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cosmetics
Review
Anti-aging Effects of Select Botanicals: Scientific
Evidence and Current Trends
Molly Campa 1and Elma Baron 1, 2, *
1Department of Dermatology, University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA;
molly.campa@uhhospitals.org
2Department of Dermatology, Louis Stokes Veterans Affairs Hospital, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
*Correspondence: elma.baron@case.edu; Tel.: +1-216-217-9039
Received: 14 August 2018; Accepted: 10 September 2018; Published: 18 September 2018
Abstract:
As skin ages, there is a decline in physiologic function. These changes are induced by
both intrinsic (chronologic) and extrinsic (predominately UV-induced) factors. Botanicals offer
potential benefits to combat some of the signs of aging. Here, we review select botanicals and the
scientific evidence behind their anti-aging claims. Botanicals may offer anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
moisturizing, UV-protective, and other effects. A multitude of botanicals are listed as ingredients in
popular cosmetics and cosmeceuticals, but only a select few are discussed here. These were chosen
based on the availability of scientific data, personal interest of the authors, and perceived “popularity”
of current cosmetic and cosmeceutical products. The botanicals reviewed here include argan oil,
coconut oil, crocin, feverfew, green tea, marigold, pomegranate, and soy.
Keywords:
botanical; anti-aging; argan oil; coconut oil; crocin; feverfew; green tea; marigold;
pomegranate; soy
1. Introduction
Skin aging is due to the cumulative effects of both intrinsic (chronologic) aging and extrinsic
(predominately ultraviolet A (UVA) and ultraviolet B (UVB) related) aging [
1
,
2
]. Aging skin
demonstrates wrinkling, fragility, easy bruisability, loss of elasticity, and mottled dyspigmentation [
3
].
More specifically, intrinsically aged skin demonstrates cell loss, a thinned epidermis, flattening of the
dermal-epidermal junction (DEJ), and fine lines and wrinkles [
4
,
5
]. Extrinsically aged skin (photoaged)
demonstrates coarse wrinkling and mottled dyspigmentation [
4
,
5
]. Multiple other external factors
affect or potentially affect skin aging including smoking, pollution, nutrition, sleep deprivation, stress,
and extreme temperatures [
2
]. The cumulative effects of skin aging are alterations that decrease
physiologic function [6,7].
One of the most visible signs of skin aging is skin wrinkling, which is the result of decreased
levels of collagen and accelerated collagen breakdown [
8
]. Collagen breakdown is regulated by the
transforming growth factor
β
(TFG-
β
). Collagen is synthesized from procollagen secreted by dermal
fibroblasts [
2
]. During the aging process, collagen fibers are broken down by matrix metalloproteinases
(MMPs), which can be induced by UV radiation, infrared radiation, and potentially even visible
light [
2
,
9
]. Skin aging results from the formation and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)
and the induction of MMPs. Eventually, this leads to the accumulation of fragmented collagen fibers
that prevent normal collagen formation [1].
In addition to the decreased quantity and quality of collagen fibers, aging skin loses proper barrier
function. The normal human skin barrier is composed of keratin-filled keratinocytes embedded in
an extracellular matrix consisting predominately of saturated long chain lipids: cholesterol, ceramide
fatty acids, and free fatty acids [
10
]. Together these provide a strong, flexible, water-tight barrier, which
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Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 2 of 15
becomes altered as the skin ages. UV radiation is associated with decomposition of sebaceous lipids,
increased ROS formation, depletion of endogenous antioxidants, and results in dysregulation of the
production of cytokines and alteration of the lipid barrier via lipid peroxidation [
11
]. Restoration of
epidermal barrier function can decrease the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in skin and serum,
which gives further evidence to the importance of a properly functioning skin barrier [12].
Although aged skin generally reflects both intrinsic and extrinsic aging, some factors can be
identified that stem more specifically from chronologic aging. Intrinsic aging results in the loss of
cellular reserve capacity, which in turn limits the skin’s ability to respond to environmental insults [
13
].
Intrinsic aging also changes the protein composition of the dermal-epidermal junction (DEJ), resulting
in a flattened DEJ with a decreased surface area due to the loss of rete ridges [
14
]. This thinning results
in skin fragility and a decreased resistance to shearing forces [
14
]. Intrinsic aging decreases epidermal
cell growth, increases caspase 14, and increases protein carbonylation, which may lead to apoptosis
and inhibition of keratinocyte proliferation [
6
]. There is also decreased collagen XVIII, integrin
β
4,
collagen IV, laminin-332, and collagen VII [14].
