No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Examining the unique contribution of body appreciation to heterosexual women's sexual agency
Abstract
Although numerous studies demonstrate links between negative body image and sexual well-being, recent research has emphasized studying the positive aspects of these constructs. The current study built upon this prior research by examining the association between body appreciation and sexual agency among a US community sample of 355 heterosexual women aged 18-40. This study also examined whether body appreciation is uniquely associated with sexual agency above and beyond levels of self-objectification. Regression analyses demonstrated that women who reported greater body appreciation also reported greater condom use self-efficacy, sexual satisfaction, sexual assertiveness, and feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, and lower levels of body self-consciousness during intimacy. These findings remained consistent even when self-objectification was entered into the model as a covariate. Results highlight the importance of studying how body appreciation may promote women's sexual agency.
... Consistent with prior research with cisgender heterosexual women (e.g., Grower & Ward, 2018;Robbins & Reissing, 2018;Satinsky et al., 2012), we found that body appreciation is associated with higher levels of sexual satisfaction from partnered sex. While body dissatisfaction may be associated with more likelihood to engage in cognitive self-absorption during sexual activity, like spectatoring (i.e., when individuals fixate on and carefully monitor personal body parts and/or the adequacy of personal sexual functioning, e.g., "Is my partner being satisfied?") ...
... Body appreciation, with its emphasis on valuing the functionality of one's body, rather than only appearance evaluation (Avalos et al., 2005), may enhance one's ability to remain present and engaged with their partner during sex, rather than focusing on negative thoughts about performance and how they appear to their partner. Additionally, body appreciation has been associated with greater sexual assertiveness and sense of entitlement to sexual pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018), which may contribute to greater levels of sexual satisfaction, as individuals may be more confident in seeking and communicating about what they want sexually with their partner. Inconsistent with previous research (e.g., Gieles et al., 2023;Kennis et al., 2022), our results also show that gender minority AFAB reported higher levels of partnered sexual satisfaction than cisgender women. ...
... Masturbation has also been associated with feeling even more "personal" than engaging in partnered sex (Watson & McKee, 2013, p. 458). Body appreciation may enhance one's ability to remain present, rather than focusing on their appearance, as it has been associated with less body self-consciousness during intimacy (Grower & Ward, 2018). Thus, this may allow individuals to be more attentive to pleasurable sensations during masturbation. ...
The relationship between body appreciation and sexual satisfaction in cisgender heterosexual women is established, but little is known about sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth (SGM-AFAB). Additionally, most studies focus primarily on partnered sexual experience, while sexual satisfaction from masturbation remains understudied. We addressed these gaps by examining, among SGM-AFAB, the relationship between body appreciation and sexual satisfaction from both partnered sex and masturbation, as well as how perceived social support and gender identity (cisgender vs. gender minority) moderated this relationship. Participants (N = 287, Mage = 25.74, 79.1% cisgender) responded to an online survey assessing their sexual satisfaction from partnered sex and from masturbation. We found that higher body appreciation was associated with higher sexual satisfaction both from partnered sex and from masturbation. Exploratory moderation analysis revealed that, for gender minority AFAB (but not sexual minority cisgender women), the positive relationship between body appreciation and sexual satisfaction from masturbation only existed in those with low levels of social support. Taken together, the findings highlight the critical role of body appreciation in sexual satisfaction for SGM-AFAB, especially gender minority (e.g., transgender and non-binary) individuals who lack social support.
... One cross-sectional study in emerging adults reported a positive correlation between high self-objectification and delayed sexual initiation assertiveness even when self-esteem was taken into account (Gramsas, 2014). Another study in adult females (aged 18-40) (Grower & Ward, 2018) argued that high self-objectification is associated with low sexual initiation assertiveness. ...
... To our knowledge, the influence of self-objectification on sexual self-consciousness has not been documented, although studies have found the relationships between variables that are closely correlated with self-objectification, such as body shame (Grower & Ward, 2018;Zurbriggen et al., 2011), and sexual self-consciousness (Claudat & Warren, 2014). The relationship between self-objectification and sexual self-consciousness seems to be possible because a third-person perspective of one's physical appearance (i.e., self-objectification) may interfere with attention towards sexual activities (i.e., sexual self-consciousness) (Zurbriggen et al., 2011). ...
... Regarding sexual self-efficacy, a cross-sectional study with female undergraduates revealed that higher self-objectification predicted lower sexual self-efficacy, which, in turn, predicted disordered eating and risky sexual behaviors (Higgins, 2019). A study with women aged 18 to 40 reported the negative association between self-objectification and sexual self-efficacy related to condom use (Grower & Ward, 2018). However, the relationship became nonsignificant after body appreciation (not examined in the current study) was introduced (Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
Viewing idealized social media images may negatively impact women’s self-esteem, yet the underlying mechanisms and vulnerable female groups remain under-investigated. This online experiment applied a posttest-only, between-subjects design to examine the interaction effects of viewing #fitspiration and #thinspiration Instagram images, body mass index, and perceived weight on women’s self-esteem (N = 221) via appearance comparison. A moderated moderated mediation analysis (MMMA) shows significant effects for fitspiration and thinspiration conditions. Fitspiration pictures predicted lower self-esteem among Overweight women with perceived healthy weight (OH) than healthy weight women with perceived healthy weight (HH) and those with perceived overweight (HO). Thinspiration images resulted in lower self-esteem among HO than HH and OH. Implications include the importance of subjective and objective appearance comparison measurements, effect sizes of idealized social media images, the usefulness of MMMA, and the call for an Instagram literacy program.
... Sexual agency refers to the ability to identify, communicate, and satisfy one's sexual needs and comprises multiple dimensions, including sexual assertiveness, feelings of entitlement to pleasure, and sexual satisfaction (Chmielewski, Bowman, & Tolman, 2020;Grower & Ward, 2018). Greater body appreciation among women is associated with an increased sense of entitlement to pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
... Sexual agency refers to the ability to identify, communicate, and satisfy one's sexual needs and comprises multiple dimensions, including sexual assertiveness, feelings of entitlement to pleasure, and sexual satisfaction (Chmielewski, Bowman, & Tolman, 2020;Grower & Ward, 2018). Greater body appreciation among women is associated with an increased sense of entitlement to pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018). However, when women feel insecure or self-conscious about their physical appearance during sex, they may feel less deserving of sexual pleasure, which may undermine their ability to engage in sexually assertive behaviors (Chmielewski et al., 2020;Wiederman, 2000). ...
