Cretaceous integrative stratigraphy and timescale of China

Abstract

Cretaceous strata are widely distributed across China and record a variety of depositional settings. The sedimentary facies consist primarily of terrestrial, marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial deposits, of which marine and interbedded facies are relatively limited. Based a thorough review of the subdivisions and correlations of Cretaceous strata in China, we provide an up-to-date integrated chronostratigraphy and geochronologic framework of the Cretaceous system and its deposits in China. Cretaceous marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial sediments occur in southern Tibet, Karakorum, the western Tarim Basin, eastern Heilongjiang and Taiwan. Among these, the Himalayan area has the most complete marine deposits, the foraminiferal and ammonite biozonation of which can be correlated directly to the international standard biozones. Terrestrial deposits in central and western China consist predominantly of red, lacustrine-fluvial, clastic deposits, whereas eastern China, a volcanically active zone, contains clastic rocks in association with intermediate to acidic igneous rocks and features the most complete stratigraphic successions in northern Hebei, western Liaoning and the Songliao Basin. Here, we synthesise multiple stratigraphic concepts and charts from southern Tibet, northern Hebei to western Liaoning and the Songliao Basin to produce a comprehensive chronostratigraphic chart. Marine and terrestrial deposits are integrated, and this aids in the establishment of a comprehensive Cretaceous chronostratigraphy and temporal framework of China. Further research into the Cretaceous of China will likely focus on terrestrial deposits and mutual authentication techniques (e.g., biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy). This study provides a more reliable temporal framework both for studying Cretaceous geological events and exploring mineral resources in China.

Full text

SPECIAL TOPIC: Integrative stratigraphy and timescale of China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . January 2019 Vol.62 No.1: 256–286
•REVIEW•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-017-9262-y
Cretaceous integrative stratigraphy and timescale of China
Dangpeng XI1, Xiaoqiao WAN1*, Guobiao LI1& Gang LI2
1State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences,
Beijing 100083, China;
2State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Nanjing 210008, China
Received October 27, 2017; revised April 11, 2018; accepted August 13, 2018; published online September 19, 2018
Abstract Cretaceous strata are widely distributed across China and record a variety of depositional settings. The sedimentary
facies consist primarily of terrestrial, marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial deposits, of which marine and interbedded facies
are relatively limited. Based a thorough review of the subdivisions and correlations of Cretaceous strata in China, we provide an
up-to-date integrated chronostratigraphy and geochronologic framework of the Cretaceous system and its deposits in China.
Cretaceous marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial sediments occur in southern Tibet, Karakorum, the western Tarim Basin,
eastern Heilongjiang and Taiwan. Among these, the Himalayan area has the most complete marine deposits, the foraminiferal
and ammonite biozonation of which can be correlated directly to the international standard biozones. Terrestrial deposits in
central and western China consist predominantly of red, lacustrine-fluvial, clastic deposits, whereas eastern China, a volcanically
active zone, contains clastic rocks in association with intermediate to acidic igneous rocks and features the most complete
stratigraphic successions in northern Hebei, western Liaoning and the Songliao Basin. Here, we synthesise multiple stratigraphic
concepts and charts from southern Tibet, northern Hebei to western Liaoning and the Songliao Basin to produce a comprehensive
chronostratigraphic chart. Marine and terrestrial deposits are integrated, and this aids in the establishment of a comprehensive
Cretaceous chronostratigraphy and temporal framework of China. Further research into the Cretaceous of China will likely focus
on terrestrial deposits and mutual authentication techniques (e.g., biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and
cyclostratigraphy). This study provides a more reliable temporal framework both for studying Cretaceous geological events and
exploring mineral resources in China.
Keywords Cretaceous, Stage/age, Biostratigraphy, Chronostratigraphy, Magnetostratigraphy, Cyclostratigraphy, Stratigraphic
correlation, China
Citation: Xi D P, Wan X Q, Li G B, Li G. 2019. Cretaceous integrative stratigraphy and timescale of China. Science China Earth Sciences, 62: 256–286, https://
doi.org/10.1007/s11430-017-9262-y
1. Introduction
The Cretaceous period (145–66 Ma), the last period of the
Mesozoic Era, was characterised by an extremely hot climate
and the high sea-level from the preceding 250 Myr. A series
of major geological and ecological events occurred during
this period, including the formation of large igneous pro-
vinces (LAPs), the Cretaceous Normal superchron (CNS),
oceanic anoxic events (OAEs), the evolution and mass ex-
tinction of terrestrial and marine biota and extensive hy-
drocarbon source rock formation (Huber et al., 2002;Leckie
et al., 2002;Sketon et al., 2003;Wang and Hu, 2005;Jen-
kyns, 2010;Haq, 2014;Sames et al., 2016;Hay, 2017;
O’Brien et al., 2017). Due to the scale and magnitude of
these geological events, particularly increased sea levels and
hot climate, the Cretaceous has been a major focus in in-
ternational geoscience research.
Global marine Cretaceous strata are well developed, pro-
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SCIENCE CHINA
Earth Sciences
*Corresponding author (email: wanxq@cugb.edu.cn)
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viding a strong basis for subdivision and correlation in
marine stratigraphy, especially for the establishing and cor-
relating global planktonic foraminifera, calcareous nano-
fossil and ammonite biozones. Presently, the Cretaceous is
divided into two series and 12 stages, including the Berria-
sian, Valangian, Hauterivian, Barremian, Albian and Aptian
stages in the Lower Cretaceous, and the Cenomanian, Tur-
onian, Coniacian, Santonian, Campanian and Maastrichtian
stages in the Upper Cretaceous (Figure 1). To date, global
boundary stratotype section and points (GSSPs) exist for the
Albian stage in the Lower Cretaceous and the Cenomanian,
Turonian, Santonian and Maastrichtian stages in the Upper
Cretaceous. However, these GSSPs have not been de-
termined for seven Cretaceous stages, and the lower
boundary of the Cretaceous is the only period boundary in
the Phanerozoic that has not yet been defined by a GSSP
(Ogg and Hinnov, 2012;Ogg et al., 2016). Furthermore,
when compared with marine strata, Cretaceous-age terres-
trial strata remain poorly understood.
Cretaceous strata are broadly distributed throughout China
and consist of both widely distributed terrestrial successions
and relatively limited marine successions (Chen, 2003;Wan
et al., 2007). Marine deposits mainly occur in Tibet, Kar-
akorum and the western Tarim Basin, which was part of the
eastern Tethys Ocean during the Cretaceous (Wen, 1974,
Hao and Wan, 1985; Wen et al., 2000; Hao et al., 2001;Tang
et al., 1989; Wan, 1991; Willems and Zhang, 1993;Willims
et al.,1995;Wan et al., 2003,2007;Wang et al., 2012;Xi et
al., 2016). A small number of marine and interbedded mar-
ine-terrestrial strata developed in present-day eastern Hei-
longjiang and Taiwan during the Cretaceous (Sha, 1990,
2007;Li and Yang, 2003; Li and Yu, 2004; Wan et al., 2007).
The terrestrial Cretaceous strata in China occur chiefly in a
series of inland basins characterized by alluvial, lacustrine
and volcaniclastic deposits (Chen, 1983,2003;Wang et al.,
1989;Ye and Zhong, 1990;Jiang et al., 1993;Li, 2000;Wu
et al., 2005;Wan et al., 2013b).
During the Cretaceous, eastern China lay in a tectonically
active zone when the Yanshan and Himalayan Movements
resulted in the formation of north-northeast, northeast and
approximately east-west fault basins, such as the Jiayin,
Songliao, Jiaolei, North Hebei-Western Liaoning, Subei,
Tiantai and Xinjiang basins. These tectonic basins consist of
fine-grained clastic rocks interbedded with volcanic rocks,
pyroclastic rocks and coal. The co-occurrence of inter-
mediate to acidic igneous rocks and red clastic rocks has
been observed in medium- and small-sized basins along the
Pacific Rim. The central and western regions have primarily
large- to medium-sized inland basins, such as the Junggar,
Ordos, Jianghan, Sichuan and Chuxiong basins, are domi-
nated by the presence of red clastic rocks.
Furthermore, during the Cretaceous, widely distributed
stratigraphic successions of variable composition and gen-
esis, as well as the Jehol Biota, abundant dinosaur fossils,
evidence of the Yanshan Movement, OAEs, Cretaceous
oceanic red beds (CORBs) and other geological events were
recorded in China. Additionally, Cretaceous deposits con-
tributed substantially to the formation of oil, gas and metal
resources in China. Thus, much research has focused on
marine environments in the eastern Tethys, as well as upon
charismatic terrestrial biota, palaeoclimatic conditions, pa-
laeoenvironments and volcano-tectonic mineralization
events in eastern China (Chen, 2003;Zhou et al., 2003;Wan
et al., 2007;Liu et al., 2009;Zhu et al., 2011;Hu et al., 2012;
Wang C S et al., 2013;Zhou, 2014;Wang et al., 2016). In
recent years, progress has been made in developing a holistic
Cretaceous stratigraphy of China. The establishment of a
continuous terrestrial stratigraphic sequence in northeast
China provides regional and international insights into Cre-
taceous terrestrial stratigraphic sequences (Sha, 2007;Wan et
al., 2013b), which, in turn, provide a basis for the study of
Cretaceous biota, palaeoclimates, palaeoenvironments and
tectonic activity. With recent advances in stratigraphic
methods, high-precision chronostratigraphic frameworks
have become increasingly important. The objectives of this
study were to: (1) summarise recent research on Cretaceous
stratigraphy in China, (2) complete the subdivision and
correlation of Cretaceous strata in different areas in the
country and (3) establish a comprehensive chronostrati-
graphic framework. We also suggest future directions for the
study of Cretaceous stratigraphy in China. Because there are
many basins and stratigraphic provinces with complex strata
in China, the stratigraphic research in this paper is limited to
major basins and stratigraphic provinces.
To develop and improved understanding about the Cre-
taceous strata of China, the stratigraphic frameworks of Hao
et al. (1986,2000a), Yang et al. (1986),Chen (2000a) and
others aided in dividing the Cretaceous strata of China into
seven super stratigraphic provinces, namely the northeast (I),
north (II), southeast (III), central-south (IV), southwest (V),
northwest (VI) and Xinjiang-Tibet Tethys (VII) stratigraphic
provinces (Figure 2). The strata in these seven provinces
have further distinguished as marine, interbedded marine-
terrestrial and terrestrial facies.
2. History of Cretaceous stratigraphy in China
In the early 20th century (1920–1950), a preliminary study
on the Cretaceous strata in China was conducted by geolo-
gists from China and international teams. Most of their re-
search was limited to the early Cretaceous ‘Jehol series’ and
related strata. Grabau (1928) published a comprehensive
review of the Cretaceous period in China in the Mesozoic
section of the book “Stratigraphy of China”. Wong (1929)
then proposed the occurrence of the Yanshan Movement.
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Figure 1 Classification and comparison of international Cretaceous stratigraphy. International stratigraphic chart, after Ogg and Hinnov (2012) and Ogg et
al. (2016); biozone after Hardenbol et al. (1998),Ogg and Hinnov (2012),Haq (2014); sea level change after Haq (2014); carbon isotope after Ogg and
Hinnov (2012); oxygen isotope data after Haq(2014). Marker of the Berriasian after Wimbledon (2017); Marker of the Albian after Kennedy et al. (2017);
Marker of other stages after Ogg and Hinnov (2012) and Ogg et al. (2016). FAD: First appearance datum; LAD: last appearance datum.