In addition to the effects of chronological aging, photoaging has a significant influence on the
appearance of aged skin. Photoaging of human is skin is predominately due to daily exposure to low
doses of UV radiation, which upregulates proliferating cell nuclear antigen and increases oxidative
damage to DNA leading to long-term changes in the skin [
2
,
6
]. Both UVA and UVB exposure lead to
increased ROS, and this can eventually overwhelm the body’s capacity to repair oxidative damage,
leading to a relative state of oxidative stress [
15
]. Photoaging results in the degradation of collagen
and the accumulation of abnormal collagen in the superficial dermis [
16
]. Although the majority of
photodamage is due to UV light, visible light and infrared radiation have been reported to decrease
collagen production and may also contribute to skin pigmentation [
2
]. The extent of photoaging
is influenced by intrinsic protection factors that may vary between different ethnicities, ages, and
individual levels of intrinsic antioxidants, and DNA repair [
2
]. Histologic examination of photoaged
skin demonstrates increased innate immune cells, without apparent active localized inflammation,
increased abnormal elastic fibers, and loss of collagen [
16
]. Photoaged skin also demonstrates an
increased irregular pigmentation, which may be due to increased IL-1
α
by keratinocytes resulting in
the proliferation of melanocytes and an increase in tyrosinase activity [17].
Both intrinsic and extrinsic aging are influenced by increased oxidative stress, which occurs when
the intrinsic antioxidant function of the skin is overwhelmed by ROS [
1
,
4
,
5
,
8
,
13
,
18
]. Oxidative stress
occurs when the body’s endogenous antioxidant system, composed of enzymes including superoxide
dismutase, catalase, ceruloplasmin, and transferrin, cannot keep up with the body’s antioxidant
requirements [
19
]. ROS consists of oxygen molecules in an excited state or those with an
unpaired electron. If left unchecked, ROS lead to lipid peroxidation of polyunsaturated fats, which
sets off a chain reaction of damage including increased apoptosis and decreased mitochondrial
function
[8,20,21].
Furthermore, ROS can increase tyrosinase and tyrosinase-related protein-1, thus
increasing melanogenesis and skin pigmentation. They can oxidize proteins and DNA bases, which
leads to mutations and deletions [
20
]. The oxidation of lipids enhances the expression of MMP-1 and
MMP-3, which as stated previously, lead to the breakdown of collagen [
8
]. Together, this multitude of
effects lead to an alteration in biological skin function.
In addition to ROS and MMP, the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) and
nuclear factor-
κ
B (NF-
κ
B) each play a role in skin aging. The mammalian target of rapamycin complex
2, an enzymatic complex of mTOR, regulates many substrates that influence the skin aging process [
22
].
In both intrinsic and extrinsic aging, there is an increase in the mTORC2 pathway, which leads to
the activation of NF
κ
B; a transcription factor that plays an important role in both intrinsic and
extrinsic aging [
22
–
24
]. The transcriptional activity of NF-
κ
B is associated with multiple age-related
diseases including diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis, and Alzheimer’s disease [
23
]. It regulates numerous
biological functions including the expression of genes, growth factors, and cytokines that regulate
inflammation, apoptosis, and cell senescence [
23
]. NF-
κ
B inhibition can enhance the expression of
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 3 of 15
extracellular matrix (ECM) genes
in vitro
. In one small eight week randomized clinical trial (RTC), the
inhibition of NF-
κ
B was shown to decrease the visible signs of aging [
25
]. This further corroborates the
role of NF-κB in skin aging.
Decreased estrogen levels may play a role in skin aging in women and compounds stimulating
estrogen receptors could potentially counteract some of the visible signs of aging. As people live
longer, women spend a larger portion of their lives in a post-menopausal state, with a deficiency of
estrogen as compared to their younger selves. Menopause may increase oxidative stress and the skin
of post-menopausal women demonstrates decreased collagen types I and III [26,27]. Declining levels
of serum 17β-estradiol may contribute to the intrinsic aging of the skin [28].
