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Residential Segregation, Discrimination, and African-American Theater Entry during Jim Crow
Abstract
We examine the effect of residential segregation on the entry of movie theaters serving African-American customers in the 1950s, which provided an alternative to the segregated theaters of the Jim Crow era. Consistent with preference externalities in racial and ethnic enclaves, we find that greater residential segregation was associated with more African-American theater entry. Estimates from a model of firm entry indicate that residential segregation increased the variable profits of African-American movie theaters, reducing the market size required for theater entry by 13.3 percent for a one standard deviation increase in segregation. We also provide evidence that racial bias increased both variable profits and fixed costs, and on net reduced African-American theater entry. An interpretation consistent with this finding is that racial animus forced black customers toward segregated accommodations while also limiting access to key inputs for potential entrants.
... Peach (1996) argues that while "good" and "bad" segregation are interrelated, they are distinct concepts, which has led to misunderstandings as to the relationship between social processes and urban spatial patterns. Gil and Marion (2018) evidenced a similar phenomenon in a historical study of small businesses, where there was a positive relationship between residential segregation and market concentration of African American movie theaters. Our study provides additional evidence to Gil and Marion's (2018) proposal of positive outcomes (e.g. ...
... Gil and Marion (2018) evidenced a similar phenomenon in a historical study of small businesses, where there was a positive relationship between residential segregation and market concentration of African American movie theaters. Our study provides additional evidence to Gil and Marion's (2018) proposal of positive outcomes (e.g. improved consumption in horizontally differentiated goods) associated with higher levels of residential segregation. ...
This study examines subsequent head coach opportunities for former National Football League (NFL) head coaches. Under a subsequent CEO career framework, survival analysis is used to examine the effects of race and market characteristics on subsequent NFL head coach opportunities for former head coaches. Observations of former head coaches who neither ended their coaching careers nor possess head coach positions in the observed seasons are used (n = 1,132). Black former NFL head coaches are less likely to secure subsequent NFL head coaching opportunities if their most recent coaching position was in a large media market. However, both Black and non-Black former head coaches who most recently coached in highly segregated metropolitan areas experienced higher likelihoods of securing subsequent head coaching opportunities. This segregated market effect is even stronger for Black former head coaches. The NFL can utilize this information in policy formation decisions regarding hiring policies and practices. Teams and their lead executives can also use this information to identify any personal biases that may arise within the head coach labor market. Coaches may use the information to best position themselves for subsequent career opportunities.
... Gil and Marion (2018) evidenced a similar phenomenon in a historical study of small businesses, where there was a positive relationship between residential segregation and market concentration of African American movie theaters. Our study provides additional evidence to Gil and Marion's (2018) proposal of positive outcomes (e.g., improved consumption in horizontally differentiated goods) associated with higher levels of residential segregation. ...
... At the local market level, spatial competition and ownership structures have been studied with respect to inter-cinema programming decisions (Chisholm et al., 2010;Chisholm & Norman, 2012;Elizalde, 2013). Entry and exit decisions, as well as competition between city, suburban, and regional cinemas, have also provided research topics in both historical and contemporary contexts (Collins et al., 2009b;Gil & Marion, 2018;Orhun et al., 2016;Sedgwick et al., 2014;Takahashi, 2015). At the cinema level, applied and theoretical research examines the profit implications from common uniform ticket pricing practices of the industry (Chen, 2009; (Bohme & Muller, 2011). ...
Twenty years ago, there were all but a handful of scholarly studies published about the economics of the motion picture industry. Over the first decade of the new millennium, this changed dramatically and many studies began to appear in economics journals and those of cognate disciplines. The following, and most recent, decade has seen this trend continue and the literature on the “economics of movies” has well and truly matured. While economics and marketing disciplines still generate the most output, newer data‐orientated disciplines have increasingly turned their attention towards the industry and its abundance of rich and relatively accessible data. This survey endeavors to concisely but comprehensively review recent literature related to this eternally fascinating industry.
... At the local market level, spatial competition and ownership structures have been studied with respect to inter-cinema programming decisions (Chisholm et al., 2010;Chisholm & Norman, 2012;Elizalde, 2013). Entry and exit decisions, as well as competition between city, suburban, and regional cinemas, have also provided research topics in both historical and contemporary contexts (Collins et al., 2009b;Gil & Marion, 2018;Orhun et al., 2016;Sedgwick et al., 2014;Takahashi, 2015). At the cinema level, applied and theoretical research examines the profit implications from common uniform ticket pricing practices of the industry (Chen, 2009; (Bohme & Muller, 2011). ...