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After 1950, extensive geological surveys and an in-
tensification of oil and gas exploration considerably pro-
moted progress in the study of Cretaceous stratigraphy. The
book “The Jurassic and Cretaceous of China” (Gu, 1962) is
the basis of much in-depth research into the Cretaceous of
China.
The scientific investigations of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
that began in the 1960s greatly promoted the study of the
Cretaceous of Tibet (Wen, 1974). The papers “Stratigraphic
subdivision of Jurassic and Cretaceous in China” (Chen et
al., 1982) and “Stratigraphical subdivision of terrestrial
Cretaceous and the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in China”
(Hao et al., 1982a) offered preliminary subdivision and
correlation schemes for Cretaceous stratigraphy in China.
The book “Cretaceous in China” (Hao et al, 1986) was a
systematic and comprehensive summary of Cretaceous
stratigraphy in the country. During the 1980s and 1990s,
based on foundational geologic surveys, oil and gas ex-
ploration, and within the scope of Cretaceous projects within
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga-
nization-International Union for Geological Sciences (UN-
ESCO-IUGS) International Geoscience Programme (IGCP)
and other national and international projects, Cretaceous
stratigraphy and biota were studied extensively. In southern
Tibet and the Tarim Basin, stratigraphic correlations were
thoroughly studied and summarised. Many research papers
and books have been published on the oil- and gas-bearing
basins of northern China, western Liaoning and basins in
southern China. (e.g., Chen, 1989;Hao et al., 1982b,2001;
Tang et al., 1989;Sha, 1990; Wan, 1990; Ye and Zhong,
1990; Chen et al., 1998; Ji et al., 1998). Chen (2000a) and
Wen et al. (2000) summarised the marine and terrestrial
Cretaceous stratigraphy of China in the book “Stratigraphic
Studies in China (1979–1999)”. At the same time, Hao et al.
(2000a) completed multiple Cretaceous stratigraphic sub-
divisions and correlations, presented in the book “The Stra-
tigraphic Lexicon of China: Cretaceous”.
In the 21st century, especially within the past 10 years,
research on Cretaceous stratigraphy has shifted from tradi-
tional biostratigraphy toward integrated stratigraphy due to
the application of, and progress in magnetostratigraphic,
cyclostratigraphic, chemostratigraphic and geochronological
Figure 2 Distribution of Cretaceous sediments in China. After Chen (2000a),Wan et al. (2007),Cao (2013),Li and Matsuoka (2015). Earliest to mid-early
Cretaceous deposits in eastern Heilongjiang are marine-terrestrial interbedded facies. Late Cretaceous deposits in the western Tarim Basin and Karakorum are
marine facies. Stratigraphic provinces include I: northeast; II: north; III: southeast; IV: central-south; V: southwest; VI: northwest; VII: Xinjiang-Tibet Tethys.
HL: Hailar Basin; JY: Jiayin Basin; SL: Songliao Basin; JL: Jiaolai Basin; NHB: South China Basin; HF: Hefei Basin; SB: Subei Basin; NY: Nanyang Basin;
NX: Nanxiong Basin; SC: Sichuan Basin; JH: Jianghan Basin; CX: Chuxiong Basin; LPS: ERDS: Ordos Basin; Liupanshan Basin; XN-LZ: Xining-Lanzhou
Basin; QDM: Qaidam Basin; JQ: Jiuquan Basin; ZG: Junggar Basin; TH: Tuha Basin; KQ: Kuqa Basin.
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methods. Improvements in Cretaceous stratigraphy have also
been promoted by increased study of Cretaceous biota, pa-
laeoclimates, palaeoenvironments and tectonic events, which
require more precise stratigraphic subdivisions and correla-
tions than have been previously developed. Research be-
ginning in 2000 and concerning terrestrial stages in China
has promoted the development of Chinese terrestrial Cre-
taceous stratigraphy (Wan et al., 2013a; China Committee of
Stratigraphy, 2018). The Earth Time-CN (China), which was
established in 2013, has processed global stratigraphic cor-
relations with high precision and resolution (Wan et al.,
2014). During this period, advances were made in our un-
derstanding of the Jehol biota, OAEs, CORBs, the Cretac-
eous terrestrial scientific drilling project in the Songliao
Basin (CCSD-SK), Cretaceous climate and volcanic-tectonic
events in eastern China (e.g., Zhou et al., 2003;Hu et al.,
2005,2012;Wang and Hu, 2005;Wu et al., 2005;Sha, 2007;
Wan et al., 2013b; Wang C S et al., 2013; Zhou, 2014). The
biostratigraphy of select important fossils has also been
rigorously summarised (e.g., Song and Shang, 2000;Hou et
al., 2002;Hou and Gou, 2007;Chen et al., 2012;Deng et al.,
2012;Pan, 2012;Yin, 2016). Advanced techniques in mag-
netostratigraphy, cyclostratigraphy and chemostratigraphy
have also been widely used in studies on Cretaceous strati-
graphy. Periodic summaries of Cretaceous stratigraphy in
different regions throughout China have been published re-
cently, furthering Cretaceous stratigraphic research in China
(e.g., Chen, 2003;Wang and Chen, 2005;Sha, 2007;Wan et
al., 2007;Jiang et al., 2010;Sha and Lucas, 2012;Cao, 2013;
Xi et al., 2016;Li X H et al., 2018).
3. Integrated stratigraphy
Cretaceous strata are widely distributed throughout China;
however, only the Himalayan region contains complete
marine sequences, and the northeast stratigraphic province
contains complete terrestrial Cretaceous sequences (Chen,
2003;Wan et al., 2007). Recently, research on the Cretaceous
of China has made progress in delimiting biofacies (bios-
tratigraphy), relative and absolute ages (chronostratigraphy),
redox environments and diagenetic processes (chemostrati-
graphy) and palaeo-polarity (magnetostratigraphy). Im-
portant biota in Cretaceous rocks aid in establishing a
comprehensive timeline. In their biostratigraphic research,
Wan et al. (2007) and Yin (2016) have discussed two im-
portant marine groups, namely foraminifera and ammonites,
whereas Song and Shang (2000),Hou et al. (2002),Hou and
Gou (2007),Chen (2012),Cheng and He (2012),Deng et al.
(2012), Pan (2012) and others have published substantial
studies on terrestrial ostracodes, spinicaudatans, plants,
gastropods, spores and pollen and other important fossils
from the Cretaceous of China. Furthermore, in-depth studies
have focused on the Jehol biota, SK-1 drilling project and
geological events in the eastern Tethys (Sha, 2007; Hu et al.,
2012; Wan et al., 2013b; Wang C S et al., 2013;Zhou, 2014).
Chemostratigraphic studies have established the late Cre-
taceous carbon isotopic curve in the Tethys and enabled the
identification of OAEs (Li X et al., 2006, 2016). Carbon and
oxygen isotopic compositions have been established in late
Cretaceous ostracodes carapaces in the Songliao Basin, and
organic carbon isotopes have been investigated in the Yixian
Formation in western Liaoning (Chamberlain et al., 2013;
Zhang X et al., 2016). Carbon and oxygen isotopes and ir-
idium have been analysed at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K/
Pg) boundary in the Tarim and Nanxiong basins (Hao et al.,
2001;Zhao et al., 2009,2017).
Magnetostratigraphic methods are important for compar-
ing Cretaceous sequences, and a complete magnetostrati-
graphic column has been established for the late Cretaceous
in the Songliao Basin. Magnetic declination has also been
researched in the Yixian Formation in western Liaoning (Zhu
et al., 2007;Deng et al., 2013). In addition, preliminary
magnetostratigraphic studies have been performed on Cre-
taceous strata in the Tarim, Liupanshan and Xining-Minghe
basins, and from basins in Zhejiang (Peng et al., 2006; Tang,
2008; Dai et al., 2009).
Volcanics and bentonite abound in Cretaceous strata in
eastern China due to frequent volcanic activity during that
time. With the development of Ar-Ar and zircon U-Pb dat-
ing, considerable progress has been made in radioisotope
dating (e.g., He et al., 2004,2006a, 2006b, 2012;Wang et al.,
2010;Wang et al., 2016). Investigations into the astronom-
ical forces related to global climatic and therefore deposi-
tional conditions (i.e., cyclostratigraphy) are effective in
establishing high-resolution time scales and has established
the late Cretaceous scale in the Songliao Basin (Wu et al.,
2013a,2014); preliminary explorations have been conducted
in west Liaoning and the Jiuquan Basin (Wu et al., 2013b;
Liu et al., 2017).
3.1 Marine stratigraphy
Complete marine sequences occur in the Himalayan region
and are composed mainly of marine shelf and upper slope
deposits. Typical sections include the Tibetan Nyalam sec-
tion (from the Lower Cretaceous) and the Gamba section
(largely from the Middle to Upper Cretaceous; Xu et al.,
1990;Wan et al., 2000). Recent studies has divided the
Nyalam and Gamba sections into six formations, namely
(from older to younger sequences) the Gucuocun (Tithonian-
Hauterivian), Gambadongshan (Barremian-Aptian), Caqiela
(Albian), Lengqingre (Cenomanian-Lower Turonian),
Gambacunkou (Middle Turonian-Lower Campanian) and
Zongshan (Middle Campanian-Maastrichtian) Formations
(Figure 3). Of these, the typical Gucuocun Formation section
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is found in the Nyalam and Gucuo sections, whereas the
other formations are represented by the Gamba section.
Research on the complete Cretaceous biostratigraphic se-
quence of phytoplankton and ammonite fossils in the Hi-
malayan region has been performed (Figure 3). From the
Hauterivian to the top of the Cretaceous, 27 planktonic for-
aminifera biozones have been recognized. Except for the
Abathomphalus mayaroensis and Gansserina gansseri zones
found in the Zongzhuo Formation in the Kangma-Longzi
area, the other 25 planktonic foraminifera biozones were
found in the Gamba-Tingri section of the northern Hima-
layas. In this study, the foraminiferal biozones were divided
and compared with international stratigraphic data. Ammo-
nite fossils are well preserved in the Himalayan region. With
the exception of the Turonian-Santonian and Maastrichtian
intervals, the layers contain ammonites with temporal geo-
logical significance, which have been used by Yin (2016) to
establish different ammonite assemblages (biozones). In
Figure 3, representative ammonites from the Berriasian-
Hauterivian stage are shown in the Jiangzi-Langkazi area,
and the upper fossils are from the Gangba-Nylam area. In
addition to the biostratigraphy, Li et al. (2006) established an
Upper Cretaceous carbon isotope curve for southern Tibet
(Figure 3), and Li et al. (2017) evaluated astronomical for-
cings on the southern Tibet OAE-2.
3.2 Terrestrial stratigraphy
Substantial challenges have arisen in the subdivision and
correlation of terrestrial sequences in stratigraphic studies.