Botanicals are products derived from plants and numerous such products have the potential
to counteract some of the signs of skin aging. Many botanical products claim to have anti-aging
effects, yet only a small fraction of these claims are supported by robust scientific evidence. There are
numerous bioactive compounds present in botanicals that may have anti-aging benefits, including
antioxidants and polyphenols. Polyphenols function as exogenous antioxidants, due to a hydroxyl
(-OH) group bound to an aromatic ring that acts as a hydrogen or electron donor to free radicals or
other reactive species [
19
]. Additionally, topical application of antioxidants can decrease the induction
of MMPs [
2
]. Botanical products that can prevent or reduce the signs of aging skin include products
that offer photoprotection, decreased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), increased skin elasticity,
increased collagen formation, decreased facial pigmentation, or offer antioxidant effects in the skin.
In this review, we will discuss multiple botanicals with potential anti-aging properties (Table 1).
Although there are numerous botanicals included as ingredients in cosmetic and cosmeceutical
products, we will focus only on a select few in this review. We acknowledge that there are additional
botanicals with some scientific evidence that supports potential anti-aging effects that are not
discussed here.
Table 1. Level of studies supporting anti-aging effect of listed botanicals.
Botanical Level of Evidence Potential Anti-Aging Effect Demonstrated Anti-Aging Effects
in Human Studies
Argan Oil Animal models,
human studies
Decrease hyperpigmentation due to
tyrosinase inhibition, decreased
TEWL, improved
elasticity, antioxidant
Decreased TEWL,
improved elasticity
Coconut oil In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Emollient, humectant, decreased
TEWL, Anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, decrease wound
healing time, increases collagen
Decreased TEWL, No UV protection
Crocin In vitro
Antioxidant, protects squalene
against UV-induced peroxidation,
prevents the release of
inflammatory mediators,
N/A
Feverfew In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Anti-inflammatory (inhibits NF-
κ
B),
enhance endogenous DNA-repair
activity, decrease proinflammatory
cytokine release, antioxidants
Antioxidant, decreased
UV-induced erythema
Green tea In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Antioxidant, photoprotective,
immunomodulatory,
anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory
Decreased VEGF and HIF-1α,
partial prevention of UV-induced
oxidative damage, reduced
depletion of Langerhans cells,
Pomegranate In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Protects fibroblast from UV-induced
cell death, increased DNA repair,
anti-inflammatory,
Decreased facial erythema,
decreased facial pigmentation due
to tyrosinase inhibition
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 4 of 15
Table 1. Cont.
Botanical Level of Evidence Potential Anti-Aging Effect Demonstrated Anti-Aging Effects
in Human Studies
Soy In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Antioxidant, increased fibroblast
proliferation and increased
synthesis of collagen I and III,
decreased MMP-1, increased
collagen and elastin,
Increased type I and III facial
collagen, decreased erythema after
UVB exposure, improved facial
pigmentation, improved skin
texture, reduced fine lines,
improved skin tone
Marigold In vitro, animal
models, human studies
Antioxidant Increased skin tightness
2. Materials and Methods
A Pubmed (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/) search was performed using the following
keywords: “botanicals”, “skin”, “inflammation”, “aging” in isolation and various combinations.
Specific botanicals were then chosen for further review and a keyword search was performed
using “argan oil”, “coconut oil”, “crocin”, “feverfew”, “green tea”, “marigold”, “plant stem cells”,
“pomegranate”, and “soy” in combination with the general keywords listed above. The studies
identified were reviewed and relevant citations within these studies were also reviewed.
3. Results
Although there are numerous botanicals listed as ingredients in popular cosmetics and
cosmeceuticals, we are only able to discuss a few select botanicals here. These were chosen based
on the availability of scientific data, personal interest to the authors, and perceived “popularity” in
cosmetics and cosmeceuticals.
3.1. Argan Oil
3.1.1. History, Usage, and Claims
Argan oil is endemic to Morocco and is produced from the seeds of Argania sponosa L. It has
numerous traditional uses such as in cooking, treating skin infections, and skin and hair care [29].
3.1.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Argan oil is composed of 80% monounsaturated fat and 20% saturated fatty acids and contains
polyphenols, tocopherols, sterols, squalene, and triterpene alcohols [29].