The economic analysis of racial discrimination in public accommodations is remarkably limited. To study this issue, we construct a national dataset of nondiscriminatory establishments from the Negro Motorist Green Books, a travel guide published from 1936 to 1966 to aid Black Americans in finding nondiscriminatory retail and service establishments. We document patterns in the geographic spread and evolution of Green Book establishments, as well as the correlates of Green Book presence. We find that economic and social measures, as well as state laws relating to racial discrimination and antidiscrimination, were correlated with the provision of non-discriminatory services. We then use the Green Book data to test whether market conditions and White consumer discrimination led businesses to bar Black customers prior to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. We use plausibly exogenous variation from White WWII casualties and Black migration patterns to isolate the effect of a change in the racial composition of consumers on the growth of nondiscriminatory businesses. We find that the share of nondiscriminatory establishments grew faster in locations with larger increases in the share of the Black population, but the magnitudes were small. These results highlight the importance of federal legislation in ending racial discrimination in public accommodations.
By applying the Bresnahan-Reiss empirical entry threshold model on Census data for the waves 1981 to 2011, we study the evolution of entry conditions in Italian local banking markets under a long-run perspective in order to capture the consequences of the removal of branching restrictions that occurred in the early 1990s. We do not find evidence of collusive behavior among local banks; instead, competition seems to have increased with respect to the number of banks and through the years—even if banks’ variable profits have risen over time. Overall, banks appear to have responded to the growing competition through the adoption of non-price strategies.
El objetivo de este libro es aportar reflexiones para aprovechar esa oportunidad de futuro desde la perspectiva económica, así como proporcionar evidencia y análisis que permitan abordar de manera crítica qué medidas podrían impulsar mejor ese potencial. Sin duda, las actividades culturales y creativas, tanto en los aspectos vinculados a su producción y provisión como en los relacionados con el acceso y la práctica, tienen características peculiares frente a la generación y consumo de otros bienes y servicios económicos. Además, la cultura está llamada a tener una contribución central en la consecución de objetivos sociales –como la construcción de sociedades multiculturales– o en el progreso hacia los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible. En el plano material, en el marco de la economía del conocimiento, tanto los activos culturales de un país heredados del pasado o creados en el presente como los trabajadores culturales han de lugar un papel importante por la centralidad de los mensajes simbólicos de la actividad creativa.
We link newly digitized personnel records of the U.S. government for 1907–1921 to census data to study the segregation of the civil service by race under President Woodrow Wilson. Using a difference-in-differences design around Wilson’s inauguration, we find that the introduction of employment segregation increased the black-white earnings gap by 3.4–6.9 percentage points. This increasing gap is driven by a reallocation of existing black civil servants to lower-paid positions, lowering their returns to education. Importantly, the negative effects extend beyond Wilson’s presidency. Using census data for 1900–1940, we show that segregation caused a relative decline in the home ownership rate of black civil servants. Moreover, by comparing children of black and white civil servants in adulthood, we provide suggestive evidence that descendants of black civil servants who were exposed to Wilson’s presidency exhibit lower levels of education, earnings, and social mobility. Our combined results thus document significant short- and long-run costs borne by minorities during a unique episode of state-sanctioned discrimination.
An active empirical literature estimates entry threshold ratios (ETRs), introduced by Bresnahan and Reiss (1991), to learn about the impact of firm entry on competition. We show that in the standard homogeneous goods oligopoly model, there is no monotonic relationship with the price-cost margin, one measure for the strength of competition. Regardless of the shape of demand, the ETR is hump-shaped in the number of active firms. It can also increase with entry in the Salop model of product differentiation or in a game of repeated interactions where collusion is possible. Empirical applications should use caution and only interpret changes in the ratio as indicative of a change in competition when the number of firms is sufficiently large.
The concept of a protected consumer market has been used to refer to the special, culturally based tastes of ethnic minorities
that can only be served by co-ethnic businesses. We argue that residentially segregated ethnic enclaves are another form of
protected market which arises under historically determined conjunctures of immigration patterns and urban economic development.