China has numerous Cretaceous terrestrial sedimentary ba-
sins that typify the terrestrial Cretaceous of China, including
large sedimentary basins in northeast China (e.g., the Son-
gliao and Jiayin Basins) and the volcanic sedimentary basins,
which yield abundant Jehol biota, in northern Hebei, western
Liaoning and eastern Inner Mongolia. The Lower Cretaceous
sections in northern Hebei and western Liaoning are divided
into eight stratigraphic units from older to younger se-
quences: the Tuchengzi (upper part), Zhangjiakou, Dabei-
gou, Dadianzi, Yixian, Jiufotang, Shahai and Fuxin
Formations. In the Songliao Basin, the Upper Cretaceous is
divided into six groups from older to younger: the Quantou,
Qingshankou, Yaojia, Nenjiang, Sifangtai and Mingshui
Formations.
3.2.1 Terrestrial Lower Cretaceous
The terrestrial Lower Cretaceous strata in northeast China
are well developed and preserved and contain well-preserved
Jehol biota. The Lower Cretaceous strata are best developed
in northern Hebei and western Liaoning, and are composed
primarily of volcanic and lacustrine deposits. Several vol-
canic rock series are present in which fossils have been well
preserved (Chen and Jin, 1999; Zhang et al, 2001; Zhou et
al., 2003;Ji et al., 2004;Sha, 2007;Zhou, 2014), providing
ideal conditions for the systematic study of early Cretaceous
strata and biota.
The radioisotopic age of the Tuchengzi Formation (Hou-
cheng Formation in north Hebei) varies between 156 and 137
Ma (Swisher et al., 2001;Davis, 2005; Sun et al., 2007), and
a small number of Cretaceous spores and pollen grains were
found in the third member of the Tuchengzi Formation (Lin
et al., 2016). Thus, the age of the upper part of the Tuchengzi
Formation can be dated to the early Cretaceous. The zircon
U-Pb age of the Zhangjiakou Formation shows diachronistic
characteristics, where the age is 136–135 Ma in the Luanping
Basin (Niu et al., 2003;Zhang et al., 2005), but 132–129 Ma
in the Lingyuan Basin (Zhang et al., 2005).
The ‘Dabeigou Formation’ (broadly) was proposed by the
Second Geological Team of Heibei Province in 1975, and
mainly consists of lacustrine clastic depositions. Later, Wang
(1990) divided the ‘Dabeigou Formation’ (broadly) into the
Dabeigou Formation (narrow) and Dadianzi Formation in the
Luanping Basin. Considering the strata of the Dabeigou and
Dadianzi Formations are continuous and well exposed in the
Luanping Basin, this study used the narrow sense of the
Dabeigou Formation. The SHIMP zircon U-Pg age of the
middle part of the Dabeigou Formation in the Luanping
Basin is 133–130 Ma (Liu et al., 2003), whereas the
40Ar-39Ar age of the upper ‘Dabeigou Formation (broadly)’
in the Fengning area is 130.7±0.7 Ma (He et al., 2006a). The
fossil assemblage in the Dadianzi Formation has the char-
acteristics of the early Jehol biota and was located between
the Dabeigou and Yixian Formations by previous researchers
(Wang, 1990). However, the age and correlation of the Da-
dianzi Formation still require further study.
The age of the lower Yixian Formation, which yields
abundant fossils, is ~125 Ma (Swisher et al., 1999,2001;
Wang et al., 2001; He et al., 2006b; Chang et al., 2017).
Although it is generally accepted that the age of the lower-
most boundary of the volcanic-sedimentary layer containing
the Jehol biota fossils is ~125 Ma, the age of the lower part of
the Yixian Formation remains controversial. The lower part
of the Yixian Formation contains volcanic rocks, for which
an age of 129.7±0.5 Ma has been reported (Chang et al.,
2009). Volcanic ash in the lower layer of the lower Jiufutang
Formation has yielded ages of 120.3±0.7 and 122.1±0.5 Ma
through 40Ar/39Ar dating (He et al., 2004;Chang et al., 2009).
The top of the Jiufotang Formation covered by the overlying
basaltic lava flow exposed in the Tebch of Inner Mongolia.
The basaltic lava yields an age of 110±0.52 Ma through
40Ar/39Ar dating (Eberth et al., 1993), providing the max-
imum age of ~110 Ma for the Jiufotang Formation. The
radioisotopic age of the Yixian Formation is consistent with
conclusions drawn from invertebrate (e.g., bivalves, spini-
caudatans and ostracodes), vertebrate and plants (spores and
pollen) fossils (Wang et al., 2000;Li and Batten, 2007;Sha,
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Figure 3 Comprehensive Cretaceous chronostratigraphic framework of China. International stages are based on the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS),
2016). The standards for terrestrial stratigraphic subdivision are as follows: The Lower Cretaceous is based on the stratigraphic sequence in north Hebei and western Liaoning; the Upper Cretaceous is based on
the stratigraphic sequence in the Songliao Basin; the marine stratigraphic subdivision is based on the Himalayan stratigraphic sequence; ammonite biozones are from Yin (2016); magnetostratigraphic data are
from Deng et al. (2013); chemostratigraphic data are from Li et al. (2006), and OAEs and lacustrine anoxic events (LAEs) are from the Songliao Basin.
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2007;Xu et al., 2010;Zhou, 2014; Wang Y Q et al., 2015).
Magnetostratigraphic investigations of the fossil-bearing
layers in the Yixian Formation are fairly consistent with the
dated ages of the volcanic rocks. Pan et al. (2001) combined
the existing ages with a palaeomagnetic study of the Sihetun
section in Beipiao and determined that the palaeomagnetic
polarities of the fossil-bearing interval in this section is M3n
in the early Cretaceous Barremian age. Palaeomagnetic and
40Ar/39Ar geochronologies for volcanic rocks in the Sihetun
fossil section show that the volcanic rocks below and above
the fossil deposits date to approximately 125.7–124.2 Ma
(Zhu et al., 2007). These results agree with those derived
from cyclostratigraphic studies (Wu et al., 2013b). He et al.
(2008) conducted a comprehensive study of the palaeo-
magnetism and chronology of lava in the Mashen-Zhuan-
chengzi section, Yixian county, and re-derived the age of the
Barremian-Aptian boundary (i.e., beginning at M0r) to 121.2
±0.5 Ma on average.
Direct radioisotopic ages have not been determined for the
Shahai, Fuxin and Sunjiawan Formations, which have been
defined primarily via biostratigraphic correlation. Compar-
isons of plant and spinicaudatan assemblages from the Fuxin
Basin with those from the Songliao and Yanji Basins indicate
that the Shahai and Fuxin Formations date to the late Aptian
to middle Albian ages (Deng et al., 2012; Li X et al., 2016).
The lack of fossil evidence in the Sunjiawan Formation has
left its age which is estimated as between the Albian and
Cenomanian, disputed,. Considering the contrast between
the Sunjiawan and Quantou Formations, the former has been
provisionally placed in the Cenomanian (Wan et al., 2013a).
3.2.2 Terrestrial Upper Cretaceous
In recent years, substantial progress has been made in the
study of the Upper Cretaceous in the Songliao Basin. The
continuous SK-1 core has provided an ideal subject for sci-
entific research (compared to limited outcrops). Multiple
stratigraphic subdivisions have been identified using drilling
data, surface sections, magnetostratigraphic, cyclostrati-
graphic, chronostratigraphic and biostratigraphic methods
and quantitative stratigraphic and lithostratigraphic evalua-
tions. These subdivisions have been used to compare late
Cretaceous terrestrial strata with marine strata in the Son-
gliao Basin. First, a series of bio- and magnetostratigraphic
sequences were established, and the ages of the strata in
different stages were calibrated using high-precision isotopic
dating. Then, an astronomical time scale was established.
Finally, a multi-stratigraphic method was used to establish
high-precision late Cretaceous terrestrial chronological
stratigraphic criteria in China.
The biostratigraphic sequence is the basis for stratigraphic
subdivisions in China. The SK-1 contains a large number of
continuously distributed microfossils and nannofossils.
Many researchers have used SK-1 cores to analyse the mi-
crofossils and nannofossils and obtain biostratigraphic sub-
divisions from ostracodes, foraminifera, spores, pollen and
algae (Li et al., 2011;Xi et al., 2011,2012;Scott et al., 2012;
Li S et al., 2013; Wan et al., 2013b;Qu et al., 2014;Zhao et
al., 2014). Magnetic declination, orbital forcings and relative
and absolute ages have also been studied in the context of
these biostratigraphic results.
The magnetostratigraphic framework of the SK-1 core was
established by Deng et al. (2013).He et al. (2012) first
performed zircon U-Pb dating on four bentonite samples
from the SK-1 core, finding SIMS zircon U-Pb ages of 91.4
±0.5 Ma (lowermost K2qn1), 90.1±0.6 Ma (uppermost
K2qn1), 90.4±0.4 Ma (lowermost K2qn2+3) and 83.7±0.5 Ma
(lowermost K2n1). Wang et al. (2016) re-evaluated the four-
layer bentonite samples from the SK-1 core using CA-ID-
TIMS , and the resulting ages were consistent with those
obtained by the SIMS zircon U-Pb method; however, while
within the error range, their precision and accuracy were
substantially improved. The ages of the four samples were
91.886±0.033/0.058/0.11 Ma, 90.974±0.042/0.062/0.12 Ma,
90.536±0.039/0.062/0.12 Ma and 83.269±0.044/0.063/0.11
Ma. Recently, Xi et al. (2018) reported new SIMS ages of
85.3±0.6 Ma from bentonite at the lowermost K2n1. Based on
the zircon U-Pb age and magnetostratigraphic chronology,
Wu et al. (2013a,2014) established a continuous astronom-
ical timescale with a resolution of 0.4 Myr (Figure 4).
Using the aforementioned multidisciplinary research, this
study not only aimed to improve the standards of the late
Cretaceous terrestrial timescale in China by including mag-
netic, astronomical, isotopic, biostratigraphic and quantified
stratigraphic data, but also by contributing to global strati-
graphic correlation of the Cretaceous (Figure 4). SK-1 pro-
vides a standard for the classification and comparison of
terrestrial late Cretaceous strata in China, and contributes to
our understanding of global depositional environments and
processes.
3.2.3 Terrestrial Cretaceous stages and biostratigraphic
correlation
In China, the Cretaceous is characterised by the accumula-
tion of terrestrial deposits. The subdivisions and correlations
of terrestrial strata with marine strata form the basis for
further research. Northeast China features both complete
terrestrial Cretaceous strata and abundant ostracodes, spini-
caudatan, algae, spore, pollen, phytoplankton, insect, plant,
bivalve, gastropod, fish, reptile, bird, mammal and other
fossils. This area is therefore used as the standard for es-
tablishing Cretaceous terrestrial stages and fossil assemblage
sequences (Wan et al., 2013a). Using the stratigraphic and
fossil assemblage sequences in northern Hebei, west
Liaoning and the Songliao Basin, Wan et al. (2013a) and the
China Commissin of Stratigraphy, 2018) divided the Lower
Cretaceous into the Jibeian, Jeholian and Liaoxian stages; the
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Upper Cretaceous was divided into the Nonganian, Son-
ghuajiangian and Suihuanian stages (Figures 5 and 6).
