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Water Deficit Synchronizes Berry Color Development in Crimson Seedless Table Grapes
Abstract
Crimson Seedless is one of the most important table grape cultivars in the world, but often exhibits uneven berry color when grown in warm climates. Deficit irrigation is used extensively by growers during the ripening phase to advance fruit maturity and color, but there is a lack of information about the relationship between irrigation practices and fruit ripening variability. We imposed deficit irrigation in a commercial Crimson Seedless vineyard in the Maipo Valley, Chile, from veraison to harvest in two consecutive seasons. The fruit was tested for uniformity of Brix, firmness, and the color parameters “L”, “a”, “b”, and the Color Index of Red Grapes using analysis of variance on absolute residuals (Levene’s test). Postveraison water stress increased water productivity, Brix, and slightly improved berry coloration, but did not affect berry weight, size, or firmness. Moderate levels of water stress
improved color uniformity at harvest, as lower values of leaf water potential were associated with a lower percentage of green berries that never matured. These results confirmed the role of deficit irrigation in the table grape ripening process. In contrast, extending the fruit ripening period by delaying harvest beyond 18 Brix did not increase color accumulation, but did increase berry shatter.
... Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) is a cultural practice by which the amount of water applied to the crop during specific periods of the growing season is below the maximum water demand. Depending on the crop species, the most recognized benefits of deficit-irrigating fruit orchards are: 1) important water savings [1], 2) increased water productivity and intrinsic water use efficiency [2], 3) improved fruit quality and uniformity of fruit maturity [3] and 4) reduced vegetative growth [4]. Therefore, maximum orchard profitability is reached when water application has induced some level of water stress ( Figure 1). ...
... It must be carefully handled, because, it is well known that severe water stress may reduce fruit size and compromise yield of the next season (as well as the current season if improperly applied) [5]. This is why RDI has been mostly employed in fruit crops whose economic value is not determined by fresh weight, such as wine grapes [3], almonds [5], and prunes [6], among others. Furthermore, the fact that fresh-fruit growers have been hesitant to use this irrigation technique [7] is a good example of how the adoption of water conservative irrigation strategies, is strongly hindered by farmer's aversion to risk [8]. ...
... For instance, late water deficits can generate considerable reductions in yield of stone fruit trees, as water stress may induce large reductions in elongation growth rates [5]. On the other hand, moderate levels of water stress applied during the last growth stage of table grape berries have shown no impact on berry size and yield per vine [3]. ...
Deficit irrigation (RDI) is a cultural practice that has gained important attention during the last years due to water scarcity. Unfortunately, the use of RDI is limited in fresh-fruit production, as severely water-stressed plants can exhibit large reductions in yield and fruit quality. In this opinion article, I summarize what I think are the most important challenges associated with the successful management of RDI in fresh fruit production.
... Munitz et al. (2016) achieved the best vegetative growth and high yield in a parcel with regular and continuous water deficit regime, ranging from easy access to water from flowering to cluster formation and low limited irrigation from berry set to harvest. Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019) reported that post-veraison water restriction did not affect cluster density, moderate stress prevented uniform color development at harvest, and high stress led to green remaining berries. ...
... These findings contradict the result reported by Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019), which stated that post-veraison water restriction did not affect cluster density. It is believed that this discrepancy is due to the differences in grape variety and experimental conditions. ...
Two experiments were conducted in two vineyards consisting of vines from the organic-certified Cabernet-Sauvignon/1103P graft combination and the conventional cultivation Cabernet Sauvignon/5BB graft combination. Vines were identified based on pre-dawn leaf water potential values according to stress levels in a Split-Plot Experimental Design. Grapevines were classified as <-0.8 MPa and >-0.8 MPa. These vines were further grouped into dryland-shallow soil and bottomland-deep soil areas, and for each area-soil type, Control, Stress 1, and Stress 2 levels were created. At harvest, the berries were divided into four groups based on their diameter: 10mm-12mm, 12mm-14mm, 14mm-16mm, and 16mm-18mm (In some measurements, no berries belonging to the 16-18mm category could be found). The grapes were grouped as Control, Stress 1 (S1 > -0.8 MPa), and Stress 2 (S2 < -0.8 MPa) based on size groups and stress levels, and certain morphological characteristics of the clusters were examined. The width and length of the clusters were not significantly affected by the area-soil type. Cluster weight, cluster volume, and number of berries per cluster criteria were influenced by stress levels. It was determined that organic vineyards with higher stress levels had fewer clusters compared to conventional vineyards. The number of berries in the clusters showed significant differences based on vineyard area and soil type, water stress levels, and berry size. In conclusion, in the Tekirdağ province, to obtain high-quality grapes from the cv. Cabernet-Sauvignon, it is considered suitable to utilize berries ranging from 10mm to 12mm in size, in conjunction with dryland-shallow soil conditions where the water potential (Ψpd) can decrease to as low as -0.8 MPa during the ripening period.
... Munitz et al. (2016) achieved the best vegetative growth and high yield in a parcel with regular and continuous water deficit regime, ranging from easy access to water from flowering to cluster formation and low limited irrigation from berry set to harvest. Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019) reported that post-veraison water restriction did not affect cluster density, moderate stress prevented uniform color development at harvest, and high stress led to green remaining berries. ...
... These findings contradict the result reported by Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019), which stated that post-veraison water restriction did not affect cluster density. It is believed that this discrepancy is due to the differences in grape variety and experimental conditions. ...