3.1.3. Scientific Evidence
Argan oil has traditionally been used in Morocco to decrease facial pigmentation, but the scientific
basis for this claim was not previously understood [
30
]. In a mouse study, argan oil inhibited
tyrosinase and dopachrome tautomerase expression in B16 murine melanoma cells, resulting in
a dose-dependent decrease in melanin content [
30
]. This suggests that argan oil may be a potential
inhibitor of melanin biosynthesis, but randomized control trials (RTC) in human subjects are needed
to verify this hypothesis.
A small RTC of 60 post-menopausal women suggested that daily consumption and/or topical
application of argan oil decreased transepidermal water loss (TEWL), improved elasticity of skin, based
on an increase in R2 (gross elasticity of skin), R5 (net elasticity of skin), and R7 (biological elasticity)
parameters and a decrease in resonance running time (RRT) (a measurement inversely related to skin
elasticity) [
31
,
32
]. The groups were randomized to consume either olive oil or argan oil. Both groups
applied argan oil to the left volar wrist only. Measurements were taken from the right and left volar
wrists. Improvements in elasticity were seen in both groups on the wrist where the argan oil was
topically applied, but on the wrist where the argan oil was not applied only the group consuming
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 5 of 15
argan oil had significant increases in elasticity [
31
]. This was attributed to the increased antioxidant
content in argan oil compared to olive oil. It is hypothesized that this could be due to its Vitamin E
and ferulic acid content, which are known antioxidants.
3.2. Coconut Oil
3.2.1. History, Usage, and Claims
Coconut oil is derived from the dried fruit of Cocos nucifera and has many uses, both historical
and modern. It has been employed as a fragrance, skin and hair conditioning agent, and in numerous
cosmetic products [
33
,
34
]. While coconut oil has numerous derivatives, including coconut acid,
hydrogenated coconut acid, and hydrogenated coconut oil, we will discuss research claims associated
predominately with virgin coconut oil (VCO), which is prepared without heat [35].
Coconut oil has been used for moisturization of infant skin and may be beneficial in the treatment
of atopic dermatitis for both its moisturizing properties and its potential effects on Staphylococcus aureus
and other skin microbes in atopic patients [
34
]. Coconut oil has been shown to decrease S. aureus
colonization on the skin of adults with atopic dermatitis in a double-blind RTC [35].
3.2.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Coconut oil is composed of 90–95% saturated triglycerides (lauric acid, myristic acid, caprylic
acid, capric acid, and palmitic acid) [
33
,
34
]. This is in contrast to most vegetable/fruit oils, which are
predominately composed of unsaturated fats [
33
,
34
]. Topically applied saturated triglycerides function
to moisturize the skin as an emollient by flattening dry curled edges of corneocytes and filling the gaps
between them.
3.2.3. Scientific Evidence
Coconut oil can moisturize dry aging skin [
10
,
35
]. Sixty-two percent of the fatty acids in VCO
are of similar length and 92% are saturated, which allows for tighter packing that results in a greater
occlusive effect than olive oil [
10
]. The triglycerides in coconut oil are broken down by lipases in
normal skin flora to glycerin and fatty acids [
10
]. Glycerin is a potent humectant, which attracts water
to the corneal layer of the epidermis from the outside environment and the deeper skin layers [
10
].
The fatty acids in VCO have a low linoleic acid content, which is relevant since linoleic acid can be
irritating to the skin [
10
]. Coconut oil is superior to mineral oil in decreasing TEWL in patients with
atopic dermatitis and is as effective and safe as mineral oil in treating xerosis [36,37].
Lauric acid, a precursor to monolaurin and an important component of VCO, may have
anti-inflammatory properties, be able to modulate immune cell proliferation and be responsible
for some of the antimicrobial effects of VCO [
38
]. VCO contains high levels of ferulic acid and
p-coumaric acid (both phenolic acids), and high levels of these phenolic acids are associated with
an increased antioxidant capacity [
39
]. Phenolic acids are effective against UV-induced damage [
40
].
However, despite claims that coconut oil can function as a sunscreen,
in vitro
studies suggest that it
offers little-to-no UV-blocking potential [41].
In addition to its moisturizing and antioxidant effects, animal models suggest that VCO may
decrease wound healing time. There was an increased level of pepsin-soluble collagen (higher collagen
cross-linking) in VCO treated wounds compared to controls. Histopathology showed increased
fibroblast proliferation and neovascularization in these wounds [
42
]. More studies are necessary to see
whether topical application of VCO can increase collagen levels in aging human skin.