The Chinese Cretaceous stratigraphic sequence is estab-
lished here in using the Cretaceous strata and major fossil
assemblages in northeast China along with the international
chronostratigraphic framework (Figures 5 and 6). According
to the characteristics of the fossils in northeast China, the
biota can be classified, from the early to late Cretaceous, into
Figure 4 Late Cretaceous multi-stratigraphic subdivisions and correlations of the SK-1, Songliao Basin. The blue curve represents the Th curve in the north
core and GR curve in south core (the Th curve in Yaojia Formation). The red curve represents the 405000-year-old eccentricity cycle identified by the GR/Th
curve. The timescale is from Wan et al. (2013b); the magnetostratigraphic curve is from Deng et al. (2013); the U-Pb analysis is according to He et al. (2012)
and Wang et al. (2016). The GR/Th curve and associated 40000-year filtering results are from Wu et al. (2013a,2014); the south and north cores in the
Songliao Basin feature the oil shale at the bottom of K2n2.
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Figure 5 Late Cretaceous biostratigraphic sequence in the Northeast stratigraphic province of China. After Wan et al. (2013a) and China Committee of Stratigraphy (CCS), 2018). Int., international stage; Ter.,
Terrestrial stage of China.
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Figure 6 Late Cretaceous biostratigraphic sequence in the northeast stratigraphic province of China. After Wan et al. (2013a) and China Committee of Stratigraphy (CCS), 2018). Int., international stage; Ter.,
Terrestrial stage of China.
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Yanliao/Jehol transition, Jehol, Fuxin, Songhuajiang and
Mingshui biota (Figure 3). The Jibeian stage can be corre-
lated to the Valanginian-Hauterivian stage and yields early
Jehol Biota, represented by the spinicaudatan Nestoria pis-
sovi; the Jeholian stage can be correlated with the Barremian-
lower Aptian stage and yields middle Jehol Biota; the
Liaoxian stage can be correlated to the upper Aptian-Albian
stage and yields Fuxin and late Jehol Biota; the Nonganian
stage can be correlated with the Cenomanian-Lower Santo-
nian stage and yields early Songhuajiang Biota; the Son-
ghuajiangian stage can be correlated with the upper
Santonian-Lower Campanian stage and yields late Son-
ghuajiang Biota; the Suihuanian stage can be correlated with
the upper Campanian-Maastrichtian stage and yields Min-
gshui Biota.
Importantly, in the original terrestrial stage chart, the age
of the Tuchengzi Formation was classified as late Jurassic,
corresponding to the Sanbaoian stage (Wang et al., 2004;
Wang S et al., 2013). However, the new radioisotopic ages
and biostratigraphy show that the age of the upper part of the
Tuchengzi Formation is early Cretaceous. Moreover, the
fossil assemblages of the Tuchengzi Formation belong to the
transition type of the late Jurassic Yanliao and early Jehol
biota (Lin et al., 2016;Wan et al., 2016;Zhou and Wang,
2017). Therefore, it is suggested that the upper part of the
Tuchengzi Formation corresponds to the Berriasian stage,
and further research into the corresponding terrestrial stage
and biomarkers is needed.
Chinese Cretaceous stratigraphy is based on continuous
sequences and abundant fossil records from northeast China,
which provide a new direction for the subdivision and cor-
relation of terrestrial sequences based on evolutionary stages
of major biota. The biota in northern and eastern China can
be widely compared (e.g., the Jiande, Yongkang and Qujiang
biota) and the Tongxiang assemblage in the southeast China
(Chen, 2000a) can be compared with those in the northeast
China. In addition, the spinicaudatans, ostracodes, algae,
spores, pollen, plants, bivalves, gastropods and reptiles can
be used for stratigraphic correlation on large scales (Hou et
al., 2002; Hou and Gou, 2007; Sha, 2007;Li et al., 2011;
Chen, 2012;Chen and He, 2012;Deng et al., 2012;Pan,
2012; Wan et al., 2013b; Zhou, 2014;Sha and Lucas, 2012).
Future research on Chinese terrestrial stages should integrate
international marine stages. In order to increase the precision
of the timescale, the accuracy of the biostratigraphic classi-
fication and subdivision should be improved, and biological
and other data in the terrestrial stages should be coordinated
with corresponding marine stages.
3.3 Major stratigraphic boundaries in the Cretaceous
3.3.1 Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary
The Jurassic-Cretaceous (J/K) boundary is the only boundary
in the Phanerozoic that has not been defined by a GSSP.
International stratigraphic subdivisions and comparisons are
based on marine standards. At present, the first appearance of
Calpionellid, Calpionella alpina, and the calcareous nanno-
fossils Nannoconus steinmannii minor and N. kamptneri
minor, are usually used as delimiters of the J/K boundary; of
these, C. alpina is the preferred J/K boundary indicator
(Wimbledon, 2017). The marine J/K boundary is well de-
veloped in southern Tibet, whereas the terrestrial J/K
boundary is well developed in northeast China. The marine J/
K boundary in China is exposed in the Nyalam and Yarlung-
Zangbo areas in southern Tibet (Wan et al., 2005). Liu and
Wang (1987) proposed that the J/K boundary lies between
the Berriasella jacobi and B. grandis ammonite zones in the
Gucuocun Formation. However, other ammonite research
has questioned the authenticity of B. jacobi and B. grandis in
the Nyalam area, arguing that the two species may be dif-
ferent ecomorphs. A recent study of the Yamdrok in southern
Tibet indicates that the boundary, which lies between the
Weimei, Sangxiu and Jiabula formations, is marked by the
beginning of a combination of ammonite Spiticeras and
calcareous nannofossils Nannoconus st.steinmannii,N. st.
minor and Watznaueria barnesae (Wan et al., 2016;Yin,
2016). Additionally, the SHIMP zircon U-Pb ages of 142–
140 Ma was obtained in the lower part of the Sangxiu For-
mation near Langkazi, southern Tibet (Liu et al., 2013), and
early Cretaceous benthic foraminifera have been identified at
the base of the Jiabula Formation (Fang and Li, 2015).
There is no agreement on the comparison between the
terrestrial Chinese Cretaceous boundary and the international
stratigraphic boundary. The existing radioisotopic ages differ
substantially from the biostratigraphic markers, which makes
determining the boundary controversial. The geochronolo-
gical origin of the Jehol Group is key to understanding the J/
K boundary. In the past, the Jehol Group was included in the
Upper Jurassic (Gu, 1983;Wang, 1985;Chen, 1988) or
Lower Cretaceous (Hao et al., 1986;Ye and Zhong, 1990;
Smith et al., 1995). China Committee of Stratigraphy (2002)
placed the terrestrial J/K boundary between the Yixian and
Dabeigou Formations with a boundary age of 137 Ma. Since
2000, researchers have increasingly come to accept that the
Jehol Group belongs to the early Cretaceous (Swisher et al.,
2001; Wang et al, 2001; Zhou et al., 2003;Ji et al., 2004;Sha
et al., 2006; Wan et al., 2013a; Zhou, 2014;Li and Matsuoka,
2015). Radioisotopic dating of the Tuchengzi Formation
yielded an age of 156–137 Ma; the Tuchengzi Formation
also marks the transitional horizon and period of succession
from Yanliao to Jehol biota (Wan et al., 2016;Zhou and
Wang, 2017). The International Chronostratigraphic Charts
(ICS, 2016) suggests that the J/K boundary lies at as 145 Ma,
and the boundary may therefore be located within the Tu-
chengzi Formation (Ji et al., 2006;Sha, 2007;Zhou Z H et
al., 2009;Li and Matsuoka, 2015;Wan et al., 2016;Zhou and
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Wang, 2017).The Tuchengzi Formation represents not only
the transition from Jehol to Yanliao biota, but also includes
the 145 Ma J/K boundary. Furthermore, detailed bio- and
chronostratigraphic work on this group is expected to define
the terrestrial J/K boundary in China, which can contribute to
the international database.
3.3.2 Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary has attracted
attention due to bolide impact event and the resultant ex-
tinction of all non-avian dinosaurs and ammonites. In the
international community, the anomalous iridium layer is used
to mark the K/Pg boundary. Boundary anomalies have also
been reported for the K/Pg, along with carbon and oxygen
isotope analysis, in the Nanxiong Basin, China (Zhao et al.,
2009,2017). In China, the marine K/Pg boundary lies
roughly between the Zongshan and Jidula Formations in
southern Tibet (Wan et al., 2007). The marine K/Pg boundary
is disputed in the western Tarim Basin. Besides the boundary
of the Aertashi/Tuyiluoke Formations, those of the Yigeziya/
Tuyiluoke Formations and middle Tuyiluoke Formation have
also been suggested (Tang et al., 1989;Guo, 1990;Xi et al.,
2016).
The K/Pg boundary of the terrestrial system is well-de-
veloped in the Songliao and Jiayin Basins. The former fea-
tures the first appearance of the charophyte Grovesichara
changzhouensis (Li et al., 2013), and the mass extinction
may occur near the boundary (Zhang et al., 2018). Research
on the boundary has been more thorough in the Jiayin Basin.
Using drill cores, Sun (2014) adopted well XHY-2006 as a
standard for the boundary. The demarcations between the
Aquilapollenites conatus-Pseudoaquilapollenites striatus
and Triatriopollenites confuses-A. spinulosus pollen combi-
nations denote the boundary. Two radioisotopic ages were
measured at the top and base of the boundary, namely 66±1
Ma (Li et al., 2004) and 64.1±0.7 Ma (Suzuki et al., 2011).
The K/Pg boundary has also been increasingly well de-
scribed in the Jianghan Basin in Hubei and the Jiaolai Basin
in Shandong ( Li W T et al., 2014;Li S et al., 2016).
3.3.3 Beginning and end of the Cretaceous Normal su-
perchron (CNS, Aptian and Campanian stages)
The CNS constitutes a major event in the evolution of the
Earth. The CNS began at the bottom of M0r and ended at the
bottom of M33r, and can be widely correlated in marine and
terrestrial strata. To date, the Aptian and Campanian base
GSSPs have not been determined; the beginning of M0r is
used as a candidate for the GSSP of the base of the Aptian,
and the end of the CNS is used as a candidate for the GSSP of
the base of Campanian (Ogg and Hinnov, 2012). Although
the International Chronostratigraphic Chart dates the Aptian
bottom boundary to 126.3 Ma (International Commission on
Stratigraphy (ICS), 2012, 2016), palaeomagnetic researchers
prefer 119 or 121 Ma (Cande and Kent, 1995;Opdyke and
Channell, 1996). The age of this feature has been con-
troversial for some time. Using detailed dating and palaeo-
magnetic research in the Yixian Formation in western
Liaoning, He et al. (2012) determined that M0r began at 121
±0.5 Ma, providing direct chronological evidence for the age
of the Aptian period. The SK-1 represents the end of the CNS
(C34n–C33r magnetic pole reversal). Combined with mag-
netostratigraphic and SIMS U-Pb zircon geochronologic data
of SK1(s), the age of the termination of the Cretaceous
Normal Superchron (CNS) was estimated to be similar to
83.4 Ma (He et al., 2012). With updated CA-ID-TIMS
geochronology and cyclostratigraphic data, the CNS end age
of 83.07±0.15 Ma was determined (Wang et al., 2016). While
in order to be consistent with ICS-2016, 126.3 Ma and 84.2
Ma are used in this study as the bottom ages of Aptian and
Campanian, respectively, we recommend consideration of
121 Ma and 83.1 Ma as the bottom ages of Aptian and
Campanian in future chronostratigraphic charts. Therefore,
the study of terrestrial Cretaceous deposits in northeast
China is expected to provide new evidence for the interna-
tional boundary ages of the Aptian and Campanian.