Two experiments were conducted in two vineyards consisting of vines from the organic-certified Cabernet-Sauvignon/1103P graft combination and the conventional cultivation Cabernet Sauvignon/5BB graft combination. Vines were identified based on pre-dawn leaf water potential values according to stress levels in a Split-Plot Experimental Design. Grapevines were classified as <-0.8 MPa and >-0.8 MPa. These vines were further grouped into dryland-shallow soil and bottomland-deep soil areas, and for each area-soil type, Control, Stress 1, and Stress 2 levels were created. At harvest, the berries were divided into four groups based on their diameter: 10mm-12mm, 12mm-14mm, 14mm-16mm, and 16mm-18mm (In some measurements, no berries belonging to the 16-18mm category could be found). The grapes were grouped as Control, Stress 1 (S1 > -0.8 MPa), and Stress 2 (S2 < -0.8 MPa) based on size groups and stress levels, and certain morphological characteristics of the clusters were examined. The width and length of the clusters were not significantly affected by the area-soil type. Cluster weight, cluster volume, and number of berries per cluster criteria were influenced by stress levels. It was determined that organic vineyards with higher stress levels had fewer clusters compared to conventional vineyards. The number of berries in the clusters showed significant differences based on vineyard area and soil type, water stress levels, and berry size. In conclusion, in the Tekirdağ province, to obtain high-quality grapes from the cv. Cabernet-Sauvignon, it is considered suitable to utilize berries ranging from 10mm to 12mm in size, in conjunction with dryland-shallow soil conditions where the water potential (Ψpd) can decrease to as low as -0.8 MPa during the ripening period.
... Buesa et al. (2017) suggested that continuously applying limited irrigation could be a suitable option, considering the negative effects of restricted irrigation that persisted for more than three seasons. Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019) found that exposure of grapes to post-harvest water stress did not affect berry mass. Kontoudakis et al. (2011) stated that the heterogeneity of grape berries has a significant impact on grape composition and quality, and that water stress leads to a decrease in grape size and an increase in tannin content, resulting in improved grape quality. ...
... Regarding STME, the Stress 1 level (1.51 g) was in the first group, the Stress 2 level (1.48 g) was in the second group, and the Control level (1.40 g) was in the last group (Table 1). The results are similar to Calderon-Orellana et al. (2019) in that an increase in water stress after veraison did not affect berry mass, and to Nadal (2010) in that there was lower berry mass on hilltops. However, it is not consistent with the finding of Ojeda et al. (2002) that post-veraison water deficiency (-1.2 MPa) resulted in a decrease in berry mass, which is thought to be due to field conditions. ...
In a two-part experiment, the first parcel is certified organic vineyard and, consisting of Cabernet Sauvignon cv. vines grafted onto the 1103P rootstock. The second parcel is conventional vineyard, with cv. Cabernet Sauvignon vines grafted onto the 5BB rootstock. Using Split-Plot Design based on stress levels, the experiment is set up with three repetitions, with two main plots representing Organic and Conventional vineyard, each split into two sub-plots. Predawn leaf water potential values were measured, and vines with values below -0.8 MPa and above -0.8 MPa were grouped into Dryland-Shallow Soil and Bottomland-Deep Soil, respectively, based on soil type (six groups, namely Control, Stress 1, and Stress 2). Berry characteristics were studied during harvest, and berries were classified into four groups based on their diameter (10mm-12mm, 12mm-14mm, 14mm-16mm). The results showed that the 10mm-12mm berry size group had the desired berry characteristics, Dryland-Shallow Soil produced smaller berries, and Stress 2 increased berry skin area and berry skin area/berry volume values.
... The effect of prolonged water scarcity in semi-arid Mediterranean climates such as that found in Southeastern Spain, and the increased pressure for water resources, have highlighted the need to increase the IWUE. By means of deficit irrigation, it has been possible to increase the IWUE without negatively affecting quality or yield [4,12,61,62]. Moreover, a certain level of water stress can even improve berry quality through an increase in the red berry color and the production of health-promoting bioactive compounds [4,12,19,20], as in the case of 'Crimson Seedless' table grape production. ...
The aims of this work were modelling the effect of water stress intensity during post-veraison on table grape quality and yield, as well as predicting berry quality at harvest using a machine learning algorithm. The dataset was obtained by applying different irrigation regimes in two commercial table grape vineyards during seven growing seasons. From these data, it was possible to train and validate the predictive models over a wide range of values for the independent (water stress intensity and fruit load) and dependent (firmness and berry color) variables. The supervised learning algorithm Gaussian Process Regression allowed us to predict the variables with high accuracy. It was also determined that a reduction in irrigation of up to 40% during post-veraison, compared to vines without water limitations, and the accumulation of the water stress integral of up to 30 MPa per day, linearly increase the irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and promote higher berry color and firmness. The severe water scarcity and the increasing uncertainty about the irrigation water availability for the season that farmers are facing highlight the advantage of incorporating these validated techniques into agricultural decision making, as they allow for the planning of cultural practices and criteria to increase the IWUE and crop sustainability.
... This area possesses characteristics of large temperature difference between day and night, high sunshine intensity, long sunshine duration, sandy and/or rocky soils, and long frost-free period, which all together cause significantly higher soluble solids and sugar-acid ratio of 'Crimson Seedless' than other regions (Zhang et al. 2021). While the deficiencies of small berries and uneven coloring appearance definitely detracts its commercial value for table grapes (Dokoozlian and Peacock 2001;Calderon-Orellana et al. 2019). ...
