhood.
7. Analyzing resilience approximation in the neighborhood
Adaption require strengthening the social dimension when tackling
neighborhood resilience strategies. The living conditions of the agents in the urban
systems are critical for change and developing a resilient neighborhoods when addressing
climate change as a more comprehensive strategy (Stevenson & Petrescu, 2016). The
case of Fredonia neighborhoods provides revealing evidences on what should be fore
steps to address climate change adaptation and to further build the capacities of social
agents to keep their assets to housing, their access to health services, ecosystem services
262 European Journal of Sustainable Development (2018), 7, 3, 255-264
Published by ECSDEV, Via dei Fiori, 34, 00172, Rome, Italy http://ecsdev.org
and treatment of solid waste that cause contamination issues, and ultimately safer places
within the urban system to reduce vulnerabilities
The goal 11 of the SDG’s provided the components for a first approach to resilience
when framing the case within the developing world specific social and environmental
context. It demonstrated how ill-functioning institutions, undermines decision-making
process to tackle climate challenges, and also showed vulnerabilities in the
neighborhoods with low access to institutions, clientelist and social exclusive
communities, patriarchal households and patrimonial and/ or marketized states (Ramos-
Mejía, Franco-Garcia & Jauregui-Becker, 2018)
Perceptions on security provided new categories thus highlights and redefine security
perceptions in their neighborhood such as those related with the contamination in the
area. Despite higher levels in home ownership, access to health, water and gas public
services, inhabitants in the neighborhoods are not satisfied with the quality of many of
the services, and the security environment, clearly explained by the patterns of poverty,
the contamination and the insecurity, conditions that ultimately undermine their assets to
address extreme climate events.
Conclusion
Social conditions and characteristics with lower inclusiveness in complex urban
environments in developing countries surge as an evidence that is systematically
overlooked, in order to include social vulnerabilities and inclusive elements in resilience
for sustainable adaptation strategies (Ramos-Mejía, Franco-Garcia & Jauregui-Becker,
2018). Reviewing the concepts and practices can help readdress adaption to climate
change beyond mainstream and economy-driven policies and strategies, aiming to bring
up a more contextualized neighborhood resilience where social structural conditions lie
at the core.
Further elements for resilience must allow the creation of spaces to strengthen
institutions, shared knowledge and learning processes at community level as important
for establishing neighborhood resilience in vulnerable areas are highly recommended.
In addition, different adaptation measures will have to include human rights elements.
Framing resilience into human rights perspective brings a new element as access to
public services and to re-address security in those neighborhoods other than the
traditional ones, thus adding up human security by including the right to security and the
right to a standard of living adequate for health and well-being, including housing,
medical care, and necessary social services (Levy & Patz, 2015: 311)
The above results particularly important, as further impacts have being shown the
association between climate variables and violent conflict (as well as sociopolitical
instability) found that when temperature is high and there is extreme precipitation, there
are increases in both sociopolitical instability and the frequency of collective violence in
complex urban conditions.
Climate change interacts with other ongoing change processes, knowledge and shared
understanding will evolve over time, by including agents, institutions and urban system
analysis (Tyler & Moench, 2012), and to further identifying critical elements that makes
them vulnerable and frame it in to a more pertinent, contextualized social and ecological
M. Luna-Galván, I. Vargas-Chaves 263
© 2018 The Authors. Journal Compilation © 2018 European Center of Sustainable Development.
approach, that need to be further explored and not focusing efforts only on
infrastructure engineering and cost-benefit approaches (Levy & Patz, 2015: 318).
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