3.4 Cretaceous biota and major geological events
3.4.1 Jehol Biota
The terrestrial Jehol Biota lived in the mid-early Cretaceous
and were mainly distributed across East Asia. During this
period of the Mesozoic, the beginnings of the modern global
ecosystem formed, and angiosperms, birds, mammals and
the geographic patterns began to differentiate during this
period (Chen and Jin, 1999;Zhang et al., 2001;Zhou et al.,
2003;Ji et al., 2004). As early as the 1920s, the American
geologist Grabau proposed the existence of ′′Jehol Fauna′′
while working in west Liaoning and north Heibei. In 1962,
Gu first proposed the concept of the “Jehol Biota”, known as
Eosestheria (spinicaudatans)-Ephemeropsis (insect)-Ly-
coptera (fish) (EEL) lacustrine fossil assemblages (Gu,
1962). Since the 1990s, with the discovery of a large number
of organisms, including vertebrates, plants, and insects, the
Jehol biota has received extensive attention from the aca-
demic community.
At present, although opinions differ to some extent, the
most concentrated Jehol Biota deposit is thought to have a
geological age of 131–120 Ma in the early Cretaceous,
reaching a maximum at 125 Ma (Zhou, 2006,2014). Views
differ on the geographic distribution of the Jehol Biota. In a
narrow sense, it is distributed only in western Liaoning and
the adjacent northern Hebei and eastern Inner Mongolia
provinces, including the Yixian and Jiufotang Formations
and equivalent strata (Pan et al., 2013). Whether or not the
early Cretaceous fossils found in northern China and far east
Russia, Japan and other regions belong to the Jehol Biota,
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and especially whether or not the fossils were produced by
the Dabeigou and Dadianzi Formations in northern Hebei,
remains debatable (Chen, 1988;Wang, 1990;Pan et al.,
2013;Zhou, 2014). The newly described Dabeigou Forma-
tion in the Luanping Basin (Qin et al., 2018) is expected to
provide new material for research on early Jehol Biota.
Continuing research into the Jehol Biota has produced nu-
merous landmark achievements in biostratigraphy, chronos-
tratigraphy, taxonomy and systematic evolution and
continues to evolve our knowledge of palaeoecology, pa-
laeoenvironments and other subjects (Pan et al., 2013;Zhou,
2014). There is increasing evidence that the evolution and
proliferation of the Jehol Biota may be closely related to
early Cretaceous volcanic eruptions, the Yanshan Move-
ment, the destruction of the North China Craton and the
relatively cold, or alternately warm and cold climate (Liu et
al., 2009;Amiot et al., 2011;Zhu et al., 2011;Zhou, 2014).
3.4.2 Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) and Cretaceous
oceanic red beds (CORBs)
Ocean anoxic events (OAEs) and CORBs have become the
foci of research into the global Cretaceous conditions be-
cause of their close relationships with carbon and oxygen
cycles, palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental changes
(Wang et al., 2005;Jenkyns, 2010;Hu et al., 2012). During
the mid-Cretaceous, local and regional oxygen deprivation is
more evident during three periods, namely the Aptian-Al-
bian, Cenomanian-Turonian (C/T) boundary and Coniacian-
Santonian periods, which are abbreviated as OAE1, OAE2
and OAE3, respectively; of these, Cenomanian-Turonian
(OAE2) borderline events are most common. In the Gamba
Tingri Basin in southern Tibet, OAE1 and OAE2 are re-
corded at the tops of the Gambadongshan and Lengqingre
Formations, respectively (Wan et al., 2003). Using tradi-
tional biostratigraphic data as a basis, high-resolution carbon
isotopes, cyclostratigraphic and palaeoceanographic evolu-
tionary analyses were performed for OAE2 strata in southern
Tibet (Li et al., 2006;Li et al., 2017), and cold seep carbo-
nates were found around the C/T boundary (Liang et al.,
2016). Recent advances have been made in the study of
OAE1 (Li X et al., 2016). Cretaceous ocean red beds
(CORBs) are widely distributed throughout the world and
were first proposed by Chinese researchers (Hu et al., 2005;
Wang et al., 2005). The use of CORBs for the study of global
palaeooceans and palaeoclimates has provided new insights
into three consecutive IGCP projects (IGCP 463, 494 and
555) and a number of studies on their stratigraphic dis-
tribution, origin, palaeoceanography, palaeoclimate and
other geological events, as in Hu et al. (2012).
In addition to OAEs and CORBs, Cretaceous terrestrial red
beds (TRBs) are widely distributed in China (Hao et al.,
1986; Chen, 2000a, 2000b; Cao, 2013). Lacustrine anoxic
events (LAEs) and seawater incursions into lakes also oc-
curred in the Lower Qingshankou and Lower Nenjiang
Formations in the Songliao Basin (Huang et al., 1998;Xi et
al., 2011,2016). Comparative studies should be performed
between OAEs, CORBs, terrestrial LAEs and TRBs.
3.4.3 Other events
The Yanshan Movement was first proposed by Wong (1929)
and consists of a general mechanism of Late Mesozoic tec-
tonic magmatism in China, which can be divided into “A”
and “B” curtains (Dong et al., 2007). The “A” curtain oc-
curred in the middle-late Jurassic (165±5 Ma). Researchers
have varied conceptualizations of the “B” curtain, but it is
generally defined as the transformation of the unconformity
below of volcanic rock in the Zhangjiakou Formation (at
~135 Ma) (Zhao et al., 2004). The overall loss of geological
stability in the North China Craton is referred to as the de-
struction of the North China Craton, and it reached its peak in
the early Cretaceous (~125 Ma) (Zhu et al., 2011). Early
Cretaceous volcanic activity was elevated in eastern China at
132–120 Ma, with a peak at 125 Ma (Wu et al., 2005). In this
context, the early Cretaceous in eastern China developed a
series of faulted basins and basins of varying scales. The
“Nenjiang Movement” at the end of the Nenjiang Formation
initiated the reversal of the basin, and sediments were lost
between the Nenjiang and Mingshui Formation strata up to
3.8 Myr (Wu et al., 2014). Biologically, Songhuajiang Biota
was replaced by Mingshui Biota (Wan et al., 2017).
The Cretaceous featured a typical greenhouse climate,
with overall warming in the early Cretaceous. Maximum
temperatures in the middle Cretaceous gradually decreased
toward the late Cretaceous (Hay, 2017;Huber et al., 2002).
Spore and pollen records in northeast China reflect these
trends (Wan et al., 2017). Oxygen isotopes of dinosaur teeth,
spores and pollen, fossilised wood and palaeosols provide
evidence for low temperatures or an alternating cold and
warm climate during the early Cretaceous. There was cool-
ing event from a high temperature climate during the middle
Cretaceous, and temperatures continued to decrease during
the late Cretaceous (Amiot et al., 2011;Zhao et al., 2014;
Gao et al., 2015;Ding et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017). There
appears to be a close connection between the high CO2
concentrations and the greenhouse climatic environment
during the Cretaceous (Hay, 2017), and this relationship has
been confirmed via CO2concentration curves from palaeo-
sols and plant fossils in China (Wang et al., 2014).
4. Stratigraphic Framework for the Cretaceous
of China
4.1 Marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial strata
Marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial strata in China are
distributed primarily in Tibet, Karakorum, the western Tarim
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Basin, eastern Heilongjiang and Taiwan. Biostratigraphic
tools are key for correlations and stratigraphic classifications
between marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial strata in
China. In southern Tibet, stratigraphic classification and
correlation between marine strata have been completed using
foraminifera, calcareous nannofossil and ammonite bio-
zones. In northern Tibet, Karakorum, the western Tarim
Basin and eastern Heilongjiang, the sea level was relatively
low, and the fossils are dominated by bivalves, benthic for-
aminifera, ostracodes and dinoflagellates.
4.1.1 Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
In China, southern Tibet contains complete marine Cretac-
eous sequences, and marine rocks of Cretaceous age are
distributed predominantly in the Himalayas, Yarlung Zangbo
area and the Lhasa Massif of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
(Figure 7). Lower Cretaceous ammonites and radiolarian
fossils are more common in southern Tibet, especially the
ammonites in Gyantse and Nyalam (Liu, 1988; Xu et al.,
1990; Yin and Enay, 2004;Yin, 2016) and radiolarians in the
Yarlung Zangbo area (Wu, 2010). The Albian-Maastrichtian
biostratigraphic scheme is generally used in northern Hi-
malayan stratigraphic foraminifera biozones (Wan, 1990;
Zhao and Wan, 2003; Li G B et al., 2009, 2012). Detailed
biostratigraphic classifications and correlations for southern
Tibet were discussed in Section 3.1.
According to previous research, the Sangzugang Forma-
tion in the Xigaze Forearc Basin belongs to the Aptian-Al-
bian stage, whereas the Angren-Qubeiya Formations are of
the late Albian-Maastrichtian stage (Wan et al., 2007;Wang
et al., 2012). The Linbuzong Formation in the Linzhou Basin
contains seed fern, spores and pollen fossils, indicating an
early Cretaceous age (Yang and Li, 2016) The Tacna For-
mation was dated to the Aptian-Albian stage (Leier et al.,
2007), but benthic foraminiferal biozones have recently da-
ted it to the Aptian stage (Boudagher-Fadel et al., 2017).
Biostratigraphic analysis of the Duoni Formation in the
Siling Co Basin indicates Barremian (or Valanginian)-Aptian
age (Wen et al., 2000; Zheng et al., 2003), but the volcanic
rocks from the upper layer have been dated to 115 and 116
Figure 7 Stratigraphic subdivision and correlation in the Tethys area of Tibet and Xinjiang.
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Ma (Kang et al., 2009), suggesting the age might extend to
the late Aptian. The Langshan Formation is rich in various
fossils. The rudist bivalves of the upper Langshan Formation
suggest an early Albian age and can be compared with those
from the Sangzugang Formation and the Xigaze Forearc
Basin (Rao et al., 2015,2017). The larger benthic for-
aminifera in this formation suggest an Aptian-Cenomanian
age (Boudagher-Fadel et al., 2017). The Upper Suowa For-
mation in the Qiangtang Basin yields early Cretaceous am-
monites (Zhu et al., 2012), and it might be the latest marine
record. The Shexing, Jingzhushan and Abushan Formations
above the marine sediments are mainly composed of late
Cretaceous TRBs. Two LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages of
102.6±1.6 Ma and 75.9±0.5 Ma were obtained for the lower
and upper parts of the Abushan Formation, respectively (Li
Y L et al., 2013,2015); a zircon U-Pb age of 72.4±1.8 Ma
was obtained for the upper part of the Shexing Formation
(Sun et al., 2016). Based on electron spin resonance (ESR)
chronology, palaeomagnetic studies and gastropod bios-
tratigraphy, the Jingzhushan Formation was dated as 96–73
Ma (Li H L et al., 2016).