The color and berry size of ‘Crimson Seedless’ play vital role in their marketability. In the present study, eight-year-old ‘Crimson Seedless’ was used as the experimental material to investigate the effect of plant growth regulators on the fruit weight, quality and color. Several dilutions of “Pro-Gibb” (20% gibberellic acid (A3)) and “Promalin” (1.8% 6-BA & 1.8% gibberellic acid (A4 + A7)) were applied to the ‘Crimson Seedless’ plants during the swelling period, and the results showed that the cluster weight and berry weight were significantly increased by 46.77% and 20.64% respectively when treated with 6000 times diluted solution of “Promalin”. Except for application of 15,000 times diluted solution of “Pro-Gibb”, 4000 times and 5000 times diluted solution of “Promalin”, there were no significant differences between control and other treatments in soluble solid content (SSC). The titratable acid content (TA) of the berries was also significantly reduced under various treatments of plant growth regulators. The Vc content of the berries under T2 treatment increased up to 6.40 mg/100 g compared with the control. The color of berries with 20,000 times diluted solution of “Pro-Gibb” treatment was pink, and the color of berry with other treatments was red. In conclusion, application of 6000 times diluted solution of “Promalin” improved fruit quality, texture and berry weight more effectively compared with other applied treatments. Overall, the results of the present study showed that optimized doses of the plant growth regulators could significantly improve the ‘Crimson Seedless’ fruit quality.
... Deficit irrigation has also been shown to enhance the formation of abscisic acid (ABA) and increase fruit color (Balint and Reynolds, 2013;Faci, et al., 2014;Fuentes et al., 2014;Niculcea et al., 2014). Deficit irrigation may be used as an alternative method to spraying with plant growth regulators such as ethephon, which may have residual effects or negative influence on berry quality (Calderon-Orellana et al., 2019). *Author for correspondence : E-mail : islam_frahat@yahoo.com ...
A two-years (2019 and 2020) field experiment was conducted on six-year-old "Crimson Seedless" grown in a commercial farm at El-Khatatba area, El Sadat city, Egypt, to investigate the effect of applying deficit irrigation on produc tivity and the quality from veraison to harvest. Four irrigation levels were applied from veraison to the end of harvest as the control, bas ed on actual crop evapotranspiration (ETo): 100% ETc (control), 80% ETc, 60% ETc and 40% ETc. As for yield, it was c lear that the 100% ETc irrigation treatment recorded the greatest yield and berry parameters (berry diameter and berry firmness).I n contrast, berry weight was increased by the 60% ETc irrigation treatment compared with other treatments including the control. The results indicated that decreasing the irrigation levels from 100% ETc to 40% ETc until harvest, enhanced berry color and TSS, but acidity was increased by the 100% % ETc irrigation treatment. Results suggested that pre-harvest deficit irrigation at 60 % ETc, would be the best technique to advance 'Crimson Seedless' fruit pigmentation and quality attributes with a slight effect on yield and berry parameters.
... Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) may be an alternative to the use of plant growth regulators to improve berry color in grape, since one of the responses of vines to drought is the increase of ABA synthesis [17][18][19][20][21]. ABA content in berries nearly doubled in response to water stress in the "Cabernet Sauvignon" wine grape cultivar, allowing an increase in anthocyanins in the fruits [11]. ...
Lack of color in the skin of red table grape varieties is a serious problem in areas of warm climate. This problem is often addressed by the application of ethylene release products such as ethephon. Strict regulation in the use of this product in EU forces European grape producers to look for suitable alternatives. With the aim to increase red skin color, we applied regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies from veraison until harvest on “Flame Seedless” table grape vines cultivated under nets and under a plastic greenhouse in South East Spain, and compared yield and fruit quality with vines fully irrigated under the same net and plastic greenhouses. Our results show a modest improvement in the percentage of commercial clusters with better skin color, probably because the short duration of the deficit irrigation period only caused a slight decrease in soil water content and a mild water stress in RDI vines. Larger differences were observed under the more limiting conditions of the plastic greenhouse for light environment, especially when berry skin color was measured by CIRG (color index of red grape). More noticeable effect of RDI was noted on fruit earliness. Water savings were also remarkable. Negative effects of RDI on berry size or total soluble solid content were not perceived. Our results suggest that RDI is a suitable strategy to save irrigation water without substantial negative effects on yield and berry size. However, the effects on skin color were insufficient in the trial conditions.
... Taste was greatly improved by water stress, which was mainly reflected in the content of SS and TSS. The content of SS and TSS increased under water stress during the fruit expanding stage, the same conclusion was shown for grapefruits and grapes [38,39] . This is because the product of the accumulation of photosynthesis would be more distributed to the reproductive organs under water stress, eventually leading to an apparent enhancement in the sugar content. ...