... Day (2010) validated this measure with a sample of Black adolescent and adult women, and in a sample of 555 women (12.4 % Black), the scale showed good reliability (␣ = .83; Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
Although women are expected to idealize and achieve hegemonic feminine beauty standards such as being slender and lighter skinned, few studies have examined how women’s investment in achieving these restrictive feminine appearance ideals may influence their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Even less is known about Black women. We surveyed 640 Black college women to test hypotheses that endorsement of hegemonic beauty ideals would be positively associated with four dimensions of negative sexual affect (sexual guilt, shame, emotional distancing, and self-consciousness) and negatively associated with two dimensions of sexual agency (sexual assertiveness and satisfaction). Correlation and regression analyses showed that hegemonic beauty ideal acceptance was linked with greater sexual guilt, shame, emotional distancing, and sexual self-consciousness in addition to lower levels of sexual assertiveness and satisfaction. Findings highlight how endorsing restrictive, hegemonic standards of beauty is associated with Black women’s reduced sexual affect and sexual agency.
... Objectification theory posits that the inspection, valuation, and commodification of women's bodies in our society teach women that they are objects-a collection of body parts that exist to gratify other people, especially men (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). Most existing scholarship on the relationships between body attitudes and sexual satisfaction has focused on how negative body attitudes are associated with bodyfocused self-objectification (e.g., body surveillance, body self-consciousness), and how these self-focused cognitive processes are associated with sexual satisfaction (e.g., Calogero & Thompson, 2009;Claudat & Warren, 2014;Grower & Ward, 2018;Vencill et al., 2015). However, relational processes resulting from objectification may play a key role in the association between women's negative body attitudes and sexual satisfaction. ...
... Sexual communication involves understanding what one wants (or does not want), feeling entitled to those desires, and asserting those desires to a partner (Burkett & Hamilton, 2012;Peterson, 2010;Quina et al., 2000;Quinn-Nilas et al., 2015), which requires a sense of subjectivity and agency-the very things that are denied a person who is dehumanized (Nussbaum, 1995;Talmon & Ginzburg, 2016). Young women who internalize objectifying thoughts about themselves and their bodies have more difficulty communicating with sexual partners, including asserting their desires and boundaries and negotiating condom use (e.g., Grower & Ward, 2018;Hirschman et al., 2006;Parent & Moradi, 2015). Researchers have identified associations between women's attitudes toward their bodies and comfort communicating with a partner during sexual activity as well (e.g., Grower & Ward, 2018;Rempel & Baumgartner, 2003;Schooler et al., 2005). ...
... Young women who internalize objectifying thoughts about themselves and their bodies have more difficulty communicating with sexual partners, including asserting their desires and boundaries and negotiating condom use (e.g., Grower & Ward, 2018;Hirschman et al., 2006;Parent & Moradi, 2015). Researchers have identified associations between women's attitudes toward their bodies and comfort communicating with a partner during sexual activity as well (e.g., Grower & Ward, 2018;Rempel & Baumgartner, 2003;Schooler et al., 2005). It may be that feelings of dehumanization-enabled by the internalization of negative body attitudes-play a key role in inhibiting women's sexual communication. ...
Women’s bodies are frequent sites of stigmatization. The internalization of negative attitudes toward the body can have negative implications for women’s sexual wellbeing. In the current study, we examined the relationships between young women’s internalization of body stigma—including body shape, genitals, and menstrual periods—and sexual satisfaction. Additionally, we tested two mechanisms that may mediate the relationship between body attitudes and sexual satisfaction: dehumanization (i.e., feelings of a loss of autonomy and subjectivity) and communication with a sexual partner (e.g., expressing needs and desires). We collected and analyzed survey data from 569 undergraduate women. We tested serial mediation models, such that more negative body attitudes would predict greater feelings of dehumanization, and more dehumanization would predict less comfort communicating with a sexual partner, and less comfort communicating would then predict decreased sexual satisfaction. We found support for serial mediation, which suggests that the links between body attitudes and sexual satisfaction may be partially explained by feelings of dehumanization and communication with a sexual partner. Our findings identify opportunities for intervention in practice and policy, and further clarify the ways that sociocultural stigma surrounding women’s bodies extends beyond the body—affecting women’s feelings of power, relationships, and sexual lives.
... One cross-sectional study in emerging adults reported a positive correlation between high self-objectification and delayed sexual initiation assertiveness even when self-esteem was taken into account (Gramsas, 2014). Another study in adult females (aged 18-40) (Grower & Ward, 2018) argued that high self-objectification is associated with low sexual initiation assertiveness. ...
... To our knowledge, the influence of self-objectification on sexual self-consciousness has not been documented, although studies have found the relationships between variables that are closely correlated with self-objectification, such as body shame (Grower & Ward, 2018;Zurbriggen et al., 2011), and sexual self-consciousness (Claudat & Warren, 2014). The relationship between self-objectification and sexual self-consciousness seems to be possible because a third-person perspective of one's physical appearance (i.e., self-objectification) may interfere with attention towards sexual activities (i.e., sexual self-consciousness) (Zurbriggen et al., 2011). ...
... Regarding sexual self-efficacy, a cross-sectional study with female undergraduates revealed that higher self-objectification predicted lower sexual self-efficacy, which, in turn, predicted disordered eating and risky sexual behaviors (Higgins, 2019). A study with women aged 18 to 40 reported the negative association between self-objectification and sexual self-efficacy related to condom use (Grower & Ward, 2018). However, the relationship became nonsignificant after body appreciation (not examined in the current study) was introduced (Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
Applying the sociocultural theory and the objectification theory, this experiment examined the indirect effects of inspirational Instagram images (i.e., fitspiration and thinspiration) on young women’s sexual attitudes. A post-test only between-subjects design with three experimental conditions (i.e., fitspiration, thinspiration, and control images) was conducted with female college students (N = 221). The results supported the sociocultural theory, revealing that viewing inspirational Instagram images led to higher appearance comparison and greater body dissatisfaction, respectively, which, in turn, predicted lower sexual self-efficacy and greater sexual self-consciousness. Testing a new theoretical model combining the sociocultural theory components and self-objectification reported a significant causal mediating chain of appearance comparison, self-objectification, and body dissatisfaction, respectively, in the relationship between viewing inspirational Instagram images and sexual attitudes (i.e., lower sexual self-efficacy and greater sexual self-consciousness). The indirect effect sizes of fitspiration were larger than those of thinspiration. Implications and limitations are discussed.
... Given that objectification has been theoretically associated with the sexual experiences of women and that research has expanded to encompass more than just sexual dysfunction (e.g., Calogero & Thompson, 2009;Clapp & Syed, 2021;Claudat & Warren, 2014;Grower & Ward, 2018), it seems reasonable to consider its potential impact on other aspects of impaired sexual pleasure. Expanding previous research, we propose that within the heterosexual context, objectification processes are likely to significantly impact two gender disparities related to sexuality that put women at a disadvantage: the orgasm gap and women's engagement in sexual emotional labour. ...