Using 571 survey interviews with Asian and white shopkeepers and population data from three British cities, we test six hypotheses
regarding the determinants of a shopkeeper's proportion of ethnic minority (Asian) customers. Taken together, residential
concentration and social distance factors account for 53 percent of the variation in customer composition, as the proportion
of Asians residing in an area and the ethnicity of a shopkeeper are found to have strong and independent effects on customer
mix.
This article investigates the association between past lynchings (1882 to 1930) and contemporary law enforcement responses to hate crimes in the United States. While prior research indicates a positive correlation between past levels of lynching and current social control practices against minority groups, we posit an inverse relationship for facets of social control that are protective of minorities. Specifically, we hypothesize that contemporary hate crime policing and prosecution will be less vigorous where lynching was more prevalent prior to 1930. Analyses show that levels of past lynching are associated with three outcome variables germane to hate crime policing and prosecution, but the effect of lynching is partly contingent on the presence of a minority group threat. That is, past lynching combined with a sizeable black population largely suppresses (1) police compliance with federal hate crime law, (2) police reports of hate crimes that target blacks, and in some analyses (3) the likelihood of prosecuting a hate crime case. Our findings have implications for research on law and intergroup conflict, historical continuity in the exercise of state social control, and theories that emphasize minority group threat.
At the metropolitan level there is a striking negative correlation between residential racial segregation and population characteristics—particularly for black residents—but it is widely recognized that this correlation may not be causal. This paper provides a novel test of the causal relationship between segregation and population outcomes by exploiting the arrangements of railroad tracks in the 19 th century to isolate plausibly exogenous variation in cities' susceptibility to segregation. I show that, conditional on miles of railroad track laid, the extent to which track configurations physically subdivided cities strongly predicts the level of segregation that ensued after the Great Migration of African-Americans to northern and western cities in the 20 th century. At the start of the Great Migration, though, track configurations were uncorrelated with racial concentration, ethnic dispersion, income, industry, education, and population, indicating that reverse causality is unlikely. Even today, track configurations have no correlation with population characteristics in cities that were too far from the South to have received significant black in-migration, which indicates that track configuration does not affect cities through any channel other than racial segregation. Instrumental variables estimates demonstrate that segregation increases black poverty and overall black-white income disparities, while decreasing white poverty and inequality within the white population.
We test for customer discrimination with data from more than 800 retail stores employing over 70,000 individuals matched to census data on the demographics of each store's community. While our tests detect some increase in sales when the workforce more closely resembles potential customers, the effects we find are modest in magnitude. Customer discrimination is neither strong nor pervasive. We find little payoff to matching employee demographics to those of potential customers except when the customers do not speak English. (c) 2010 The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
This paper develops econometric models for discrete games. Specifically, we model the payoffs of games where a researcher observes qualitative or censored information about agents' decisions and payoffs. These models extend single-person qualitative choice models introduced by McFadden (1974) and others to multiple-person choice problems. The equations describing players' equilibrium strategies depend on the game's structure and the equilibrium solution concept. We show that one can describe the equilibria of a simultaneous-move Nash game with a linear system of dummy endogenous variables. We also show that sequential-move and cooperative models have different, but related, econometric structures. A series of applied examples address identification and estimation issues. These examples include models of market entry, technology adoption, tax auditing, and cooperative family labor supply.
Production patterns in the US movie industry changed drastically between 1940 and 1960. During these decades, a major event took place: the Paramount antitrust case was resolved by the US Supreme Court in 1948. As a result, the five largest studios (MGM, Paramount, 20th Century Fox, Warner Brothers and RKO) were forced to vertically disintegrate and separate production and distribution from exhibition. The Supreme Court also banned these and three other studios (Columbia, Universal and United Artists) from using block booking as contractual practice. In this article, I examine how this antitrust ruling affected the movie industry.
This paper proposes an empirical framework for measuring the effects of entry in concentrated markets. Building on models of entry in atomistically competitive markets, the authors show how the number of producers in an oligopolistic market varies with changes in demand and market competition. These analytical results structure the authors' empirical analysis of competition in five retail and professional industries. Using data on geographically isolated monopolies, duopolies, and oligopolies, they study the relationship between the number of firms in a market, market size, and competition. The authors' empirical results suggest that competitive conduct changes quickly as the number of incumbents increases. Copyright 1991 by University of Chicago Press.