Chile is one of the main producers of kiwifruit (Actinidia spp) in the world. However, the predicted reduction in water availability and the increase in both air temperature and evaporative demand in many producing areas may jeopardize the Chilean kiwifruit industry. Protected cultivation and deficit irrigation have been progressively gained in popularity among kiwifruit growers as new methods to improve water use efficiency and fruit uniformity. Unfortunately, few studies have addressed the extent of the effects of both cultural practices on microclimate conditions that determine water requirements and fruit variability in commercial kiwifruit orchards. Two irrigation treatments were applied in mature kiwifruit vines (Actinidia deliciosa A. Chev. var. Hayward) under open-field conditions and covered by plastic films. Results showed that plastic-covered vines experienced a lower transmission of blue light (400 - 500 nm), but a higher transmission of red light (600 - 700 nm) and far-red light (700-800 nm), which may be related to a lower sensitivity of leaf stomata from plastic-covered vines to moderate water stress (leaf water potential values between -1.3 and -1.0 MPa). Moreover, vines covered by plastic films exhibited 20-30% higher stomatal conductance than those under open field conditions, but similar values of chlorophyll fluorescence and temperature of fruits and leaves, regardless of the irrigation strategy. Despite the increase in the proportion of diffusive radiation and lower variability in photosynthetically active radiation, plants beneath plastic covers exhibited lower uniformity in stomata opening, which seemed to be associated with greater variability in soluble solids concentration at harvest in fruits from well-irrigated vines. These results highlighted the importance of spectral light determinations to understand responses of plants to water stress, which may be determinant in a global warming scenario.
Kiwifruit is widely recognized as a fruit crop sensitive to water stress due to low stomatal regulation. Unfortunately, many of the most important kiwifruit producing areas have been affected by increasing water scarcity due to climate change. Protected cultivation may be used in kiwifruit vines not only to mitigate water stress and potential reductions in fruit quality but also to increase intrinsic water use efficiency. At the beginning of fruit maturation, two environmental conditions (uncovered and covered with a transparent plastic covering) were assessed in mature kiwifruit plants (Actinidia deliciosa Chev. cv. Hayward) subjected to conventional and deficit irrigation regimes in San Nicolás, Chile, for two consecutive seasons. The results showed that covered plants under deficit irrigation required twice the time to exhibit severe water stress levels (~−1.3 MPa) than plants under open-field conditions. Despite changes in solar radiation quantity and quality due to the transparent plastic covering, differences in rates of water stress occurrence between cover treatments in deficit-irrigated vines were not explained by differences in soil desiccation or stomatal conductance. The delay in severe water stress onset led to considerable water savings and caused no reductions in either yield or fruit quality, which increased water productivity between 21% and 71%. Fruit from covered plants subjected to deficit irrigation exhibited higher firmness at greater maturity (>7.0 Brix). The increase in water productivity in severely water-stressed kiwifruit vines, when using late-season plastic canopy cover, confirms that protected cultivation can be an excellent tool to reduce the impact of limited irrigation in many kiwifruit producing areas affected by water scarcity.
Four Vitis vinifera L. cultivars grown at five locations throughout California were studied to determine the relationships among temperature and vapor pressure deficit (VPD) and leaf water potential (Ψ1) measured under clear skies at midday (solar noon) or in some instances midmorning to midafternoon. Stem water potential (Ψstem) was also measured on several occasions. Vines were irrigated at 100% or greater of measured or estimated vineyard evapotranspiration, and deficit or nonirrigated vines were included for comparison. Temperature and VPD were determined at the time of measurement. The highest and lowest values of Ψ1 measured on well-watered grapevines were -0.51 and -1.15 MPa, respectively. Leaf and stem water potentials were linearly related to VPD and ambient temperature. The coefficient of determination was greater for the relationship between Ψ1 and VPD (R2 = 0.74) than ambient temperature (R2 = 0.58). Based on the regressions, estimates of Ψ1 at a VPD of 2 and 5 kPa for fully irrigated grapevines would be -0.65 and -0.89, respectively, while those of Ψstem at the same VPDs would be -0.37 and -0.57 MPa, respectively. Leaf water potential of water-stressed vines was less responsive to VPD or temperature when Ψ1 values ranged from -1.2 to -1.45 MPa. The values of Ψ1 and Ψstem as a function of VPD or temperature could serve as baselines indicating whether grapevines are fully irrigated or not water stressed under the environmental conditions found in semiarid grapegrowing regions. Copyright © 2007 by the American Society for Enology and Viticulture. All rights reserved.
Fruit uniformity is generally regarded as an essential quality parameter in winegrape production. Deficit irrigation and cluster thinning are popular techniques to improve fruit quality, but there is little empirical information on how these practices influence fruit uniformity in the field. Deficit irrigation and targeted cluster thinning treatments were imposed in a commercial Cabernet Sauvignon vineyard in Dunnigan Hills, California, for three consecutive years. Fruit uniformity measures at three levels (blocks, vines, and clusters) were evaluated using variance components analysis and ANOVA on absolute residuals (Levene's test). Regardless of the irrigation treatment, cluster-to-cluster variation within vines was the primary source of fruit variability each season. In general, postveraison irrigation deficits decreased cluster-to-cluster uniformity for Brix and fruit anthocyanin content. While the decrease in anthocyanin content uniformity was due to unevenness of fruit anthocyanin synthesis/loss, the decrease in Brix uniformity was due to unevenness in fruit shriveling. Cluster thinning increased Brix uniformity at veraison, but there was no effect at harvest on fruit composition and berry size uniformity. Brix uniformity was not correlated to crop load, pruning weight, or the pruning weight/crop load ratio, but an increase in Brix uniformity did occur as fruit matured.