... Overall, our results add to the growing research investigating objectification theory and women's sexual outcomes such as overall sexual functioning (Robbins & Reissing, 2018), sexual satisfaction (Sáez et al., 2019;Vencill et al., 2015;Zurbriggen et al., 2011), sexual self-esteem (Calogero & Thompson, 2009), entitlement to sexual pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018), and sexual desire (Cherkasskaya & Rosario, 2017). Our study contributes additional evidence reinforcing the negative connections between women's selfobjectification and their sexual well-being. ...
Objectification theory posits that women are treated merely as a body, valued for its use, pleasure and consumption by and for others, mainly men. Women are also disadvantaged relative to men when it comes to sexually pleasurable experiences, including lower orgasm rates and a higher burden of performing sexual emotional labour (e.g., faking orgasm, performing desire for the partner, tolerating discomfort or pain during sex). We tested the hypothesis that objectification within romantic relationships (i.e., partner-objectification) may contribute to this tendency. Using data from 160 heterosexual couples, we aimed to explore how women’s self-objectification, perceived partner-objectification, and men’s self-reported partner-objectification are related to women’s orgasm rates and performance of sexual emotional labour. Self-objectification predicted women’s performance of sexual emotional labour but did not predict women’s orgasm rates. Our results further indicate that to the extent that women perceived themselves as being objectified by their male partner, they tend to report lower orgasm rates and greater performance of emotional labour. However, men’s self-reported partner-objectification did not. These findings suggest that women’s meta-perceptions are of greater importance for women’s sexual well-being than men’s self-reports. The research has implications for societal interventions aimed at preventing the consequences of partner-objectification, as well as for discussions in sex and relationship therapy for couples.
... Body image satisfaction and positive feelings about the body are associated with sexual satisfaction, sexual self-efficacy and sexual self-esteem [12]. On the other hand, negative body image will lead to dissatisfaction with the body, feeling unattractive and ultimately becoming preoccupied with the physical condition of the body [13]. ...
... Questions are scored on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=have no opinion, 4=agree, and 5=strongly agree). The questions 4,5,9,11,12,15,16,18,19,20,21,24,25,26,27,29, and 31 are scored in reverse. The minimum and maximum scores are 35 and 175. ...
... As sexual satisfaction is a crucial element of overall quality of life (Flynn et al., 2016) it is important to discover its determinants and underlying mechanisms. Previous research identified positive body image (i.e., the presence of satisfaction, love, respect, acceptance, and appreciation for one's body; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015) as an essential predictor of sexual satisfaction among young adult women (Grower & Ward, 2018;Linardon et al., 2022;Van den Brink, 2017). The embodiment model of positive body image (Menzel & Levine, 2011), objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), and cognitive models of sexual functioning (Silva et al., 2016) propose that a positive body image promotes sexual satisfaction, because it protects women from self-objectification (i.e., seeing oneself as an object to be looked at and evaluated on the basis of appearance; Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) and from having appearance-related distracting thoughts during sexual activity, which in turn facilitates sexual satisfaction. ...
... Expecting on average medium correlations between the study variables (Andrew et al., 2016;Avery et al., 2021;Frederick et al., 2022;Grower & Ward, 2018;Linardon et al., 2022;Rousseau et al., 2017), a sample size calculation with the Monte Carlo power analysis for indirect effects (Schoemann et al., 2017) revealed that 236 participants would be required to detect indirect effects with 80% power and a 95% confidence level. ...
Background
Previous research indicated that a positive body image is indirectly related to young adult women’s sexual satisfaction through protecting them from appearance-related self-consciousness during physical intimacy. The aim of the present study was to investigate thin-ideal internalization as a potential factor associated with positive body image, and subsequently ap-pearance-related self-consciousness during physical intimacy and sexual satisfaction.
Participants and procedure
Using a cross-sectional design, 250 young adult Dutch women (age: M = 22.98, SD = 2.98) filled in an online survey measuring the relevant variables.
Results
A path analysis revealed that lower thin-ideal internalization was related to greater sexual satisfaction through a more posi-tive body image and less appearance-related self-consciousness during physical intimacy, and also consecutively via both.
Conclusions
These findings suggest that thin-ideal internalization may trigger processes that are detrimental to sexual satisfaction in women. Consequently, strengthening sociocultural pressure resistance skills in young adult women could facilitate the de-velopment and maintenance of positive sexual experiences.
... Nevertheless, sexual well-being is poorly documented in adolescents, especially among those who identity as SGM, despite the existence of a large gap between their well-being and those of cis/het adolescents (Mustanski, 2015). Sexual satisfaction can be defined as the subjective assessment of the positive and negative elements related to one's sexual life (Lawrance & Byers, 1995) and is positively associated with body appreciation among mostly White women (Grower & Ward, 2018;Satinsky et al., 2012). According to objectification theory, sexual objectification, which sees women as being treated as sexual objects, is related to the internalization of the thin-ideal standards of beauty. ...
... Body appreciation was positively associated with sexual satisfaction. This result is consistent with the findings of previous studies among mostly White adult women, whose higher levels of body appreciation were associated with greater sexual satisfaction (Grower & Ward, 2018;Satinsky et al., 2012). According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), when a person devotes energy to thinking about how their body appears to the partner during sexual activity, rather than focusing on the experience itself, sexual satisfaction could be compromised. ...
Body dissatisfaction has received considerable scientific attention, while research about positive body image has been neglected, particularly among adolescents. The aims of the present study were to examine (1) the factor structure of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) in a large sample of cisgender, heterosexual and sexual and gender minority adolescents, (2) measurement invariance across language, gender and sexual orientation-based groups, (3) convergent validity with sexuality-related outcomes and (4) one-year temporal stability. Results of a confirmatory analysis among 2419 adolescents (M age =14.6 years, SD=0.62; 52.6% girls) corroborated the proposed one-dimensional factor structure of the scale. The BAS-2 demonstrated adequate reliability and one-year temporal stability. The scale was partially invariant across gender and fully invariant across language and cisgender heterosexual and sexual and gender minority adolescents. Boys (cis and trans) had higher levels of body appreciation than girls (cis and trans), while no significant differences were observed between heterosexual and sexual minority adolescents. The BAS-2 correlated positively with sexual satisfaction and sexual body-esteem as well as negatively with sexual distress. Our findings support the validity and reliability of the BAS-2 in French and English for measuring body appreciation in adolescents.
... An additional study also looked at these relationships among an older and more racially diverse sample (Ramseyer Winter et al., 2018), while a final study explored the relationship between body appreciation and male condom use or STI testing among an age-diverse sample of participants (Ramseyer Winter & Satinsky, 2014). The relationship between body appreciation and sexual agency was examined by Grower and Ward (2018). Sexual agency included condom use self-efficacy and communicating about condom use with a partner. ...
