Measuring and Improving Executive Functioning in the Classroom

Abstract

Executive function (EF) is a collection of self-regulatory control processes that are compromised by poverty and powerfully predict academic outcomes in children. Despite this, there are few evidence-based interventions to improve EF. Given the importance of measurement of EF in the context of the classroom where children learn, we first report results showing the validity and reliability of over 60,000 web-based, classroom administrations of tests of EF that have previously only been widely used in laboratory research. Using these tests, we next show that 800 min of computer-presented cognitive training exercises can improve EF, after controlling for practice effects and developmental effects (working memory: partial η² = .039, response inhibition: partial η² = .132, interference control: partial η² = .072). The abilities to measure and improve EF at low cost and large scale in classrooms can contribute to improved, evidence-based education and potentially help reduce achievement gaps associated with poverty.

Full text

ORIGINAL RESEARCH
Measuring and Improving Executive Functioning in the Classroom
Brian C. Kavanaugh
1
&Omer Faruk Tuncer
2
&Bruce E. Wexler
3
Received: 4 June 2018 /Accepted: 10 September 2018 /Published online: 28 September 2018
#Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018
Abstract
Executive function (EF) is a collection of self-regulatory control processes that are compromised by poverty and powerfully
predict academic outcomes in children. Despite this, there are few evidence-based interventions to improve EF. Given the
importance of measurement of EF in the context of the classroom where children learn, we first report results showing the
validity and reliability of over 60,000 web-based, classroom administrations of tests of EF that have previously only been widely
used in laboratory research. Using these tests, we next show that 800 min of computer-presented cognitive training exercises can
improve EF, after controlling for practice effects and developmental effects (working memory: partial η
2
= .039, response
inhibition: partial η
2
= .132, interference control: partial η
2
= .072). The abilities to measure and improve EF at low cost and
large scale in classrooms can contribute to improved, evidence-based education and potentially help reduce achievement gaps
associated with poverty.
Keywords Executive functioning .Cognitive training .Classroom
Executive functioning (EF) is a collection of self-regulatory
control processes that are divided into core domains of work-
ing memory (i.e., maintain/manipulate data not perceptually
present), inhibition (i.e., inhibit or control of attention,
thoughts, behaviors), and flexibility (i.e., shift flexibly
between tasks/sets; Diamond 2013;Miyakeetal.2000).
Other models of attention and/or EF (e.g., Mirsky 1996;
Cohen et al. 1998) describe a similar set of cognitive functions
albeit in somewhat varying descriptors/classifications (e.g.,
sustained attention versus inhibitory control, flexibility versus
shifting, attention versus interference control). While such
functions can be considered ‘attention’or ‘executive function-
ing’, the term executive functioning (EF) is utilized in the
current manuscript.
EF is neurally subserved by the cognitive control network,
an interconnected network of frontal, parietal, and subcortical
region structures (Senkowski and Gallinat 2015; Niendam
et al. 2012). EF is the most vulnerable or sensitive cognitive
function to disruption (Diamond 2013), and therefore deficits
occur in various childhood clinical conditions (e.g., depres-
sion, epilepsy, ADHD) and adverse psychosocial contexts/
experiences (e.g., poverty; Evans et al. 2009; Raver et al.
2013).While the most vulnerable, EF is also one of the stron-
gest cognitive predictors of clinical, functional, and academic
outcomes (Lee et al. 2013; Baum et al. 2010; Rinsky and
Hinshaw 2011; Gligorovic and Durovic 2014).
Particularly relevant to successful childhood outcomes is a
child’s ability to succeed in the academic environment and EF
has been closely tied to childhood academic functioning. The
association between EF and academic outcomes has been
identified from preschool (Willoughby et al. 2012,2016)to
college/university (Georgiou and Das 2016; Sheehan and
Iarocci 2015) in typically developing (Berninger et al. 2017;
Best et al. 2011;Cantinetal.2016; Georgiou and Das 2016;
Jacobson et al. 2011;Jacobsonetal.2017) and clinical sam-
ples (Biederman et al. 2004;Langbergetal.2013;Roseetal.
2011;Siroisetal.2016;W
illetal.2017). EF has been asso-
ciated with core academic achievement in reading Berninger
et al. 2017;Bestetal.2011; Cantin et al. 2016;Georgiouand
Das 2016;Jacobsonetal.2017;Roseetal.2011; Sirois et al.
2016;Willetal.2017) mathematics (Cantin et al. 2016;Rose
et al. 2011;Siroisetal.2016;Willetal.2017), science
(Latzman et al. 2010), and social studies (Latzman et al.
2010). The EF-academic association extends beyond core
*Brian C. Kavanaugh
Brian_Kavanaugh@Brown.edu
1
E. P. Bradley Hospital/Alpert Medical School of Brown University,
East Providence, RI, USA
2
Ardahan State Hospital, Ardahan, Turkey
3
Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
Journal of Cognitive Enhancement (2019) 3:271–280
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-018-0095-y
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