Several physiological indicators of plant water status (stem water potential, SWP , leaf water potential, LWP and trunk growth rate , TGR,), were tested as criteria for irrigation scheduling in table grapes cv Crimson Seedless, growing, in a deep (2 m) clay loamy soil, at the Aconcagua Valley, Chile. Four irrigation treatments were applied: T1, 100% of crop evapotranspiration (Etc), T2, 75% of Etc, T3, 50% of Etc, all over the season, and T4, with a variable amount of water (between 0 to 100% of Etc) all over the season. Stem water potential (SWP) and leaf water potential (LWP) were measured at midday using a pressure chamber. Trunk growth rate (TGR) was measured continuously with an electronic dendrometer. Soil water changes were also measured. The first year results shows that TGR was most sensitive than the other two indicators, however, the interaction between plant pheno-logy and trunk growth must be considered. INTRODUCTION An inadequate water supply at any stage of the productive cycle of table grape limits the production and the quality of the fruit, particularly between flowering and veraison (Peacoock et al., 1998). Therefore, in this period it is important to detect any water deficit, even moderate, as soon as possible, to obtain higher fruit diameter at harvest. Periodic measurements of soil water status are usually conducted for detection of vine water stress (Martín et al., 1990). However, under drip irrigation, a local measure-ment of soil water content is not representative, and many measurements are needed to integrate soil moisture of the wettes zone beneath the dripper (Selles et al., 2003; Myburg, 1996; Or, 1995). Therefore, physiological indicators of plant water status have the potential to be a better water stress indicator (Selles and Berger, 1990; Goldhammer et al., 1999). Leaf Water Potential, LWP, or Stem Water Potential, SWP, (Fereres and Goldhammer, 2003; Schackel et al. 1997; Naor, 2001), measured at midday with a pressure chamber, has been proposed as a standard parameter to determine the plant water status for irrigation scheduling of fruit trees. On the other hand, a continuous recording the variations of trunks diameter was proposed as plant water stress indicator (Selles and Berger, 1990; Myburg, 1996; Michelakis, 1997; Van Louwen et al., 2000; Goldhammer and Fereres, 2001; Moriana and Fereres, 2002). In several fruit species trunk diameter variation has been shown to be sensitive to moisture availability under moderate water stress conditions (Van Louwen et al., 2000; Goldhammer and Fereres, 2001). In addition parameters based on trunk diameter changes were found to be more responsive to moisture soil availability compare with LWP or SWP (Goldhamer et al., 1999). The objective of our project was to evaluate the sensitivity of a few water stress indicators for irrigation scheduling of Crimson Seedless table grapes. The results of the first year are reported here.
Subjective scoring of color may be more practical and faster and values can be referenced to objective color values and to pigment concentrations. For small leafy tissues, for example, samples representative of a 5 point color scale are evaluated for objective color values and chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations. Routine evaluations are done by subjective scoring, but referencing to objective measurements adds valuable information to the scores. Figure 1. Determination of commodity color can be accomplished subjectively through the use of comparative color charts or objectively with a Minolta Colorimeter. Color charts can be very effective and useful if the colors truly match the color change in the commodity of interest. The Minolta Colorimeter can detect small differences in color and provides separate values for lightness to darkness, green to red and blue to yellow scales.
Transcriptional studies in relation to fruit ripening generally aim to identify the transcriptional states associated with physiological ripening stages and the transcriptional changes between stages within the ripening programme. In non-climacteric fruits such as grape, all ripening-related genes involved in this programme have not been identified, mainly due to the lack of mutants for comparative transcriptomic studies. A feature in grape cluster ripening (Vitis vinifera cv. Pinot noir), where all berries do not initiate the ripening at the same time, was exploited to study their shifted ripening programmes in parallel. Berries that showed marked ripening state differences in a véraison-stage cluster (ripening onset) ultimately reached similar ripeness states toward maturity, indicating the flexibility of the ripening programme. The expression variance between these véraison-stage berry classes, where 11% of the genes were found to be differentially expressed, was reduced significantly toward maturity, resulting in the synchronization of their transcriptional states. Defined quantitative expression changes (transcriptional distances) not only existed between the véraison transitional stages, but also between the véraison to maturity stages, regardless of the berry class. It was observed that lagging berries complete their transcriptional programme in a shorter time through altered gene expressions and ripening-related hormone dynamics, and enhance the rate of physiological ripening progression. Finally, the reduction in expression variance of genes can identify new genes directly associated with ripening and also assess the relevance of gene activity to the phase of the ripening programme.
Crop evapotranspiration (ETc) is essential for irrigation scheduling. The amount of water consumed can be estimated by multiplying the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) by a crop coefficient (Kc); the value of Kc is usually obtained from FAO Paper nr 56. In table grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), Kc are obtained from experiments in vines trained on trellis systems; however in Chile, the most used is the overhead trellis system (parronal). Therefore, the objective was to determine water requirements and Kc values of a table grape orchard cv. Thompson Seedless trained on an overhead trellis system in Calle Larga (32 degrees 52 ' 40" S, 70 degrees 37 ' 45" W, 795 m a.s.l.), Aconcagua Valley, Chile, using the Eddy covariance method. During the 2008/2009 and 2009/2010 seasons, the instruments required for ET0 and ETc measurement were installed on a 4 m tower above the soil (2 m above vine canopy). The ET0 was estimated according to the FAO Penman-Monteith equation and ETc by the Eddy covariance method. The Kc was obtained by ratio between ETc and ET0. The maximum ETc was 7 mm d(-1) and total water consumption was 810 mm. The season maximum Kc value of 1.2 was obtained near harvest during the first season, and 20 d before veraison in the second season. The Kc increased linearly with the percentage of intercepted solar radiation (IRS) by the vine canopy at noon, suggesting that an equation to convert the IRS to Kc is more useful than Kc tabulated according to phenology. The equation obtained in this experiment was Kc = 0.012 IRS - 0.1029, R-2 = 0.85.