This paper examines segregation in American cities from 1890 to 1990. From 1890 to 1940, ghettos were born as blacks migrated to urban areas and cities developed vast expanses filled with almost entirely black housing. From 1940 to 1970, black migration continued and the physical areas of the ghettos expanded. Since 1970, there has been a decline in segregation as blacks have moved into previously all‐white areas of cities and suburbs. Across all these time periods there is a strong positive relation between urban population or density and segregation. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid‐twentieth century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by whites to exclude blacks from their neighborhoods. By 1990, the legal barriers enforcing segregation had been replaced by decentralized racism, where whites pay more than blacks to live in predominantly white areas. Economics
Spatial separation of racial and ethnic groups may theoretically have positive or negative effects on the economic performance
of those groups. We examine the effects of segregation on outcomes for blacks in schooling, employment, and single parenthood.
We find that blacks in more segregated areas have significantly worse outcomes than blacks in less segregated areas. We control
for the endogeneity of location choice using instruments based on political factors, topographical features, and residence
before adulthood. A one standard deviation decrease in segregation would eliminate one-third of the black-white differences
in most of our outcomes.
We test the predictions from Becker's (1957) seminal work on employer prejudice and find that relative black wages (a) vary negatively with the prejudice of the "marginal" white in a state, (b) vary negatively with the prejudice in the lower tail of the prejudice distribution but are unaffected by the prejudice of the most prejudiced persons in a state, and (c) vary negatively with the fraction of a state that is black. Our estimates suggest that one-quarter of the racial wage gap is due to prejudice, with nontrivial consequences for black lifetime earnings. (c) 2008 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved..
This paper develops new empirical models of market concentration from game-theoretic models of entry. We construct our models
from inequality conditions that describe entrants' equilibrium strategies in simultaneous-move and sequential-move games,
and use them to study the effects of entry in isolated monopoly markets for new automobiles. From estimates of the market
size necessary to support one and two dealers, we conclude that monopoly dealers do not block the entry of a second dealer.
We also find that entry does not cause price-cost margins to fall by much.
This paper studies customer discrimination against Arab workers in the Israeli market for labor-intensive services. Relying on surveys, field data, and a natural experiment, we provide evidence consistent withBecker’scustomer discriminationmodel.First,asignificant share of Jewish customers prefer to receive labor-intensive services from firms employing Jewish rather than Arab workers; these preferences are most strongly linked to concerns for personal safety. Second, customer preferences affect firms’ hiring decisions. Third, firms employing Arab workers charge significantly lower service prices than those employing only Jewish workers.
Exploiting complete census manuscript files, we derive a new segregation measure using the racial similarity of next-door neighbors. The fineness of our measure reveals new facts not captured by traditional segregation indices. First, segregation doubled nationally from 1880 to 1940. Second, contrary to prior estimates, Southern urban areas were the most segregated in the country and remained so over time. Third, increasing segregation in the twentieth century was not strictly driven by urbanization, black migration, or white flight: it resulted from increasing racial sorting at the household level. In all areas—North and South, urban and rural—segregation increased dramatically.
I describe a model of entry with endogenous product-type choices. These choices are formalized as the outcomes of a game of incomplete information in which rivals' differentiated products have nonuniform competitive effects on profits. I estimate the model for location choices in the video retail industry using a nested fixed-point algorithm solution. The results imply significant returns to product differentiation. Simulations illustrate the tradeoff between demand and intensified competition and the extent to which markets with more scope for differentiation support greater entry.
This article assesses the influence of the legacy of lynching on homicide levels within the contemporary South. Drawing upon literature relating to the brutalizing effects of capital punishment and "self-help" in the absence of access to formal law, this study hypothesizes that a measure of the frequency of lynching in the past will exhibit positive effects on contemporary homicide levels for the overall population and for race-specific populations (white and black offending). The results of negative binomial regression analyses of counties and county-clusters in the South are generally consistent with expectations. The measure of lynching exhibits consistently positive effects on overall homicide levels and levels of black offending in models with controls for other theoretically relevant covariates. For whites, the effect of lynching emerges for a particular type of homicide: interracial homicides that evolve out of interpersonal conflicts. At a general level, our findings underscore the relevance of the historical context for understanding variation in contemporary levels of homicide.