... Findings suggest an overall positive relationship between body appreciation and health-promoting behaviors (including preventive sexual health behaviors, preventive cancer behaviors, and seeking routine medical attention) and a negative relationship between body appreciation and healthcompromising behaviors (including risky sexual health behaviors and alcohol and tobacco use). The benefits of developing a sense of body appreciation, and thereby positive body image, extend beyond general feelings of psychological wellbeing to positively influencing the ways women and girls behave (Grower & Ward, 2018). Indeed, Ramseyer Winter and Satinsky (2014) assert that "body appreciation does not just result in fewer risky behaviors but may actually result in more protective behaviors" (p. ...
Literature on body image and health behaviors has largely been pathology-based, investigating body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Body appreciation is a useful construct of positive body image and has been used to understand its relationship with health behaviors beyond eating. This scoping review explores the literature on the relationship between body appreciation and physical health-promoting behaviors and health-compromising behaviors. A comprehensive search of databases was conducted to gather correlational studies written in English between January 2005 and November 2019. Behaviors related to eating and exercise were excluded. Nine quantitative studies met inclusion criteria. Evidence suggests an overall positive relationship between body appreciation and health-promoting behaviors, including preventive sexual health behaviors, preventive cancer behaviors, and seeking medical attention. Alternatively, body appreciation is negatively associated with health-compromising behaviors including risky sexual activity and alcohol and tobacco use. Promoting positive body image, above and beyond the reduction of body dissatisfaction, may play a crucial role in the health and well-being of women and girls. Research that examines positive body image in groups that are racially diverse and include sexual and gender minorities and people without healthcare access is urgently needed.
... To the best of our knowledge, this is the first empirical evidence that body image is related to sexual motives and that sexual motives may be intervening processes by which body image impacts distraction during sex. We speculate that women who are more dissatisfied with their body have weaker approach sexual motives because they tend not to associate their body and sexuality with reward and pleasure, a notion which is suggested by previous findings that women with negative body image are less likely to masturbate (Dosch et al., 2016) or feel entitled to sexual pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018). Positive body image is a multifaceted construct distinct from negative body image and comprises appreciation of, acceptance of, and confidence in one's body as well as focusing on the body's assets and functions (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). ...
... Accordingly, we speculate that women with positive body image are more likely to explore their sexuality and sexual responses, thereby learning to associate their body and sexuality with pleasure, excitement, and fulfillment. For example, women who feel positively about their body exhibit more sexual agency and are more likely to explore new sexual positions and techniques (Grower & Ward, 2018). Women who masturbate more often tend to experience better sexual function (Herbenick et al., 2009), and women with positive body image may begin exploration of their sexual responses at a younger age. ...
Women with body image concerns are more likely to experience sexual difficulties (e.g., with arousal, lubrication, orgasm). However, the processes by which body image impacts sexual well-being are poorly understood. We theorized that women with negative body image are less likely to view sex in terms of reward, leading them to have weaker approach sexual motives (i.e., to pursue positive experiences such as pleasure). Rather, women with negative body image may have sex to avoid personal insecurities and negative emotions, leading them to have stronger avoidance sexual motives (i.e., to cope with negative affect or to avoid partner conflict). In turn, we theorized that stronger approach sexual motives may allow women to be more focused on erotic cues during sex, thereby enhancing sexual pleasure, whereas avoidance motives may lead to greater distraction, interfering with sexual pleasure. Women (N = 1619) were recruited from online venues and reported on their body image and most recent sex. We found that body dissatisfaction was associated with weaker self-focused approach motives and in turn more distraction. Additionally, body dissatisfaction was associated with stronger self- and partner-focused avoidance motives and in turn more distraction. In turn, more distraction was associated with less pleasure and worse sexual function. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation of whether body image in women is associated with their sexual motives. Findings highlight the importance of sexual motives in explaining the link between body image and sexual pleasure and function.
... A study comparing three scales and a single-item measure of sexual satisfaction in adults showed that the GMSEX was the most psychometrically robust measure of sexual satisfaction (Mark et al., 2014). Sexual satisfaction was positively associated with body appreciation, psychological well-being, relationship satisfaction and longevity, sexual behaviors, and sexual function (Byers, 2005;Del Mar Sánchez-Fuentes et al., 2014Grower & Ward, 2018;Renaud et al., 1997). ...
Sexual satisfaction can be important for overall well-being and has been described as a sexual right. Individual and cultural factors, such as gender identity and sexual orientation, may influence the ways in which individuals describe, share, or experience their sexuality. The aims of the present study were to examine the factor structure of the five-item Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction (GMSEX) in a large sample of adults in relationships, to conduct measurement invariance tests to examine whether the GMSEX functions similarly across language-, country-, gender- and sexual orientation-based subgroups, and to evaluate its validity with sexuality and relationship-related outcomes. Results of a confirmatory analysis among 51,778 participants from 42 different countries across five continents (Mage = 32.39 years, SD = 12.52, 56.9% cisgender women) corroborated the proposed one-dimensional factor structure of the scale. Measurement invariance tests also indicated that the scale was fully invariant across gender- and sexual orientation-based subgroups, and partially invariant across language- and country-based subgroups. The GMSEX correlated negatively with masturbation frequency and relationship length and positively with the frequency of sexual activity. Our findings support the validity of the GMSEX as a short and reliable scale to measure sexual satisfaction across diverse samples.
... Seperti pada penelitian yang dilakukan Khazaei et al. (2011) yang menunjukkan bahwa gangguan seksual yang umum terjadi pada perempuan adalah gangguan hasrat seksual atau sexual desire. Padahal mengelola kesejahteraan seksual dan mempelajari cara untuk mengomunikasikan kebutuhan dan hasrat seksual dengan baik dapat menjadi penting bagi kesejahteraan psikologis perempuan secara keseluruhan (Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui hubungan antara asertivitas seksual dengan kepuasan pernikahan pada perempuan dewasa awal. Subjek pada penelitian ini berjumlah 386 perempuan dengan rentang usia 18-40 tahun yang berstatus menikah dan berdomisili di Kabupaten Indramayu Provinsi Jawa Barat. Penelitian ini menggunakan penelitian kuantitatif dengan metode korelasional, dan menggunakan teknik sampel convenience sampling. Teknik analisis data menggunakan analisis korelasi rank spearman. Sexual Assertiveness Questionnaire (SAQ) yang telah diadaptasi digunakan untuk mengukur asertivitas seksual. Sedangkan, untuk mengukur variabel kepuasan pernikahan, digunakan ENRICH Marital Satisfaction Scale (EMS) yang telah diadaptasi. Kuesioner yang digunakan berjumlah 33 item dan disebarkan secara offline dan online. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa asertivitas seksual tidak memiliki hubungan yang signifikan dengan kepuasan pernikahan.