Anthocyanin biosynthesis is strongly up-regulated in ripening
fruit of grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) grown under
drought conditions.We investigated the effects of long-term
water deficit on the expression of genes coding for flavonoid
and anthocyanin biosynthetic enzymes and related transcription
factors, genes sensitive to endogenous [sugars,
abscisic acid (ABA)] and environmental (light) stimuli connected
to drought stress, and genes developmentally regulated
in ripening berries. Total anthocyanin content has
increased at harvest in water-stressed (WS) fruits by
37–57% in two consecutive years.At least 84% of the total
variation in anthocyanin content was explained by the
linear relationship between the integral of mRNA accumulation
of the specific anthocyanin biosynthetic gene UDPglucose
: flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT) and
metabolite content during time series from véraison
through ripening. Chalcone synthase (CHS2, CHS3) and
flavanone 3-hydroxylase (F3H) genes of the flavonoid
pathway showed high correlation as well. Genes coding
for flavonoid 3�,5�-hydroxylase (F3�5�H) and O-methyltransferase
(OMT) were also up-regulated in berries from
dehydrated plants in which anthocyanin composition
enriched in more hydroxylated and more methoxylated
derivatives such as malvidin and peonidin, the grape anthocyanins
to which human gastric bilitranslocase displays the
highest affinity.The induction inWS plants of structural and
regulatory genes of the flavonoid pathway and of genes that
trigger brassinosteroid hormonal onset of maturation suggested
that the interrelationships between developmental
and environmental signalling pathways were magnified by
water deficit which actively promoted fruit maturation and,
in this context, anthocyanin biosynthesis.
The effect of deficit irrigation strategies on physiological performance, growth, source:sink balance, water productivity and berry composition of field-grown grapevines of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cannonau (syn. Grenache)/1103P were investigated in Sardinia, Italy, in 2009. In two of the treatments, both sides of the root system received 50% and 25% crop evapotranspiration (ETc), referred to as strategies DI50 and DI25, respectively. In the third treatment, which included partial root-zone drying (strategy PRD), ETc was set at 50%. All three treatments were compared to a full irrigation control (strategy FI), thus 100% ETc. No severe water stress was imposed from berry development onwards. Strategies DI25 and PRD induced higher stomatal closure and leaf water-use efficiency. A slightly higher net assimilation rate was recorded in FI before véraison. During ripening, leaf area decreased in DI50 and DI25, but lateral shoots continued to grow in FI and PRD. Yield and pruning weight were higher in FI, but in all the treatments the vines were source:sink balanced and supported ripening. Irrigation water productivity was higher in DI25, and no significant differences in yield or water productivity were observed between PRD and DI50 irrigated with a similar volume of water. Full irrigation produced berries with a significantly higher fresh and dry weight, lower °Brix and higher malic acid at harvest, while PRD berries weighed less and had less titratable acidity, lower phenol content and a higher pH. Total anthocyanin contents were consistently lower in DI25 and PRD, with highest values measured in DI50. The treatments showed different anthocyanin profiles, with a higher concentration of acylated anthocyanin in DI25 and PRD.
Abstract
Poor coloration of red grapes grown in warm regions is a frequent problem that decreases production efficiency. Most table grape growers use ethephon to improve color, but its influence on color development is erratic, and it may reduce berry firmness. Application of S-abscisic acid (ABA) to grapes can increase the anthocyanins in their skins, but no protocols have been established regarding its potential commercial use. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of ABA and ethephon treatments on fruit quality characteristics, including those related to firmness and color, on `Flame Seedless' grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) in several experiments over three consecutive seasons. Abscisic acid had few effects on berry weight or juice composition, but it increased berry softening and skin anthocyanin concentrations. The effect of ABA on berry firmness was similar to ethephon. With respect to skin anthocyanin concentration and fruit color characteristics, 300 mg·L–1 ABA applied at veraison was superior to the other ABA concentrations and to ethephon applied at any of the times tested. Moreover, any concentration of ABA between 75 and 300 mg·L–1 applied after veraison improved color better than ethephon applied at the same time. There was a highly significant inverse curvilinear relationship between skin anthocyanin concentration and the lightness and hue of the berries. Anthocyanin concentrations between 0.01 and 0.04 mg·cm–2 had little effect on berry lightness and hue, so researchers should consider measuring color, not just anthocyanins, when evaluating the quality of red table grapes.