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 6 of 15
3.3. Crocin
3.3.1. History, Usage, Claims
Crocin is a biologically active component of saffron, derived from the dried stigma of
Crocus sativus L.
Saffron is cultivated in many countries including Iran, India, and Greece and has been
used in traditional medicine to alleviate a variety of ailments including depression, inflammation, liver
disease, and many others [43,44].
3.3.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Crocin is responsible for the color of saffron [
45
]. Crocin is also found in the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides
Ellis [45]. It is classified as a carotenoid glycoside [45].
3.3.3. Scientific Evidence
Crocin has antioxidant effects, protects squalene against UV-induced peroxidation, and prevents
the release of inflammatory mediators [
45
]. The antioxidant effect has been demonstrated in
in vitro
assays that showed superior antioxidant activity compared to Vitamin C [
45
]. Additionally,
crocin inhibits UVA-induced cell membrane peroxidation and inhibits the expression of numerous
pro-inflammatory mediators including IL-8, PGE-2, IL-6, TNF-
α
, IL-1
α
, and LTB4 [
45
,
46
]. It also
decreases the expression of multiple NF-
κ
B dependent genes [
45
]. In a study using cultured human
fibroblasts, crocin reduced UV-induced ROS, promoted expression of extracellular matrix protein Col-1,
and decreased the number of cells with senescent phenotypes after UV radiation [
47
]. It decreases
ROS production and limits apoptosis [
46
]. Crocin was shown to suppress ERK/MAPK/NF-
κ
B/STAT
signaling pathways in HaCaT cells
in vitro
[
48
]. Although crocin has the potential for an anti-aging
cosmeceutical, the compound is labile. Use of nanostructured lipid dispersions for topical
administration has been investigated with promising results [
49
]. To determine the effects of crocin
in vivo, additional animal models and randomized clinical trials are needed.
3.4. Feverfew
3.4.1. History, Usage, Claims
Feverfew, Tanacetum parthenium, is a perennial herb that has been used for multiple purposes in
folk medicine [50].
3.4.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Feverfew contains parthenolide, a sesquiterpene lactone, which may be responsible for some of
its anti-inflammatory effects, via the inhibition of NF-
κ
B [
50
,
51
]. This inhibition of NF-
κ
B appears to be
independent of parthenolide’s antioxidant effects [
52
]. Parthenolide has also demonstrated anticancer
effects against UVB-induced skin cancer and against melanoma cells
in vitro
[
53
–
55
]. Unfortunately,
parthenolide can also cause allergic reactions, oral blisters, and allergic contact dermatitis. Due to these
concerns, it is now generally removed before feverfew is added to cosmetic products [50,56,57].
3.4.3. Scientific Evidence
Due to the potential complications with the topical use of parthenolide, some current cosmetic
products containing feverfew use parthenolide-depleted feverfew (PD-feverfew), which claims to
be free of sensitization potential [
56
]. PD-feverfew can enhance endogenous DNA-repair activity in
the skin, potentially decreasing UV-induced DNA damage [
58
]. In an
in vitro
study, PD-feverfew
attenuated UV-induced hydrogen peroxide formation and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokine
release [
56
]. It demonstrated stronger antioxidant effects than the comparator, Vitamin C, and decreased
UV-induced erythema in a 12-subject RTC [56].
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 7 of 15
3.5. Green Tea
3.5.1. History, Usage, Claims
Green tea has been consumed for its health benefits in China for centuries [
59
]. Due to its potential
antioxidant effects, there is interest in the development of a stable, bioavailable topical formulation.
3.5.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Green tea, from Cammelia sinensis, contains multiple bioactive compounds with possible anti-aging
effects, including caffeine, vitamins, and polyphenols [
21
]. The major polyphenols in green tea
are catechins, specifically gallocatechin, epiglallocatechin (ECG), and epigallocatechin-3-gallate
(EGCG) [
15
,
19
,
60
]. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate has antioxidant, photoprotective, immunomodulatory,
anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties [
60
,
61
]. Green tea also contains high amounts of the
flavonol glycoside kaempferol, which is well-absorbed in the skin after topical application [62,63].