... The sexual functions of these individuals and the rate of going to gynecological examinations are also negatively affected (Silva Gomes et al. 2019). Positive FGSI is generally associated with general well-being, including self-compassion, autonomy, bodily functioning, self-esteem, positive health, and lifestyle (Alleva et al. 2017;Andrew et al. 2016;Grower and Ward 2018;Halliwell 2015;Tylka and Wood-Barcalow 2015). ...
The study investigated negative genital self-image in women and determined the effect of education on natural/normal female genital appearance diversity on the change in women’s genital self-image. The type of research is a mixed method descriptive study. The participants were 259 women living in Turkey. In the first stage of the study, female genital self-image levels and body appreciation levels were evaluated. In the second stage of the study, women were interviewed thoroughly about negative female genital self-image, and then, visual education presentation was made on natural/normal female genital diversity. One week after the presentation, the women’s genital self-image levels were re-evaluated. In the first phase of the study, the mean Female Genital Self-Image Scale (FGSIS) total score was 22.07 ± 4.07 and the mean Body Appreciation Scale (BAS) total score was 42.40 ± 8.13 of the women. Higher FGSIS and BAS scores showed an increase in women’s positive genital self-image and body appreciation. The relationship between the FGSIS and the BAS scale scores of the women was found to be significantly correlated (r = 0.401, p < 0.001). In the second stage of the study, four main themes were examined as “positive thoughts,” “size and image,” “metaphors related to genital organs,” and “negative thoughts.” In conclusion, in the first phase, it was determined that women’s feeling of discomfort with their sexual organs during sexual intercourse, comparing their genital organs with other women’s genital organs, thinking of genital organ aesthetic surgery, and BAS scores were associated with FGSIS scores. In the second phase, women’s positive or negative feelings and thoughts about their genital self-image were revealed.
... Overall, findings indicated that romantic attachment patterns were significantly linked to body appreciation and sexual distress, but perhaps not sexual functioning. Grower and Ward (2018) sampled 355 heterosexual women in America and found that body appreciation was associated with greater sexual assertiveness, higher levels of sexual satisfaction, a stronger feeling of entitlement to sexual pleasure, more confidence in discussing condoms with a partner, and less self-consciousness during sexual activity. Additionally, body appreciation mitigated the negative experiences of body surveillance and self-objectification. ...
... Methods of increasing positive body image are of significant practical importance as positive body image predicts such aspects of well-being as self-esteem, optimism, proactive coping, safer sex intentions, sexual satisfaction, general health-related behaviours, and sexual health expectations (Avalos et al., 2005;Grower & Ward, 2018;Robbins & Reissing, 2018;Satinsky et al., 2013;West, 2018). A central variable in the understanding of positive body image is body appreciation (Tylka, 2011). ...
Prior research suggests that naturism leads to less social physique anxiety and more positive body image, but that other forms of public nudity (e.g., casual stripping, sexting) may be harmful, particularly for women. Two cross-sectional studies built on those previous findings. Study 1 (N 1 = 6670) found a positive relationship between generalised nude activity and body appreciation which was not moderated by gender. Study 2 (N 2 = 331) found that both naturism and casual stripping predicted more body appreciation, a relationship mediated by less social physique anxiety. Again, these relationships were not moderated by gender. In contrast, sexting did not predict body appreciation and predicted more social physique anxiety, but only in men. These findings highlight that some types of nudity may be more beneficial or harmful than others, and that future research and policy should specify the type of nudity under consideration in order to maximise positive effects.
... Regarding cognitive aspects, it was found that SA corresponds with one's sense of autonomy and self-esteem, which are often framed in a gender norms perspective (Alvarado et al., 2017;Fetterolf & Sanchez, 2015;Kim & Choi, 2016). When it comes to attitudinal aspects, SA has been operationalized in terms of sexual agency (Zerubavel & Messman-Moore, 2013), defined as the perceived power to negotiate sexual encounters and to communicate about one's sexual desire (Grower & Ward, 2018). Moreover, it has also been reported that SA is associated with elements related to sexual functioning, such as the propensity for excitation and subjective sexual arousal especially when SA is related to taking the initiative to have sex (Granados et al., 2020). ...
Objective: Sexual assertiveness (SA), i.e., the ability to communicate thoughts and desires that may be translated into satisfying sexual activity within an intimate relationship, is important for safe and satisfying sexual behavior. In an attempt to unravel which cultural, relational, and individual variables are related to the development of SA in emerging adults, an exploratory study was conducted in Cuenca, Ecuador. Methods: Five hundred and thirty-eight participants completed scales that measured their levels of SA, endorsement of the sexual double standard, relationship satisfaction, and mental well-being. Results: This study showed a negative effect of the sexual double standard on SA in both men and women and this effect was slightly tempered by the level of education. Women reported higher levels of SA than men. In women, SA was associated with general mental well-being and relationship satisfaction; but not in men. For both women and men, no association was found with relationship status or duration. Conclusions: These findings corroborate evidence highlighting the importance of SA for healthy sexual relationships and emphasize the importance of (sex) education for SA for lower educated women and men. The results are discussed in relation to findings on SA in other contexts.
... Conversely, heterosexual female scripts depict sexual submissiveness and responsiveness to male desire through acting in the role of the provider of pleasure (Armstrong et al., 2012;Vannier & O'Sullivan, 2012). Sexual objectification is seen to play a central role in the reinforcement of the female sexual script (Simon & Gagnon, 1984), as women are indoctrinated from early childhood to view their bodies as a sexual commodity (Grower & Ward, 2018;Holland et al., 2016;Wiederman, 2005) and associate self-worth on appeasing a mate (Impett et al., 2006;Koval et al., 2019;Sanchez et al., 2005). ...
The gendered disparity in orgasm frequency and sexual satisfaction during partnered sexual activity has implications for wellbeing, mental health, and relationship satisfaction. As such the current study investigated the role of sexual assertiveness and self-esteem as predictors of women’s sexual satisfaction, with sexual script theory offering a theoretical framework which may illuminate the problematic female sexual role. It was hypothesised that sexual assertiveness would mediate the positive relationship between self-esteem and both ego-centred and partner/activity-focused sexual satisfaction. Cross-sectional self-report data were collected online from 304 participants aged between 18–68 years who identified as heterosexual women. Results demonstrated that higher sexual assertiveness predicted higher sexual satisfaction, with sexual assertiveness found to mediate the relationship between women’s self-esteem and ego-centred sexual satisfaction (R² = .46, p < .001; Bindirect = .29, 95% BCI = .267, .523). Sexual assertiveness was also found to mediate the relationship between self-esteem and partner- and activity-focused sexual satisfaction (R² = .26, p < .001; Bindirect = .29, 95% BCI – .191, .400). Findings offer a foundation for future research and practical applications for practice professionals, mental health practitioners, and sex education programmes.