Relationships between the fresh mass of seed, skin (exocarp), and flesh (mesocarp) in six different berry size categories, were assessed on ripe fruit from Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines exposed to either High (H), Control (C) or Low (L) water status during post-veraison berry growth in a vineyard. Berries harvested from each treatment were segregated into six mass categories in order to distinguish between changes in fresh mass components associated with general variation in berry size (on well-watered grapevines), and those associated with berry size differences due to water stress. Berry fresh mass across all treatments ranged from about 0.4 to 2.0 g. Fresh mass components for both H and C berries comprised approximately 5% seed, 15% skin, and 80% flesh, regardless of variation in berry size, although there was some increase in seed mass relative to whole-berry fresh mass in larger berries. Berry growth (as inferred from fresh mass at harvest) was much less sensitive to water deficit than published reports for grapevine shoot growth. Midday leaf water potentials around –1.20 MPa (Control) were not sufficient to inhibit berry growth. However, midday water potentials around –1.50 MPa (Low water status) inhibited berry growth by 13–18% of that attained by grapevines grown at high water status (i.e. treatment H where midday leaf water potentials remained around –1.00 MPa). Inhibition of berry growth by water deficit was attributed almost exclusively to reduced growth of mesocarp tissues (for most berry size categories). Water deficit thus increased the proportion of whole-berry fresh mass represented by seeds and skin (for most berry size categories). Changes in those proportions due to irrigation treatments exceeded differences associated with general (non-stress) variation in whole-berry fresh mass. Excluding adverse environmental impacts on whole-berry fresh mass, our results point to a limited role for variation in berry size per se as a factor determining the solute concentration of juice or wine derived from different sized fruit. By implication, and for all categories of whole-berry fresh mass represented here, late season water deficit can result in ripe fruit with more skin and seed tissues (relative to whole-berry fresh mass) compared with well-watered control fruit.
Defense responses of grapevine towards Botrytis cinerea were investigated. The expression of genes coding for proteins involved in defense were studied: (a) phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and stilbene synthase (StSy), (b) an acidic chitinase (VCH3) and a basic chitinase (VCHIT1b), and (c) a polygalacturonase inhibitor protein (PGIP). Since no PGIP was known in grapevine, a complete cDNA sequence was first characterized by PCR and RACE-PCR amplifications. RNAs isolated from infected leaves and infected berries were analysed by semi-quantitative and real-time RT-PCRs. In infected leaves, the expression of PAL, StSy, PGIP and VCH3 genes occurred 6hours post inoculation (hpi). Increase of VCHIT1b gene expression was delayed (24hpi). Maximum levels of induction of these genes were observed at 48hpi, except for the VCH3 gene (24hpi). Activation of these defense responses was not sufficient to stop B. cinerea spread. In berries, no VCH3 gene expression was detected. Maximum levels of induction were observed in stage 3 (loss of berry colour and abundant production of conidia) for the PAL and PGIP genes, and in stage 4 (shrivelled berry) for the StSy and VCHIT1b genes.
‘Crimson Seedless’ is a lateseason table grape recently developed by scientists at the USDA-Agriculture Research Service. The cultivar holds significant promise for commercial producers due to its late maturity and seedless, crisp berries. Poor color and small berry size are the primary fruit quality problems associated with the cultivar. This study shows that trunk girdles applied at fruit set, combined with applications of the plant growth regulator ethephon, significantly improve the berry size, color and packable yield of this cultivar.
A field experiment was performed in two drip-irrigated seedless table grape vineyards (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Autumn Royal and Crimson) from 2007 to 2009 in a semiarid area of north-eastern Spain to evaluate the effect of post veraison regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) on the grape yield and quality. The same experimental layout was used in both cultivars. Two RDI treatments were compared with a full irrigation treatment in both cultivars. The full irrigation treatment (T1) was irrigated at 100% of the net irrigation requirements (NIR). The RDI treatments (T2 and T3) were irrigated as T1 except from veraison until harvest, when they received 80% and 60% of NIR, respectively. Average water saving in T3 was around 15% of the seasonal water applied in the treatment T1 while this saving in T2 ranged between 6% and 8%. Similar grape yields were obtained in the different irrigation treatments for the Autumn Royal cultivar during 2007 and 2009. However in 2008 the yield of T2 (46.0 kg vine−1) was significantly higher than in T3 (34.4 kg vine−1). For the Crimson cultivar, the grape yield of T3 was significantly lower than T2 in 2007 and 2008. In 2009 low grape yields were obtained in all treatments of the Crimson cultivar and no differences were observed between them. The quality parameters of the berry in both cultivars were not affected by the irrigation treatments. Berry cracking in Autumn was high in 2007 ranging from 14.7% to 21.4% and very low in 2008 and 2009 ranging from 1.5% to 4.3%. The reduction of berry cracking was attributed to the splitting of the irrigation dose in two applications per day, one at midday and the other one at night. Significant differences between irrigation treatments were observed in the CIELab color parameters of the berry skin in the Crimson cultivar. The overall results during the three study years showed that high grape yields of very good quality can be obtained with moderate regulated deficit irrigation in the post veraison phase without affecting grape quality in the Autumn and Crimson seedless cultivars in the arid conditions of the lower Ebro Valley in north-eastern Spain
The possibility of applying the hyperspectral imaging technique for prediction of some physico-chemical and sensory indices of table grapes was checked. Seven cultivars were studied: Italia, Baresana, Pizzutello, Red Globe, Michele Palieri, Crimson Seedless, and Thompson Seedless. A hyperspectral imaging system was used to acquire the reflectance spectra of berries. Successively, the same berries were analysed for their pH, total acidity, and soluble solid content according to common methods. Quantitative descriptive sensory analysis was performed by a trained panel. A Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) model was applied in order to find correlations between spectra information and each of the physico-chemical indices. Good correlations were found between each of the physico-chemical indices and the spectra information. Concerning titratable acidity, coefficients of determination were equal to 0.95 and 0.82 for white and red/black grapes, respectively whereas the relative values for soluble solid content were 0.94 and 0.93, and for pH 0.80 and 0.90. Spectra information was not correlated with the sensory data, making hard prediction of attribute perception.