4.1.2 Karakorum and the western Tarim Basin
The Lower Cretaceous Yapaqin Formation in Karakorum
contains only a few foraminiferal fossils, and the Upper
Cretaceous Tielongtan Group yields abundant marine bi-
valves and other fossils (Wen et al., 2000). The Tielongtan
Group is divided into the Xiluokezong, Litian and Don-
gluokezong Formations, and dated to the Turonian-Maas-
trichtian stage (Wen et al., 2000).
The Lower Cretaceous strata in the western Tarim Basin
mainly consist of the terrestrial Kezilesu Group, and some
marine trace fossils and benthic foraminifera were reported
from the middle-upper layers (Chen et al., 2001). The Ku-
kebai, Wuyitage, Yigeziya and Tuyiluoke Formations of the
Upper Cretaceous are rich in marine fossils; some re-
searchers have combined the Wuyitage, Yigeziya and Tuyi-
luoke Formations as the ‘Dongba Formation’ in the Tianshan
region. During the 1980s–1990s, Chinese researchers con-
ducted many studies on marine sedimentary sequences and
fossils in the western Tarim Basin. Studies on foraminifera,
ostracodes, bivalves, gastropods, calcareous nannofossils
and dinoflagellates were used to establish detailed fossil
assemblages and for stratigraphic subdivision and correlation
(Hao et al., 1982b,2001;Mao and Norris, 1988;Tang et al.,
1989; Guo, 1990; He, 1991; Pan et al., 1991; Zhong, 1992;
Lan and Wei, 1995;Yang et al., 1995). Recently, Xi et al.
(2016) summarised the late Cretaceous marine biostrati-
graphy of the western Tarim Basin (Figure 5). This basin
featured a gulf environment during the late Cretaceous to
Paleogene (Hao et al., 1982b, 2001;Tang et al., 1989;Xi et
al., 2016). Benthic fossils are dominant, and thus the accu-
racy of the stratigraphic correlation is relatively low and
should be improved.
4.1.3 Eastern Heilongjiang, Taiwan and other regions
The marine and interbedded marine-terrestrial strata in
eastern Heilongjiang include the upper part of the marine
Dongan Formation and the marine-terrestrial Longzhaogou
and Jixi Groups, which record a bay environment during the
early Cretaceous (Sha, 2007). The Donganzhen Formation
dates to the Berriasian-Valangian (Sha, 2007). The ages of
the Longzhaogou and Jixi Groups are disputed. Before the
1990s, the two groups were classified as middle and late
Jurassic, respectively. Since the 1990s, with progress in bi-
valve, ammonite, dinoflagellate and foraminiferal research,
the age has been revised to the Hautervian-Albian stage (Sha,
1990,2007;Li and Yang, 2003; Li and Yu, 2004; Li and
Bengtson, 2018). Recently, Chen et al. (2018) obtained zir-
con LA-ICP-MS U-Pb ages of 115.7±1.0 and 111.7±1.1 Ma
in the Chengzihe Formation of Jixi Group. The terrestrial
strata above the Longzhaogou and Jixi Groups is discussed in
section 4.2.
In Taiwan, the marine Cretaceous is distributed pre-
dominantly throughout the western Taiwan plain and eastern
coastal zone, including the upper parts of the Tianxiang and
Yunlin Formations. Due to the presence of calcareous nan-
nofossils, bivalves, ammonites and dinoflagellates, these
formations have been dated as early Cretaceous (Wen et al.,
2000; Wan et al., 2007). In addition, a few marine or brackish
fossils were found in southwest Yunnan, the Songliao Basin
and on the southeast coast of China (Hao et al., 1986;Chen,
2003;Xi et al., 2016).
4.2 Terrestrial strata
Terrestrial Cretaceous strata are varied and widely dis-
tributed across China, with great differences between regions
and basins. These strata are divided into six provinces, which
can be further divided into two groups according to their
sedimentary and stratigraphic distributions, namely the
eastern volcanically active belt and the western medium-
large stable sedimentary basin. The eastern volcanically ac-
tive belt includes three regions (i.e., the northeast, north and
southeast stratigraphic provinces). The eastern volcanically
active belt was relatively tectonically active during the
Cretaceous, featuring the early Cretaceous Yanshan Move-
ment in eastern China (producing a series of north-northeast,
northeast and east-west faulted basins), volcanic and clastic
rocks, clastic rocks with coal or volcanic rock and red clastic
deposits. Late Cretaceous tectonic and volcanic activity
weakened and shifted eastward. The western medium-large
stable sedimentary basin includes three regions (i.e., the
southeast, central-south and northwest stratigraphic pro-
vinces). They are mainly composed of a series of large and
medium basins and deposited red clastic sediments and
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lacking volcanic deposits.
The eastern volcanic active belt is rich in fossils, volcanic
rocks and volcanic ash, which are widely distributed. Based
on the stratigraphic subdivision and correlation, the bios-
tratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic and cyclostratigraphic
analyses, along with radioisotopic dating were performed.
The western large and medium stable sedimentary basins
lack volcanic rocks or ash, and therefore dating is mainly
biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic with reference to
other data. In terms of the biostratigraphy, the Jehol, Fuxing,
Songhuajiang and Mingshui Biota of northeast China are
considered as standards for comparison with other areas.
Marine sediments interbedded with terrestrial strata, and
important stages of regional biotic evolution should be fo-
cused upon, such as the discovery of foraminifera in the
Lower Nenjiang Formation and the first appearance of the
ostracodes Talicypridea in the Lower Campanian. Although
radioisotopic data are abundant in eastern China (but uneven
in quality), the results of some early K-Ar and Rb-Sr dating
in particular should be carefully evaluated.
4.2.1 Eastern volcanically active belt
The widely distributed and thick Cretaceous strata in
northeast China with abundant fossils have extensively been
used for correlating Cretaceous terrestrial strata. The clas-
sical stratigraphic sequence in northeast China has been
designated as the Cretaceous terrestrial chronostratigraphic
standard by the China Commission of Stratigraphy. China
Committee of Stratigraphy (2018) also uses the stratigraphic
sequence from this area. A stratigraphic subdivision and
correlation scheme in northeast China was produced here
based on early Cretaceous strata in the northern Hebei-
western Liaoning area and late Cretaceous strata in the
Songliao Basin with lithologic, fossil, radioisotopic and
magnetic data (Figure 8).
With advances in research, our understanding of the early
Cretaceous strata in the Songliao Basin has improved in re-
cent years. The Huoshiling Formation was considered to be
from the late Jurassic, but the latest zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb
dating results show an upper age of ~125 Ma (Huang et al.,
2011), the Shahezi Formation yields fossils of Jehol Biota,
and the zircon U-Pb age of the Yingcheng Formation is be-
tween ~119–109 Ma (Zhang et al., 2011). Discoveries have
also been made in the fossil assemblages of the Yanji Basin,
including spinicaudatans and fossil plants (Sun et al., 2016;
Li G et al., 2017), and zircon U-Pb ages have been obtained
for volcanic rocks and bentonites at the bases of the Dalazi
and Longjing Formations (Sun et al., 2016). A zircon U-Pb
age of ~126–120 Ma has been obtained in volcanic rocks
from the early Cretaceous Xing’anling Group in the Hailaer
Basin (Zhao et al., 2013), which is similar to the age of the
Yixian Formation. Fossil ostracodes of the Qingyuangang
Formation, and ostracodes, charophytes and vertebrates from
the Erliandabusu Formation (Erlian Basin) date from the late
Campanian to the early Maastrichtian (Ye and Zhong, 1990;
Van Itterbeeck et al., 2005). The Jiayin and Songliao basins
appear to have been linked during the late Cretaceous. Vol-
canic rocks in the Early Cretaceous Ningyuan Village For-
mation are the same age as those from the Yingcheng
Formation. The Taipinglinchang Formation can be compared
to the Nenjiang Formation, as both contain the same spini-
caudatan fossils (Li G et al., 2009). The Yuliangzi and Furao
Formations can be roughly correlated to the Sifangtai and
Mingshui Formations (Sun et al., 2012). The age of the
Dongshan and Houshigou Formations in eastern Hei-
longjiang are Albian period (Sha, 2007), and spinicaudatan
Halysestheria yui from the Hailang Formation is discovered
in the Nenjiang Formation (Li G et al., 2009).
In the north stratigraphic province, Jiaolai, Subei and Hefei
are the main Cretaceous sedimentary basins. Among these,
the Jiaolai Basin is the most characteristic and most studied
(Figure 9). Numerous dinosaur fossils have been found in
this basin, and great progress has been made in volcanic rock
dating and dinosaur biostratigraphy. The 40Ar-39Ar age of the
lower basaltic volcanic rocks in the Laiyang Group is 131–
130 Ma, and the U-Pb age is ~129 Ma, while the Qingshan
Group has an age of 120–115 Ma (Cao et al., 2014;Qin et al.,
2016). The 40Ar-39Ar age of the basalt in the Hongtuya
Formation is 73.5±0.3 Ma (Yan et al., 2003). A drilling
project in Jiaolai Basin (LK-1) revealed detailed lithologic,
magnetic, fossil and 40Ar-39Ar ages of the basalts (Ji, 2017).
The Ar-Ar age of the upper basaltic volcanic rocks in the
Hongtuya Formation from LK-1 is 73.5±1.1 Ma (Li Y et al.,
2018). The Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary may be located
in the upper part of the Jiaozhou Formation (Ji, 2017). Ter-
restrial biota are present in the early Cretaceous sediments
and are similar to the Jehol Biota in west Liaoning. Late
Cretaceous biota are represented by hadrosaurid dinosaurs
similar to those in the Jiayin Biota in north Heilongjiang (Liu
et al., 2011;Zhang et al., 2017). The stratigraphic framework
of the Jiaolai Basin has been constructed primarily from
Shandong Institute of Geological Survey (2017)1), as well as
other published valuable palaeontological and radioisotopic
data.
The Cretaceous system of the Subei Basin is sporadic in
the Jiangsu area and features numerous red beds with few
fossils. Zhang and Li (2000) and Zhou S F et al. (2009) have
described spores and pollen in assemblages using subsurface
data. Chen et al. (2012) performed a multi-gate biostrati-
graphic study on the Taizhou Formation, and suggested that
1) Shandong Institute of Geological Survey. 2017. The Cretaceous regional geology, basin development and the lithostratigraphic system investigation of
the Jiaodong area, Shandong Province. 401.
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the lower fossil assemblage should be dated to the Campa-
nian-Maastrichtian, whereas the upper fossil assemblage
should be dated to the Palaeocene. Volcanic rocks of the
Longwangshan Formation have been dated to 134.8±1.3 Ma
(Zhou et al., 2011). The Cretaceous stratigraphic systems in
the southern and northern Hefei Basin are different, and there
is substantial controversy regarding their subdivision and
correlation. The Maotanchang Formation contains the fossils
of middle-Jehol Biota, whereas the Heishidu Formation
features the fossils of late-Jehol Biota. The latest radio-
isotopic ages show that the Fenghuangtai and Zhougongshan
Formations belong to the early and middle early Cretaceous,
respectively, whereas the Sanjianpu Formation is dated to the
Jurassic (Wang et al., 2017).