Cutler and Glaeser (1997) show that urban residential segregation has a strong adverse effect on labor market and social outcomes of young African-Americans relative to whites. We show that this effect is a fairly recent historical phenomenon. There is little evidence of such an effect from 1940 to 1970; rather, it emerged between 1970 and 1980, and it grew stronger during the 1980s.
I empirically examine the impact of the 1948 Paramount antitrust case on ticket prices using a unique data set collected from Variety magazine issues between 1945 and 1955. With weekly movie theater information on prices, revenues and theater ownership for an unbalanced panel of 393 theaters located in 26 different metropolitan areas, I find evidence consistent with Spengler’s (1950) prediction that vertical integration lowers prices through the elimination of double-marginalization. My results show that vertically integrated theaters charged lower prices and sold more admission tickets than nonvertically integrated theaters. I also find that the rate at which prices increased in theaters were slower before vertical separation than it was after separation. A back of the envelope calculation suggests that losses in consumer surplus due to the Supreme Court resolution and the corresponding sale of theater holdings by Paramount and seven other companies were sizable.
I develop and estimate a model of potential to enter self-employment based on individual and community-level factors. Of particular interest was the influence of racial residential segregation processes, and segregation's tendency to concentrate persons with similar demographic profiles in geographic space. It has been argued that segregation processes can also concentrate poverty and its associated social dislocations. An analysis of a database of 8917 households in four U.S. metropolitan areas revealed that two residential segregation processes (clustering and interaction) limit and enhance potential entry into self-employment for blacks, and provides a partial explanation for the longstanding gaps in white and black self-employment rates.
To identify relative wage impacts of immigration, we make use of licensing requirements in the Norwegian construction sector that give rise to exogenous variation in immigrant employment shares across trades. Individual panel data reveal substantially lower wage growth for workers in trades with rising immigrant employment than for other workers. Selective attrition from the sector masks the causal wage impact unless accounted for by individual fixed effects. For low and semi-skilled workers, effects of new immigration are comparable for natives and older immigrant cohorts, consistent with perfect substitutability between native and immigrant labor within trade. Finally, we present evidence that immigration reduces price inflation, as price increases over the sample period were significantly lower in activities with growth in the immigrant share than in activities with no or small change in immigrant employment.
I. Negro residential segregation, 176. — II. Segregation in Detroit and Chicago, 178. — III. The distribution of negro employment,
179. — IV. Negro employment by occupation and industry, 183. — V. The level of nonwhite employment, 189. — VI. Suburbanization
and negro employment, 191. — VII. Postwar dispersal of employment and population in Chicago, 192. — VIII. Conclusions, 196.
This paper investigates the effects of customer discrimination on the employment and earnings of minorities, particularly blacks. Data are used from a new survey of employers in four large metropolitan areas in the United States. Our results show that the racial composition of an establishment's customers has sizable effects on the race of who gets hired, particularly in jobs that involve direct contact with customers and in sales or service occupations. Race of customers also affects wages, with employees in establishments that have mostly black customers earning less than those in establishments with mostly white customers. © 2000 the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
I propose an empirical model to analyze product differentiation and oligopoly market structure. The model endogenizes firms' product-type decisions, measures how effects of competitors differ depending on their product types, and can incorporate alternative specifications for the product choice game. I estimate using data from oligopoly motel markets along U.S. interstate highways; motel establishments are characterized by their quality choice. The results demonstrate a strong incentive for firms to differentiate. The effects of demand characteristics on product choice are also significant. Game specification is of minor importance, although differences in the games analyzed do affect equilibrium market structure predictions in some cases.
In this article, I report the results of a study of the prices paid by individual buyers at the Fulton fish market in New York City. In principle, this is a highly competitive market in which there should be no predictable price differences across customers who are equally costly to service. The results indicate that different buyers pay different prices for fish of identical quality. For example, Asian buyers pay 7% less for whiting than do white buyers, a result which is inconsistent with the model of perfect competition.
Recent studies provide conflicting evidence on the connection between ethnic or racial neighborhood segregation and outcomes. Some studies find that residence in an enclave is beneficial, some reach the opposite conclusion, and still others imply that any relationship is small. One hypothesis is that studies differ because the impact of segregation varies across groups, perhaps because its impact is more benign for better-educated groups. This paper presents new evidence on this hypothesis using data on first-generation immigrants in the United States. We confront the endogenous selection into residential enclaves and find that selection into enclave neighborhoods is on balance negative. Correcting for this selection produces positive mean effects of segregation, and a positive correlation between group average human capital and the impact of segregation.