... Women with greater body-esteem reported having more sexual behaviors and sexual pleasure (Bond et al., 2020;Weinberg & Williams, 2010), and more feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018). Contrarily, women experiencing body shame and sexual self-consciousness presented more sexual problems and reported less sexual pleasure from physical intimacy (Sanchez & Kiefer, 2007). ...
Objectives
To clarify the psychosocial and behavioral factors related to women’s sexual pleasure. Methods: A search was conducted on EBSCO and Web of Science databases using the key terms “female sexual pleasure” and “women sexual pleasure” and following PRISMA guidelines. Results: 76 articles were identified, referring to sexual practices, individual factors, interpersonal factors, societal factors, and ways of enhancing sexual pleasure. Conclusions: Age, sexual experience, arousability, body-esteem, sexual autonomy, and sexual assertiveness seem to benefit women’s sexual pleasure, while sexual compliance and a gender power imbalance seem to compromise it. Additional research regarding non-western and non-heterosexual women is still required.
... The effects of sexual self-esteem found in this study were in line with previous findings: sexual self-concept was positively associated with positive body image and negatively associated with negative body image. 24,37,40,41 Although the associations between body image and sexual communication are apparent, the mechanism in this relationship is underexplored. Our serial mediation model revealed that sexual self-esteem played a significant mediating role in the relationship between body image and sexual communication (coefficients are shown in Table 4). ...
Background
Sexual self-esteem and communication on sexual issues with a partner contribute greatly to an individual's quality of sex life; however, their effects on the relationship between body image and sexual function are underexplored.
Aim
To test a serial mediating pathway of sexual self-esteem and sexual communication underlying the relationship between body image and sexual function.
Methods
A total of 510 women aged 18–53 years (mean = 28, SD = 5.5) who were involved in an intimate relationship completed an online survey.
Outcomes
Women's (i) body appreciation, (ii) body image self-consciousness during sexual intimacy, (iii) sexual self-esteem, (iv) dyadic sexual communication, (v) negative disclosure apprehension, and (vi) sexual function were assessed.
Results
Findings revealed that sexual self-esteem and dyadic sexual communication played a serial mediating role in the relationship between body image (body appreciation and body image self-consciousness during sexual intimacy) and sexual function, and the relationship between body image and arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain. Sexual self-esteem and negative disclosure apprehension also played a serial mediating role in the relationship between body image and sexual pain. In addition, dyadic sexual communication played a unique mediating role in the relationship between body image and sexual function, which is isolated from the effect of sexual self-esteem.
Clinical Implications
Women's sexual self-esteem and sexual communication with their partner can make beneficial contributions to the relationship between body image and sexual function. Therefore, promoting women's positive body image, sexual self-esteem, and sexual communication skills deserves attention from women themselves and clinicians.
Strengths & Limitations
This study used a robust method of data analysis to test the mediating effect of sexual self-esteem and sexual communication to clarify the mechanism underlying the relationship between body image and sexual function among Chinese women; however, causal conclusions cannot be drawn. Furthermore, various demographics including participants' age, education level, sexual orientation—factors such as relationship status and length, relationship functioning, and partner-related variables—and other aspects of sexual self-concept and sexual communication should be examined in future research.
Conclusion
The current study indicates that women's thoughts and feelings regarding sexuality and communicating sexual issues with their partner are associated closely with their body image and sexual function.
T Wu, Y Zheng. Effect of Sexual Esteem and Sexual Communication on the Relationship Between Body Image and Sexual Function in Chinese Heterosexual Women. J Sex Med 2021;XX:XXX–XXX.
... This finding is notable, as a major assumption underlying the relationship between body image satisfaction and sexual response (based on self-objectification theory 31,32 ) has been that the evaluative component involved in partnered sex inhibits desire, arousal, and thus orgasmic response, 19,21e24,27,71,72 and consistent with this idea, prior research has suggested that masturbation may be instrumental in developing a more positive body image. 47,48 Yet the current findings suggest that poor body image may affect orgasmic pleasure and response equally during both partnered sex and masturbation. ...
Introduction
This study explored the role of body image dissatisfaction on orgasmic response during partnered sex and masturbation and on sexual relationship satisfaction. The study also described typologies of women having different levels of body image satisfaction.
Methods
A sample of 257 Norwegian women responded to an online survey assessing body image dissatisfaction, problems with orgasm, and sexual relationship satisfaction. Using structural equation modeling and factor mixture modeling, the relationship between body image dissatisfaction and orgasmic response was assessed, and clusters of sexual response characteristics associated with varying levels of body image dissatisfaction were identified.
Main Outcome Measure
Orgasmic function during partnered sex and masturbation, along with sexual relationship satisfaction, were assessed as a function of body image.
Results
Body image dissatisfaction, along with a number of covariates, predicted higher levels of “problems with orgasm” during both partnered sex and masturbation, with no significant difference in the association depending on the type of sexual activity. Varying levels of body image dissatisfaction/satisfaction were associated with differences in orgasmic incidence, difficulty, and pleasure during partnered sex; with one orgasmic parameter during masturbation; and with sexual relationship satisfaction.
Conclusion
Body image dissatisfaction and likely concomitant psychological distress are related to impaired orgasmic response during both partnered sex and masturbation and may diminish sexual relationship satisfaction. Women with high body image dissatisfaction can be characterized by specific sexual response patterns.
Horvath Z, Smith BH, Sal D, et al. Body Image, Orgasmic Response, and Sexual Relationship Satisfaction: Understanding Relationships and Establishing Typologies Based on Body Image Satisfaction. J Sex Med 2020;XX:XXX–XXX.
... Although research connecting self-objectification and sexual subjectivity is still emerging, prior literature suggests that women who engage in self-surveillance are likely to do so within sexual situations (Claudat & Warren, 2014), detracting from enjoyment and a sense of empowerment as a sexual being. More recently, associations have been drawn between women's body surveillance and sexual agency, including entitlement to sexual pleasure (Grower & Ward, 2018). ...
As a result of the consistent sexual objectification of women across cultures, theorists have noted women objectifying themselves. Given the dehumanizing aspects of self-objectification, this process threatens the holistic development of the self. The present cross-sectional survey study examined how self-objectification is related to sexual subjectivity and identity exploration, among emerging adult women. We found that self-objectification negatively impacts the self-concept domains of self-esteem and sexual subjectivity. Self-esteem was found to mediate the association between self-objectification and identity exploration. Our results draw attention to the detrimental outcomes of self-objectification, highlighting the potential for educators and practitioners to aid young women in examining their self-concept within our broader culture to ensure a healthy trajectory of development of the self.