Lower Cretaceous volcanic sedimentary rocks occur in the
southeast stratigraphic province, whereas the Upper Cre-
taceous consists mainly of red clastic rocks with a few in-
terbedded volcanics (Figure 9). A series of large-scale
volcanic eruptions occurred in the southeast coastal area
during the Cretaceous, subsequently providing useful mate-
rials for high-resolution radioisotopic dating (Li, 2000). The
most developed strata are located in Zhejiang and are rich in
ostracodes, spinicaudatan, bivalve, gastropod and fish fossils
(Jiang et al., 1993; Chen, 2000a). Biostratigraphic research
has been common in this area and has identified, from oldest
to youngest, the Jiande biota, Yongkang biota, Minjiang
biota and Tongxiang fossil assemblages (Chen, 2000a).
Absolute age (U-Pb) dating of Lower Cretaceous volcanic
rocks in western Zhejiang by Li X H et al. (2018) has dated
the Jiande Group to between 134 and 115 Ma. Furthermore,
40Ar/39Ar dating in eastern Zhejiang has shown that the
Moshishan Group (upper Dashuang to Jiuliping Formations)
was mainly formed between 118 and 109 Ma (Wang et al.,
2010), whereas zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of the
Lower Dashuang Formation has revealed an age of ~140 Ma
(Liu et al., 2016). The subdivision between the Upper Cre-
taceous and Lower Cretaceous strata is disputed, and it is
believed that the Qujiang, Yongkang and Tiantai Groups are
contemporaneous facies from the late early Cretaceous to
early late Cretaceous (Cai and Yu, 2001;Zhang G Q et al.,
2012). Ma et al. (2016) obtained zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb
ages of 122–112 Ma in the Guantou and Chaochuan For-
mations in the Lishui Basin of Zhejiang. He et al. (2012)
published zircon SIMS U-Pb ages of 99–96 and 94–91 Ma in
the Laijia and Chichengshan Formations of the Tiantai
Group, respectively, which is consistent with the age of fossil
Figure 8 Stratigraphic subdivision and correlation of Cretaceous strata in the northeast stratigraphic province of China.
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Figure 9 Stratigraphic subdivision and correlation of Cretaceous strata in the north and southeast stratigraphic provinces. HK: Houkuang; LSS: Linsishan; LWZ: Longwangzhuang; MLP: Malianpo; QGZ:
Qugezhuang; SN: Shuinan; YJZ: Yangjiazhuang; ZFZ: Zhifengzhuang.
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dinosaur eggs (Wang et al., 2012). Fossils from the Zhong-
dai, Jinhua and Quxian Formations date to the early to mid-
late Cretaceous, and can be correlated with those from the
Quantou and Nenjiang Formations. The ostracodes Talicy-
pridea has been identified in the Quxian Formation, sug-
gesting a Campanian age. Ostracodes and charophytes from
the Tongxiang Formation can be correlated with those from
the Taizhou Formation in Jiangsu, indicating that the age
might be Maastrichtian.
The Bantou Formation in western Fujian was mainly
formed between 148 and 127 Ma (Hu et al., 2011; Liu et al.,
2016;Li X H et al., 2018), and the Nanyuan and Xiaoxi
Formations in eastern Fujian were dated to 145–130 and
130–127 Ma, respectively (Duan et al., 2013;Liu et al.,
2016). Biota of the Shimaoshan Group can be correlated with
Yongkang biota (Zheng, 2012), and the zircon U-Pb age of
the Huangkeng Formation of the Shimaoshan Group is 112–
108 Ma (Jiang et al., 2015). The Chishi Group (Junkou,
Shaxian and Chong’an Formations) and Shiniushan Forma-
tion yield fossils that are similar to the Qujiang biota, sug-
gesting that the age might be early to mid-ate Cretaceous,
although Li X H et al. (2018) suggested that the age of the
lowermost Chishi Group might be Albian. Recently, Xing et
al. (2013) published zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb age of ~98.5
Ma in the lowermost Chong’an Formation. In Jiangxi, the
Upper Cretaceous Daguling, Ohuling and Shixi formations
feature volcanic or clastic rocks with volcanic debris. The
age of the Lengshuiwu, Maodian and Zhoutian Formations
was suggested as late early Cretaceous (Wu et al., 2002;Li X
H et al., 2018). The Guifeng Group (Hekou, Tangbian and
Lianhe Formations), consisting primarily of red beds, yields
late Cretaceous ostracodes and dinosaur eggs, and two iso-
topic ages of 89–86 Ma from the basalt of the Hekou For-
mation imply that the age of the Guifeng Group might be
early to mid-late Cretaceous (Wu et al., 2002). Cretaceous
strata are well developed and preserved in the Hainan. Fossil
plants in the Lower Cretaceous Nanmei Formation can be
compared to the Zhejiang Guantou and Shouchang Forma-
tions, and the age is between the middle and late early
Cretaceous. The spores and pollen in the Baowan Formation
appear to be late Cretaceous in age (Fu, 1995).
4.2.2 Western to central medium-large stable sedimentary
basins
The terrestrial Cretaceous strata in the northwest area are
composed dominantly of the Kuqa, Junggar, Turpan, Qai-
dam, Xining-Lanzhou, Ordos and Liupanshan Basins (Figure
10). Many fossils, including spores, pollen, ostracodes and
charophytes, indicate that the Yageliemu-Baxigai Forma-
tions date to the early Cretaceous, comparable to the Kezi-
lesu Group in the western Tarim Basin (Chen et al., 2001;
Guo et al., 2011;Jiang et al., 2006). The geochronology of
the Bashijiqike Formation is controversial. Hao et al. (1986)
integrated various fossil species, determining that this for-
mation dates to the late Cretaceous. Late Cretaceous cal-
careous nannofossils were later discovered in the upper part
of the formation (Hao et al., 2000b). However, based on a
group of fossils, including charophytes, ostracodes, spore
and pollen, Wang et al. (2000) determined that the formation
dates as the middle and late stages of the early Cretaceous.
Through a detailed palaeomagnetic study, Peng et al. (2006)
proposed that the Yageliemu-Baxigai Formations can be
compared to the negative M18–M3 polarity, which corre-
sponds to the Berriasian to early Barremian stages, and that
the Bashjiqike Formation is roughly equivalent in age to the
mid- late Cretaceous and late Campanian-Maastrichtian.
This study has temporarily placed the Bashjiqike Formation
in the late Cretaceous, but the geochronology of this for-
mation requires further study.
The Cretaceous strata in the Junggar Basin are completely
developed on the southern and northern margins of the basin,
and the preponderance of research in this area has been
performed on the charophyte stratigraphy. Yang et al. (2008)
established four charophyte biozones, one sub-zone and one
assemblage, proposing that the Qingshuihe-Lianmuyi For-
mations date to the early Cretaceous. The Donggou Forma-
tion dates to the late Cretaceous. Zheng et al. (2013) deduced
that the Donggou Formation may have arisen in the Con-
iacian-Campanian based on fossil ostracodes. The geochro-
nology of the Ziniquanzi Formation is controversial. Studies
of ostracode and charophyte fossils have shown that the
lower part of the group is from the late Cretaceous and the
upper part is from the Paleogene; however, there may be an
unconformity between lower and upper parts (Yang and
Shen, 2004;Zheng et al., 2013).
Early Cretaceous strata are developed largely in the Jiu-
quan, Xining-Lanzhou, Liupanshan and Ordos Basins. The
early Cretaceous Hekou Group and the late Cretaceous
Minhe Formation occur in the Xining-Lanzhou Basin. The
Jiuquan Basin has been relatively well studied. Different
researchers have compared charophyte, plant fossils, spore,
pollen and insect biozones in early Cretaceous strata within
this basin (Wang et al., 2003;Deng and Lu, 2008;Hu and
Xu, 2005; Zhang M Z et al., 2016; Zheng et al., 2015).
Researchers have found numerous species of the Jehol Biota
in the Chijinbao Formation (Deng and Lu, 2008); a SHIMP
zircon U-Pb age of 113.7±1.8 Ma from the basalt was ob-
tained in the base of the Zhonggou Formation (Li et al.,
2013). Using astronomical data, Liu et al. (2017) speculated
that deposition of the Xiagou Formation lasted for 6.1 myr.
In this study, the Chijinbao, Xiagou and Zhonggou Forma-
tions were compared via a comprehensive analysis of pa-
laeontological, radioisotopic and cyclostratigraphic data
(Figure 10). The Quanyagou Group in the Qaidam Basin
yields early Cretaceous ostracodes and charophytes (Yang et
al., 2011). Cretaceous strata in Xinning-Lanzhou Basin are
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Figure 10 Stratigraphic subdivision and correlation of the Cretaceous strata in the northwest, southwest and south-central stratigraphic provinces.
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mainly composed of red classic sediments, and can be di-
vided into the Lower Cretaceous Hekou Group (Zhujiatai,
Yanguoxia, Honggucheng and Huazhuang Formations from
oldest to youngest) and the Upper Cretaceous Minhe For-
mation. The Hekou Group yields relatively abundant early
Cretaceous fossils (You et al., 2006). Magnetic evaluations
were performed for the early Cretaceous strata in the Xining-
Lanzhou and Liupanshan Basins, showing that the Hekou
and Liupanshan Groups date to 138–106 and 127–110 Ma,
respectively, which is consistent with biostratigraphic results
(Qi, 1988; Li and Du 2006; You et al., 2006;Zhang M Z et
al., 2012). The Ordos Basin is adjacent to the Liupanshan
Basin. The Zhidan Group is dominated by red clastic sedi-
ments. Magnetic evaluations of the Lower Zhidan Group
date to 141–135 Ma (Huang, 2010). Li et al. (2017) com-
pared spinicaudatans between the Upper Liupanshan Group
with Jiufotang Formation, and suggested an Aptian age.
A set of red clastic sediments in intermountain and fault-
depressed basins are developed in the south-central strati-
graphic province, and are represented in the Jianghan,
Hengyang and Nanxiong Basins. Cretaceous strata in the
Jianghan Basin are largely composed of fossils, such as
charophytes, ostracodes, spinicaudatans gastropods, spores
and pollen (Figure 10). The stratigraphic subdivisions and
correlations are still poorly resolved in this region. Based on
a detailed study of spores and pollen, Zhang (2009) sum-
marised the spore and pollen biostratigraphy and correlated
the stratigraphic sections in the south-central province. Re-
cently, based on charophytes, spores and pollen, the K/Pg
boundary has been located within the Paomagang Formation
(Li et al., 2014). The history of the Hengyang Basin has been
investigated primarily through the use of spores, pollen,
charophytes, spinicaudatans and magnetostratigraphic tech-
niques (Chen, 2000a; Ge et al., 1994). The well-developed
K/Pg strata in the Nanxiong Basin in Guangdong includes
dinosaurs, dinosaur eggs, lizards, mammals, ostracodes,
charophytes, gastropods, spores and pollen, and this has at-
tracted attention to the K/Pg boundary. Many studies on the
biological assemblages, polarity, palaeoenvironment and
subdivision and correlation of lithological units have been
conducted here (Zhao et al., 2009,2017;Clyde et al., 2010;
Wang et al., 2012;Tong et al., 2013;Zhang et al., 2013). The
K/Pg boundary was suggested to be located in the lowermost
Shanghu Formation (Tong et al., 2013;Zhao et al., 2017) or
slightly higher in the same formation (Zhang and Li, 2015).