3.5.3. Scientific Evidence
Green tea extract reduces intracellular ROS production
in vitro
and has decreased ROS-induced
necrosis [
64
]. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (a green tea polyphenol) inhibits the UV-induced release
of hydrogen peroxide, suppresses phosphorylation of MAPK, and decreases inflammation through
the activation of NF-
κ
B [
15
]. Using ex vivo skin from a healthy 31-year-old woman, skin pretreated
with white or green tea extract demonstrated retention of Langerhans cells (antigen presenting cells
responsible for the induction of immunity in the skin) after UV light exposure [65].
In a mouse model, topical application of green tea extract before UV exposure lead to decreased
erythema, decreased skin infiltration of leukocytes, and decreased myeloperoxidase activity [
21
,
64
].
It can also inhibit 5-α-reductase [59,66].
Several studies involving human subjects have evaluated the potential benefits of topical
application of green tea. Topical application of a green tea emulsion inhibited 5-
α
-reductase and led to
a decrease in microcomedone size in microcomedonal acne [
66
]. In a small six week human split-face
study, a cream containing EGCG decreased hypoxia-inducible factor 1
α
(HIF-1
α
) and vascular
endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, exhibiting the potential to prevent telangiectasias [
61
].
In a double-blind study, either green tea, white tea, or vehicle only were applied to the buttocks
of 10 healthy volunteers. The skin was then irradiated with 2
×
minimal erythema dose (MED) of
solar-simulated UVR. Skin biopsies from these sites demonstrated that the application of green or
white tea extract could significantly reduce the depletion of Langerhans cells, based on CD1a positivity.
There was also a partial prevention of UV-induced oxidative DNA damage, as evidenced by decreased
levels of 8-OHdG [
65
]. In a different study, 90 adult volunteers were randomized into three groups:
No treatment, topical green tea, or topical white tea. Each group was further subdivided into different
levels of UV radiation. The in vivo sun protection factor was found to be approximately SPF 1 [65].
3.6. Marigold
3.6.1. History, Usage, Claims
Marigold, Calendula officinalis, is an aromatic flowering plant with potential therapeutic
possibilities [
67
]. It has been used in folk medicine in both Europe and the United States as a topical
medicament for burns, bruises, cuts, and rashes [
67
]. Marigold has also shown anticancer effects in
murine models of non-melanoma skin cancer [68].
3.6.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
The main chemical components of marigolds are steroids, terpenoids, free and esterified triterpenic
alcohols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and other compounds [
67
]. Although one study demonstrated
that topical application of marigold extract may decrease the severity and pain of radiation dermatitis
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 8 of 15
in patients receiving radiation for breast cancer, other clinical trials have demonstrated no superiority
when compared to the application of aqueous cream alone [69,70].
3.6.3. Scientific Evidence
Marigold has a demonstrated antioxidant potential and cytotoxic effects on human cancer cells in
an
in vitro
human skin cell model [
71
]. In a separate
in vitro
study, a cream containing calendula oil
was evaluated via UV spectrophotometrics and found to have an absorbance spectrum in the range of
290-320 nm; this was taken to mean that the application of this cream offered good sun protection [
72
].
It is important to note, however, that this was not an
in vivo
test that calculated the minimum erythema
dose in human volunteers and it remains unclear how this would translate in clinical trials [72].
In an
in vivo
murine model, marigold extract demonstrated a strong antioxidant effect after
UV-exposure [
67
]. In a different study, involving albino rats, the topical application of calendula
essential oil decreased malonyldialdehyde (a marker of oxidative stress) while increasing the levels of
catalase, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and ascorbic acid in the skin [73].
In an eight week single-blinded study with 21 human subjects, application of calendula cream to
the cheeks increased skin tightness but did not have any significant effects on skin elasticity [74].
A potential limitation to the use of marigold in cosmetics is that marigold is a known cause of
allergic contact dermatitis, like several other members of the Compositae family [75].
3.7. Pomegranate
3.7.1. History, Usage, Claims
Pomegranate, Punica granatum, has potent antioxidant potential and has been used in multiple
products as a topical antioxidant. Its high antioxidant content makes it an interesting potential
ingredient in cosmetic formulations.