... The inclusion of the sexual self-image dysfunction fits within the ICD-11 classification of ''other specified sexual dysfunctions'' (12) and is a novel and important component of our study. Women who more habitually monitor their appearance, and for whom their appearance is a more substantial determinant of their physical self-worth, are less sexually assertive and more self-conscious during intimacy and experience lower sexual satisfaction (15). It was not unexpected that overweight and obesity were independently associated with self-image dysfunction. ...
Objective:
To document the prevalence of female sexual dysfunctions (FSDs) and factors associated with FSDs and sexually related personal distress in premenopausal women.
Design:
Community-based cross-sectional study.
Setting:
Eastern states of Australia.
Participants:
Women aged 18-39 years.
Interventions(s):
Not applicable.
Main outcome measure(s):
Women were classified as having sexually related personal distress if they had a Female Sexual Distress Scale-Revised score of ≥11, and as having an FSD if they had a low Profile of Female Sexual Function desire, arousal, orgasmic function, responsiveness, or sexual self-image domain score plus sexually related personal distress. Sociodemographic factors associated with an FSD were examined by means of multivariable logistic regression.
Result(s):
The prevalence of sexually related personal distress was 50.2%. Sexually related personal distress without dysfunction affected 29.6%, and 20.6% had at least one FSD. The proportions of women with self-image, arousal, desire, orgasm, and responsiveness dysfunction were 11.1%, 9%, 8%, 7.9%, and 3.4% respectively. Sexual self-image dysfunction was associated with being overweight, obese, living together, not married, married, breastfeeding, and taking a psychotropic medication. Psychotropic medication was significantly associated with all FSDs. Independent risk factors for nonspecific sexually related personal distress included psychotropic medication., sexual inactivity, and infertility treatment.
Conclusion(s):
That one-half of young Australian women have sexually related personal distress and one in five women have at least an FSD, with sexual self-image predominating, is concerning. The high prevalence of distress signals the importance of health professionals being adequately prepared to discuss sexual health concerns.
Despite its importance for the social sciences, human agency remains an ambiguous and underoperationalized construct. After engaging prior research to articulate clear criteria for defining agency and synthesize a multidimensional conceptual framework for human agency, this study develops and validates preliminary General Human Agency Indicators (GHAIs) to measure subconstructs within that framework. Utilizing the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) dataset, we aggregated a list of 30 survey items previously used in agency research and conducted an iterative process of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and item elimination to reduce that list to a set of 9–13 items with a strong, consistent factorial structure. Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), we identified two bifactor models that demonstrated good fit: a nine-item General Personal Agency scale (GPAS) and a nine-item GHAIs tool combining six items from the GPAS with three measuring agency achievement. Initial evidence for the construct validity of the tools was produced through tests of internal consistency and correlational analysis, indicating that the proposed GPAS and GHAIs effectively measure personal agency, intrinsic agency, instrumental agency, and agency achievement.
In Western societies, women are encouraged to present themselves in sexualized ways and are expected to experience this as a form of sexual agency. However, research on women's sexual agency is new and still developing, leading to inconsistent definitions and understandings. In addition, women's experiences of and resistance to violations of their sexual boundaries are frequently overlooked. The current systematic review answers research questions on how sexual agency has been conceptualized, how it has been studied in relation to sexual violence, and how women's social positionality influences sexual agency. A systematic strategy was used to search 10 health and social science databases and analyze 95 full-text articles. A feminist social constructionist framework guided this mixed-methods synthesis and provided a framework for addressing the research questions. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how society and researchers understand women's sexual agency and how intersectionality is largely ignored. Findings also identify an urgent need for future research to consider the relations between violence against women and women's perceptions of (or lack of) sexual agency. Future policymakers, researchers, and educators should move away from a one-size-fits-all approach in their work and instead, consider the diverse impact of societal expectations on women. By doing so, we can develop policies and programming that are specifically tailored to address the unique needs and challenges faced by women in society.
Objectification theory predicts that women's self‐objectification should lead to sexual dysfunction, yet previous studies failed to provide consistent support for this prediction. The present research—which used two sufficiently powered samples and a self‐objectification measurement (SOBBS) with improved psychometric qualities and content validity than previous measurements—found support for the expected association between self‐objectification and sexual dysfunction among heterosexual women in Israel and the United States (N = 404 and 366, M age = 30.59 and 36.93, respectively). We also examined two novel potential mediators of this association, entitlement for pleasure and sexual agency (i.e., the capability to express sexual desires and boundaries), and found that the latter mediated the link between self‐objectification and sexual dysfunction. The mediators originally proposed by objectification theory (i.e. appearance anxiety, body shame, awareness of internal body states and flow) failed to mediate this link. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.
Problem: Research suggests that breastfeeding self-efficacy (i.e., a mother's perceived ability and confidence to breastfeed her newborn) is associated with body image experiences and wider psychosocial factors. However, much of this work is focused on negative body image and has relied on samples from predominantly Westernised, industrialised nations.
Background: To extend knowledge, we sought to examine the extent to which indices of positive body image (body appreciation), negative body image (body dissatisfaction, breast size dissatisfaction), and psychosocial factors (body acceptance by others, postpartum partner support) are associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in sample of mothers from Israel.
Hypothesis: We hypothesised that body appreciation, body dissatisfaction, breast size dissatisfaction, body acceptance by others, and postpartum partner support would each be significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in Israeli mothers.
Method: A total of 352 mothers from Israel, with an infant aged six months or younger, were asked to complete an online survey that measured the aforementioned constructs.
Findings: Correlational and linear model analyses indicated that only body appreciation was significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy. Body acceptance by others was significantly associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in correlational but not regression analyses. These effects were consistent across primiparous and multiparous mothers.
Discussion: In Israeli mothers, at least, a limited set of body image and body image-related indices appear to be associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy. Conclusion: Overall, these findings suggest that positive body image may be associated with breastfeeding self-efficacy in women from Israel, though more research is needed.
Objectives The purpose of this study was to compare sexual function, body image concern, and sexual self-esteem in women after natural delivery with episiotomy and cesarean delivery. Methods This research was causal-comparative. The statistical population included all women referring to medical centers affiliated with the Tehran University of Medical Sciences in 2021, of whom 200 participants (100 women with natural delivery and 100 women with cesarean delivery) were selected as a sample using the available sampling method. The female Sexual Function Index, Body Image Concern Inventory, and Sexual Self-Esteem Index were used to collect the data. The data were analyzed via independent t-test and multivariate analysis of variance. Results The results showed a significant difference between sexual function and sexual self-esteem in women with a natural delivery and cesarean delivery (P=0.05). In addition, although both groups experienced body image concerns, no significant difference was found between the scores in the two groups (P=0.05). Conclusion The evidence indicates that although women with natural delivery experience better sexual function than women with cesarean delivery, they may suffer from lower sexual self-esteem and appearance dissatisfaction compared to the other group.