Environmental variance components were estimated for berry ripening time (BRT), berry weight (BW), soluble solids concentration (SSC), titratable acidity (TA), and deformation at the first major peak (DFP) and maximum force (MF) in penetration tests of berry flesh in grapes (Vitis vinifera L. and V. labruscana Bailey). The variance among berries within clusters was largest among environmental variance components for BW, SSC, DFP and MF. The variance among clusters within vines was smaller than the variance among berries within clusters for all traits. The sum of the variance among years and the variance associated with the genotype×year interaction was generally larger than that among vines within genotypes. Consequently, increasing the number of yearly repetitions was more efficient than increasing vine replications in evaluating the genetic potential in breeding.
The foregoing paper by Lorenz et al. (1995), translated into English by P. May, describes a new system for the identification of grapevine growth stages called the BBCH system. This is an adaptation, for the grapevine, of a basic scale developed to cover all monocot and dicot crops. Appraisal of this and two other systems has led to a preference for that by Eichhorn and Lorenz (1977) but with some amendments. These amendments are discussed and a new system of measurement and description of stages of the grapevine is proposed which copes with the dual needs for a simple listing of major stages and, at the same time, provides intermediate detailed stages. It is called the Modified E-L system.
‘Crimson Seedless’ is a popular table grape cultivar, but in warm-climates, its fruits often fail to develop adequate red color, even after they have been treated with ethephon. Application of abscisic acid (ABA) may improve color more effectively than ethephon, but its potential effects on postharvest quality must be considered before recommending its use on table grapes. Therefore, we compared the postharvest quality attributes of grapes treated preharvest with 250μLL−1 ethephon, the current industry standard, to that of grapes treated with 150 or 300μLL−1 ABA, or nontreated. Treatment with either ethephon or 150μLL−1 ABA allowed grapes to be harvested 10 d before nontreated fruit, and fruits treated with 300μLL−1 ABA attained marketable quality 30 d before nontreated fruit. Early harvest was possible because the treatments induced more rapid coloring of the grapes, and though total yield was not affected by any plant growth regulator (PGR), all PGRs doubled packable yields by improving the color of the grapes. ABA-treated grapes were characterized by superior appearance both in berries and clusters’ rachises compared to ethephon-treated and control grapes. Other quality attributes such as firmness, berry weight, decay incidence, and shatter remained unaffected among treatments. Therefore, ABA is an effective alternative to ethephon for enhancing the color and maintaining postharvest quality of ‘Crimson Seedless’ grapes.
Berry skin color OIV index, anthocyanin composition, and content of 78 grape cultivars were surveyed using a CIELAB system and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with photodiode array detection. There were high correlations between L*, b*, and color, while a* was not a representative parameter. L* and b* values declined as berry skin color OIV became darker, and a* increased as berry skin color OIV became darker in pink and red grape cultivars only. The composition and content of anthocyanins varied widely among the cultivars. Total anthocyanins and types of anthocyanins were significantly correlated with color OIV parameters. Through multiple linear regression analysis, cyanidin derivatives had a positive effect on values of L* and b*. Delphinidin derivatives had positive effects on the value of a*. The CIELAB system gave good results for differentiation of grape berry skin color OIV.
This article develops a weighted least squares version of Levene's test of homogeneity of variance for a general design, available both for univariate and multivariate situations. When the design is balanced, the univariate and two common multivariate test statistics turn out to be proportional to the corresponding ordinary least squares test statistics obtained from an analysis of variance of the absolute values of the standardized mean-based residuals from the original analysis of the data. The constant of proportionality is simply a design-dependent multiplier (which does not necessarily tend to unity). Explicit results are presented for randomized block and Latin square designs and are illustrated for factorial treatment designs and split-plot experiments. The distribution of the univariate test statistic is close to a standard F-distribution, although it can be slightly underdispersed. For a complex design, the test assesses homogeneity of variance across blocks, treatments, or treatment factors and offers an objective interpretation of residual plots.
Estudio Agrológico de la Region Metropolitana, Descripción de Suelos Materiales y Símbolos. Publicación CIREN N o 115
- Ciren
CIREN. 1996. Estudio Agrológico de la Region Metropolitana, Descripción de Suelos Materiales y Símbolos. Publicación CIREN N o
115. Propiedad Intelectual N 98.135ISBN: 956 -7153 -23 -x. pp.
402-425.
Irrigation and Canopy Management Strategies for Crimson Seedless. Pub. IG10-97
- W L Peacock
- N K Dokoozlian
- Peacock Hr
- Allen Br
Peacock WL, Dokoozlian NK, Peacock HR and Allen BR. 1997. Irrigation and Canopy Management Strategies for Crimson Seedless.
Pub. IG10-97. Cooperative Extension, University of California,
Tulare County, CA.
Benham EC and Soil Survey Staff. 2012. Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 3.0. Natural Resources Conservation Service
- P J Schoeneberger
- D A Wysocki
Schoeneberger PJ, Wysocki DA, Benham EC and Soil Survey Staff.
2012. Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils, Version 3.0.
Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey
Center, Lincoln, NE.