Compared with K/Pg strata, other strata are less studied, and
the stratigraphic subdivision is still controversial (Zhang et
al., 2013). The scheme of Hao et al. (2000a) was adopted
herein for stratigraphic subdivision in this study.
During the Cretaceous, the Chuxiong and Sichuan Basins
housed many terrestrial organisms that, along with os-
tracodes and spinicaudatans, were abundant; this is the basis
for the subdivision and stratigraphic correlation (Chen, 1975,
2012;Zhao and Ding, 1996;Hou et al., 2002). The Cretac-
eous system in the southwest area arose from southwest lake
sediments flowing into the ancient Mediterranean Sea, and
the fossils comprise a relatively independent system (Chen,
2000). Palaeomagnetic studies (in addition to biostrati-
graphic studies) have been conducted in the Sichuan and
Lanping-Simao Basins (Zhuang et al., 1988). Wang L et al.
(2015) obtained a SHIMP zircon U-Pb age of 110–100 Ma
for the Mengyejing Formation in the Simao Basin. Overall,
the subdivision and correlation of the terrestrial stratigraphy
in western China are less accurate than those in eastern
China. Cretaceous strata in the Sichuan Basin are distributed
across different regions. In this study, the Cangxi, Bailong
and Qiqusi Formations in the northern basin were selected as
standard early Cretaceous strata, whereas the Daerdang,
Sanhe and Gaokanba Formations from the southern basin
were selected as standard late Cretaceous strata (Chen,
2000a,2000b;Cao, 2013). Cretaceous strata in the Chuxiong
Basin include the Gaofengsi and Puchanghe Formations of
the Lower Cretaceous and the Matoushan, Jiangdihe and
Zhaojiadian Formations of the Upper Cretaceous (Chen,
2000a,2000b).
4.3 Comprehensive comparison of Cretaceous strata in
China
Based on the subdivision and correlation of the marine and
terrestrial strata in various stratigraphic provinces, we pre-
sent a comprehensive subdivision and correlation across the
Cretaceous strata of China (Figure 11). These strata are
dominated by terrestrial deposits, and marine strata are dis-
tributed only in the Xinjiang-Tibet stratigraphic province and
the western Pacific Rim (eastern Heilongjiang and Taiwan).
Complete marine strata are present in southern Tibet,
whereas the western Tarim Basin and Karakoram feature
Upper Cretaceous marine strata; eastern Heilongjiang in-
cludes Lower Cretaceous marine deposits. The terrestrial
Cretaceous strata show extensive temporal and spatial var-
iations. Terrestrial strata dated to the early Cretaceous are
absent in most areas, and only a few such deposits are well
developed in select regions, such as northern Hebei and the
Sichuan Basin. Middle and late early Cretaceous sedimen-
tary records were recorded in major terrestrial basins, and
fossils of the Jehol Biota are widely distributed in northern
and eastern China. Early Late Cretaceous terrestrial strata are
generally absent in the northern and western regions except
for the Songliao and Jiayin Basins. Late Cretaceous strata are
absent to varying degrees, except in the Songliao Basin and
the south-central and southwest regions.
Southern Tibet constitutes a representative area for the
study of the East Tethys. Terrestrial Cretaceous strata in
China are widely distributed, diverse in form and rich in
fossils and volcanic rocks and ash. Thus, China is an ideal
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Figure 11 Cretaceous stratigraphic subdivisions and correlations in China. NX: Nanxiong Basin; SC: Sichuan Basin; JH: Jianghan Basin; CX: Chuxiong Basin; LPS: Liupanshan Basin; XN-LZ: Xining-
Lanzhou Basin; QDM: Qaidam Basin; JQ: Jiuquan Basin; ZG: Junggar Basin; TH: Tuha Basin; KQ: Kuqa Basin; ERDS: Ordos Basin; YLZ: Yarlung Zangbo Suture zone. Northeast, northeast stratigraphic
province; North, north stratigraphic province; Southwest, southwest stratigraphic province; Central-south, central-south stratigraphic provinces; Southeast, southeast stratigraphic provinces; Northwest, northwest
stratigraphic province; Xinjiang-Tibet Tethys, Xinjiang-Tibet Tethys stratigraphic province.
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geological area in which continuous, global Cretaceous ter-
restrial stratigraphic and biological evolutionary sequences
can be established. During the Cretaceous, China was west of
the Tethys Ocean, Central Asia and Southeast Asia and was
bordered on the east by the Pacific Ocean and western Si-
beria-Alaska. The subdivision and correlation of Cretaceous
strata in China therefore is of great importance in global
comparisons of Cretaceous marine and terrestrial strata.
5. Conclusions, problems and perspectives
Based on fossil biozones integrated with other chronos-
tratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, cyclostratigraphic and
chemostratigraphic data, we have provided an up-to-date
synopsis of the marine and terrestrial Cretaceous deposi-
tional history, and established a comprehensive and in-
tegrated stratigraphic framework for the Cretaceous of China
through regional correlations. Though much progress has
been made in understanding the Cretaceous of China and a
framework has been established between various regions, the
following issues remain to be resolved.
(1) The accuracy of biostratigraphic age determinations/
biozonations based on planktonic foraminifera, calcareous
nannofossils and ammonite in southern Tibetan need to be
improved through comparison with the West Tethys and
Atlantic areas. Northern Tibet, Karakorum, the western
Tarim Basin and eastern Heilongjiang are dominated by
nearshore and shallow marine strata that lack planktonic
fossils, which can be used for global correlation. Thus, some
stratigraphic subdivisions and correlations are unresolved.
(2) The terrestrial Cretaceous strata have been relatively
well studied in northeast China, but other regions of China
have received less attention. Although there are numerous
volcanic rocks, bentonites deposits and abundant fossils in
eastern China, research is impeded by problems, such as
limited rock exposure, large lithological transformations and
inconsistent radioisotopic age data. Such issues can affect the
accuracy of the stratigraphic subdivisions and correlations.
Due to the lack of direct dating of volcanic material, the
stratigraphic subdivision and correlation in the northwest,
southwest and south-central regions of China lack sufficient
resolution.
(3) At present, the base of the Cretaceous in China still
remains controversial because the international J/K boundary
(GSSP) has not been determined. The strata around this
boundary are discontinuous in most areas throughout China,
and some contain coarse clastic rocks. Moreover, incomplete
biological records further restrict the study of the J/K
boundary. Besides the Albian, the GSSP for other stages and
all of the ages in the Lower Cretaceous are still uncertain and
fluctuate frequently. Moreover, the age of the base of the
Aptian has been argued as ~126 Ma or ~121 Ma for a long
time. As a result, accurate correlations of the early Cretac-
eous strata in China have been impeded.
(4) Although the Cretaceous strata in China contain re-
cords of numerous biological, environmental, climatic and
tectonic events, large-scale regional correlation of these
events has not been made, and the precise chronology re-
mains unclear.
Future Cretaceous research in China should seek to in-
tegrate terrestrial and marine data and establish a unified and
high-precision chronostratigraphic system. It is also neces-
sary to strengthen our understanding of terrestrial strata and
establish a terrestrial stratigraphic system that can be corre-
lated with marine strata. The following aspects should be
considered in future research.
(1) Understanding of the biological turnover and accuracy
of biostratigraphic subdivisions and correlations should be
improved. Plankton biozones in Chinese marine strata must
be established with benthic zones to generate regional cor-
relations that can be precisely correlated with international
standard fossil zones. Globally, China has the most abundant
Cretaceous terrestrial strata and fossils. It is therefore ne-
cessary to establish successional sequences of spores, pollen,
ostracodes, charophytes, spinicaudatans, bivalves, plants,
dinosaurs and other organisms to classify important evolu-
tionary stages and implement a biostratigraphic framework
with precise age controls.
(2) The terrestrial strata in central and western China lack
radiometric dating materials, such as volcanic ash. Research
on magnetostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy, as well as
searching for volcanic ash intercalations, should therefore be
performed. In eastern China, the accuracy of volcanic rock
and ash layer dating should be improved and magneto- and
cyclostratigraphic methods should also be taken. The high-
precision U-Pb zircon dating (CA-ID-TIMS method) should
be increasingly emphasized.
(3) Complete stratigraphic subdivision and correlation is
feasible through the use of biozones combined with isotope
chronologic, magnetostratigraphic, cyclostratigraphic and
chemostratigraphic data. With the aid of Earth Time-CN, it is
possible to obtain and screen batches of high-quality age data
using international standard dating methods. By combining
these approaches, it is possible to improve the accuracy of
stratigraphic subdivisions and correlations. The Chinese
terrestrial stratigraphic stages should be correlated with in-
ternational marine stratigraphic stages. The accuracy of the
biostratigraphic subdivisions and correlations can be im-
proved using precise chronostratigraphic patterns, and as-
sociations can be established for biological and other
markers between terrestrial stratigraphic stages and corre-
sponding marine stages.
(4) Important stratigraphic boundaries and geological
events should be studied further. The J/K boundary has been
left undefined for a long time. The extension of biochro-
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nostratigraphic work on the Tuchengzi Formation enables
advancement in the study of the terrestrial J/K boundary in
China, and the basins in southwest China also have potential
for progress in this regard. Progress has been made in the
study of the K/Pg boundary in China. The Songliao and
Jiayin Basins have been used in multi-disciplinary subdivi-
sions of the K/Pg boundary, which are expected to produce
an accurate boundary location; other basins, such as the
Nanxiong, northern Jiangsu, Jianghan and Jiaolai Basins,
also contain potential K/Pg boundaries. Cretaceous terres-
trial strata are well developed in the Songliao Basin and
western Liaoning area, which are ideal locations for studying
the chronology of the CNS, and the terrestrial strata in these
areas are expected to reveal the boundaries of the bases of the
Albian and Campanian stages.
(5) The terrestrial strata in China contain abundant records
of Cretaceous terrestrial biota, such as the Jehol, Songhua-
jiang and Mingshui (Jiayin) biota, as well as many dinosaur
fossils, and a series of important geological events, such as
the Yanshan Movement, volcanic eruptions and LAEs. The
temporal and spatial distributions and lateral correlations of
the biological and geological events listed above should be
strengthened so that they can be extended from regional to
international correlations.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to extend their sincere
gratitude to Zhou Zhonghe, Wang Yongdong and Xu Keming, who reviewed
the paper and made valuable suggestions. During the writing of this paper,
He Huaiyu, Wu Huaichun, Benjamin Sames, Shen Yang and Jiang Tian made
useful recommendations, and Qin Zuohuan, Muhammad Kamran, Yu Zhi-
qiang, Shi Zhongye, Cui Can, Wang Guannan, Xiong Xin, Sun Yanqi, Gu
Anqi, Ye Yunqi, Wang Xuejiao and Wu Baoxu reviewed selected chapters and
figures; we are most appreciative of their help. We also thank Shen Shuz-
hong and Rong Jiayu for their invitation to develop this paper and for their
guidance. This study was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41790452, 41688103, 41172037 and
41272030). This paper is a contribution to the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization-International Union for Geological
Sciences International Geoscience Programme (UNESCO-IUGS IGCP)
“Climate-environmental deteriorations during greenhouse phases: Causes
and consequences of short-term Cretaceous sea-level changes”.
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