When a product's product provision entails fixed costs, it will be made available only if a sufficient number of people want it. Some products are produced and consumed locally, so that provision requires not only a large group favoring the product but a large number nearby. Just as one has an incentive to sort into community whose median voter shares his preferences for local public goods, product markets may provide an analogous incentive to sort into a community whose consumers tend to share his preferences in private goods. Using zip code level data on chain restaurants and restaurants overall, this paper documents how the mix of locally available restaurants responds to the local mix of consumers, with three findings. First, based on survey data on chain restaurant patronage, restaurant preferences differ substantially by race and education. Second, there is a strong relationship between restaurants and population at the zip code level, suggesting that restaurants%u2019 geographic markets are small. Finally, the mix of locally available chain restaurants is sensitive to the zipcode demographic mix by race and by education. Hence, differentiated product markets provide a benefit -- proximity to preferred restaurants -- to persons in geographic markets whose customers tend to share their preferences.
The socioeconomic performance of today's workers depends not only on parental skills but also on the average skills of the ethnic group in the parents' generation (or ethnic capital). This paper investigates the link between the ethnic externality and ethnic neighborhoods. The evidence indicates that residential segregation and the external effect of ethnicity are linked, partly because ethnic capital summarizes the socioeconomic background of the neighborhood where the children were raised. Ethnicity has an external effect, even among persons who grow up in the same neighborhood, when children are exposed frequently to persons who share the same ethnic background. Copyright 1995 by American Economic Association.
This paper considers the effect of an airline's scale of operation at an airport on the profitability of routes flown out of that airport. The empirical methodology uses the entry decisions of airlines as indicators of underlying profitability; the results extend the empirical literature on airport presence by providing a new set of estimates of the determinants of city-pair profitability. These estimates imply that city-pair profits increase in airport presence and decrease rapidly in the number of entering firms. The literature on empirical models of oligopoly entry is also extended via a focus on the role of differences between firms. Copyright 1992 by The Econometric Society.
Theory predicts that in markets with increasing returns, the number of differentiated products -- and resulting consumer satisfaction -- grow in market size. We document this phenomenon across 246 US radio markets. By a mechanism that we term "preference externalities," an increase in the size of the market brings forth additional products valued by others with similar tastes. But who benefits whom? We examine the patterns of -- and mechanisms for -- preference externalities between black and white and between Hispanic and non-Hispanic radio listeners, and among listeners of different age groups. The patterns are striking: while preference externalities are large and positive within groups, they are small and possibly negative across groups. For example, while black-targeted station entry and the black listening share increase in black population, they are unaffected (or possibly reduced) by the size of the white population. Consequently, small groups receive less variety from the market. Forces that increase the size of the market, such as emerging satellite and Internet technologies, may increase the satisfaction of individuals whose preferences do not match their fellow local residents'. I am grateful for much stimulating discussion to Jeff Milyo and Peter Siegelman, who is a coathor on a related project, and to Spencer Glendon, Dennis Yao, and Severin Borenstein for comments. Thanks to seminar participants at Columbia, Wharton, Yale, the University of Pennsylvania Economics Department, MIT, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the University of Chicago, Dartmouth, the US Department of Justice, and the Winter 2000 meetings of the NBER IO group at Stanford for helpful comments. Seminar participants at the FCC, the George Washington College of Law, and Cornell provide...
Television and voter turnout
- Gentzkow
Residential segregation and ethnic enterprise in u.s. metropolitan areas
- Fischer
Racial segregation and southern lynching
- L D Cook
- T D Logan
- J M Parman
Collective action, white flight, and the origins of formal segregation laws
- W Troesken
- R Walsh
Customer discrimination and racial exclusion: Evidence from desegregating movie theaters during jim crow
- R Gil
- J Marion
Attitudes toward desegregation
- Hyman
Does competition eliminate discrimination? evidence from the commercial sex market in singapore
- H Li
- K Lang
- K Leong
Racial sorting and the emergence of segregation in american cities
- A Shertzer
- R P Walsh