Background: Sexual protective behaviors, such as consistent condom use and intention, are important preventative measures against the transmission of HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections. Current sexual health research has yet to explore the interaction between contextual factors, such as gendered racial microaggressions, and the role of personal factors (i.e., body appreciation) on Black women's sexual risk and protective behaviors in the United States. Guided by objectification theory, we hypothesized that sexually objectifying gendered racial microaggressions moderated the body appreciation and condom use behaviors relationship. Participants: The current study consisted of 114 Black emerging adult women in the southern United States. Results: Results showed significant interactions between the frequency of sexually objectifying gendered racial microaggressions and body appreciation on consistent condom use and condom use intention. Conclusion: Overall, these findings suggested the need for sexual health researchers and interventionists to further explore the influence of gendered racial microaggressions and body appreciation on condom use behaviors.
Most body image studies assess only linear relations between predictors and outcome variables, relying on techniques such as multiple Linear Regression. These predictor variables are often validated multi-item measures that aggregate individual items into a single scale. The advent of machine learning has made it possible to apply Nonlinear Regression algorithms—such as Random Forest and Deep Neural Networks—to identify potentially complex linear and nonlinear connections between a multitude of predictors (e.g., all individual items from a scale) and outcome (output) variables. Using a national dataset, we tested the extent to which these techniques allowed us to explain a greater share of the variance in body-image outcomes (adjusted R²) than possible with Linear Regression. We examined how well the connections between body dissatisfaction and dieting behavior could be predicted from demographic factors and measures derived from objectification theory and the tripartite-influence model. In this particular case, although Random Forest analyses sometimes provided greater predictive power than Linear Regression models, the advantages were small. More generally, however, this paper demonstrates how body image researchers might harness the power of machine learning techniques to identify previously undiscovered relations among body image variables.
The importance and centrality of the construct of agency is wellknown amongst social scientists. Yet, there is still little agreement on how this construct should be understood and defined, as demonstrated by the diversity of instruments that are used to investigate it. Indeed, there is no current consensus or standardized methodology to assess agency. This paper provides a synthetic overview of the studies that have evaluated and measured individuals' agency. More specifically, the purpose is to review research that quantitatively investigates the agency of adults, as well as children and youth, across different social contexts. In the process, it offers recommendations to inform future research, practice, and policy. We identified published peer-reviewed studies relating to the assessment of agency across countries and across age through a narrative literature review. The findings were grouped according to whether agency was measured in its most comprehensive conception or in a precise single domain or dimension, which was then discussed separately for children, adults, and women. Of the 3879 studies identified from online searches of the literature and the five additional sources gathered through bibliography mining, 106 qualified for full review, with 34 studies included in the final synthesis. Multiple different instruments were found to be currently adopted or developed to assess agency. The present review offers an exhaustive overview of the different conceptualizations of agency and of the available instruments to assess it, providing critical information for researchers and policymakers to improve intervention and empowerment programs.
Findings consistently illustrate the negative association between women’s sexual objectification and their sexual functioning. At the same time, some scholars argue that sexualized self-presentation may be a way to embrace one’s sexuality and may signify empowerment. To date, no studies have explicitly explored the potential differential contributions of self-objectification and self-sexualization to multiple aspects of women’s sexual agency. Towards this end, we surveyed 556 undergraduate women to examine how body surveillance, self-objectification, and self-sexualization differentially predict women’s sexual assertiveness, sexual satisfaction, feelings of entitlement to sexual pleasure, condom use self-efficacy, and sexual esteem. Path analysis demonstrated consistent negative links between body surveillance, one behavioral manifestation of self-objectification, and sexual agency outcomes, but revealed both negative and positive links between measures of sexualization and sexual agency. This complex set of associations highlights the value of studying self-objectification and self-sexualization both in tandem and separately, so that researchers can develop a better understanding of the implications of each for women’s sexual agency.
Positive body image predicts several measures of happiness, well-being, and sexual functioning. Prior research has suggested a link between communal naked activity and positive body image, but has thus far not clarified either the direction or mechanisms of this relationship. This was the first randomized controlled trial of the effects of nakedness on body image. Two potential explanatory mediators of this effect were also investigated. Fifty-one participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups in which they interacted with other people either naked (naked condition) or clothed (control condition). All participants completed measures of body appreciation before and after the intervention, as well as measures of the relative perceived attractiveness of others and social physique anxiety immediately after the intervention. Perceived attractiveness of others was neither affected by the manipulation nor correlated with body appreciation. However, as expected, participants in the naked condition reported more body appreciation, an effect that was mediated by reductions in social physique anxiety. This research provides initial evidence that naked activity can lead to improvements in body image and evidence of a specific explanatory mechanism. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The purpose of this article is to describe Italian women's attitudes toward their genitals, and the intersection of genital self-image (GSI) and reproductive and sexual health behaviors. Individual interviews were conducted with 46 reproductive-aged women. All interviews were transcribed verbatim with observer comments to identify emerging data patterns. Researchers completed coding between and within interviews for a constant comparative approach to data analysis to identify emergent themes. Participants expressed embarrassment discussing genitals and equated this with societal taboos; however, friends provided one opportunity to speak more openly. Odor discussions and hygiene practices were frequently occurring themes, especially during menstruation. GSI limited some daily activities and sexual experiences due to feelings of self-consciousness. Concerns stemmed from limited knowledge about how women's genitals should look, smell, and feel. In contrast, some women detailed positive GSI in terms of autonomy and self-care. Results illustrate practical recommendations for healthcare providers to address women's genital concerns and improve women's GSI and overall reproductive and sexual health experiences.
Risk and protective factors are equally important to the promotion of sexual health. Yet, in body image and sexuality research, most of the focus has been placed on the deleterious effects of appearance dissatisfaction and body mass index (BMI) at the expense of more adaptive dimensions. Furthermore, although age can affect appearance and sexual function, little is known regarding the experience of older women. Therefore, this study was aimed at comparing how positive body image (operationalized as body appreciation) and negative body image (operationalized as appearance dissatisfaction) each contribute to indicators of sexual health when controlling for BMI in a sample of age-varied women. Cross-sectional data were collected online from 215 heterosexual women aged 18-88 years. Results showed that body appreciation was a unique predictor of sexual function, satisfaction, and distress, above and beyond the effect of BMI and appearance dissatisfaction. Body appreciation was not found to fluctuate with age. Further, body appreciation moderated the relationship between age and sexual satisfaction, but not sexual distress. Post hoc analyses showed that high body appreciation may serve as a buffer against age-related changes in sexual satisfaction only in women with clinically significant sexual function difficulties. Increasing body appreciation may be a promising clinical intervention in the treatment of sexual problems in older adult women.