3.7.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
The biologically active components of pomegranate are tannins, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid,
niacin, potassium, and piperidine alkaloids [
76
]. These biologically active components can be extracted
from the juice, seeds, peel, bark, root, or stem of the pomegranate [
76
]. Some of these components
are thought to have antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, antioxidant, and photoprotective
effects. Additionally, pomegranate is a potent source of polyphenols. Ellegic acid, a component of the
pomegranate extract, may decrease skin pigmentation [
77
,
78
]. Due to being a promising anti-aging
ingredient, multiple studies have investigated methods to increase skin penetration of this compound
for topical use [77,78].
3.7.3. Scientific Evidence
Pomegranate fruit extract protects human fibroblasts,
in vitro
, from UV-induced cell death;
likely due to the decreased activation of NF-
κ
B, downregulation of proapoptotic caspace-3, and
increased DNA repair [
79
]. It demonstrates anti-skin-tumor promoting effects
in vitro
and inhibits
UVB-induced modulation of NF-
κ
B and MAPK pathways [
80
,
81
]. Topical application of pomegranate
rind extract downregulates COX-2 in freshly extracted porcine skin, resulting in significant
anti-inflammatory effects [
82
]. Although ellegic acid is often thought to be the most active component
of pomegranate extract, a murine model demonstrated higher anti-inflammatory activity with
standardized pomegranate rind extract compared to ellegic acid alone [
83
]. The topical application
of a microemulsion of pomegranate extract using a polysorbate surfactant (Tween 80
®
) in a 12-week
split-face comparison with 11 subjects, demonstrated decreased melanin (due to tyrosinase inhibition)
and decreased erythema compared to the vehicle control [77,78].
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 9 of 15
3.8. Soy
3.8.1. History, Usage, Claims
Soybeans are a high protein food with bioactive components that may have anti-aging effects.
In particular, soybeans are high in isoflavones, which may have anticarcinogenic effects and have
estrogen-like effects due to the diphenolic structure [
84
]. These estrogen-like effects could potentially
combat some of the effects of menopause on skin aging.
3.8.2. Composition and Mechanism of Action
Soy, from Glycine maxi, is high in protein and contains isoflavones, including glycitein, equol,
daidzein, and genistein [
19
,
85
–
87
]. These isoflavones, also called phytoestrogens, may have estrogenic
effects in humans.
3.8.3. Scientific Evidence
Soybeans contain multiple isoflavones with potential anti-aging benefits. Among other biologic
effects, glycitein demonstrates antioxidant effects [
85
]. Dermal fibroblasts treated with glycitein
showed an increased cell proliferation and migration, increased synthesis of collagen types I and III,
and decreased MMP-1 [
85
]. In a separate study, soy extract was combined with haematococcus extract
(a freshwater algae also high in antioxidants), which downregulated MMP-1 mRNA and protein
expression [
84
]. Daidzein, a soy isoflavone, has demonstrated anti-wrinkle, skin-lightening, and skin
hydrating effects [
86
]. Diadzein may function by activating the estrogen-receptor-
β
in skin, resulting
in an enhanced expression of endogenous antioxidants and decreased expression of the transcription
factors that lead to keratinocyte proliferation and migration [
88
]. The soy-derived isoflavonoid equol
increased collagen and elastin and decreased MMPs in cell culture [87].
Additional
in vivo
murine studies demonstrate decreased UVB-induced cell death and a
decreased epidermal thickness in cells after topical application of isoflavone extracts [
89
]. In a pilot
study of 30 postmenopausal women, oral administration of isoflavone extract for six months resulted
in an increased epidermal thickness and increased dermal collagen as measured by skin biopsies
in sun-protected areas [
90
]. In a separate study, purified soy isoflavones inhibited UV-induced
keratinocyte death and decreased TEWL, epidermal thickness, and erythema in UV-exposed mouse
skin [91].
A prospective double-blind RCT of 30 women aged 45–55 compared the topical application of
estrogen and genistein (soy isoflavone) to the skin for 24 weeks. Although the group applying estrogen
to the skin had superior results, both groups demonstrated an increased type I and III facial collagen
based on skin biopsies of preauricular skin [
92
]. Soy oligopeptides can decrease the erythema index in
UVB exposed skin (forearm) and decrease sunburnt cells and cyclobutene pyrimidine dimers in UVB
irradiated foreskin cells ex vivo [
90
,
93
]. A randomized double-blind vehicle-controlled 12 week clinical
trial involving 65 female subjects with moderate facial photodamage demonstrated an improvement
in mottled pigmentation, blotchiness, dullness, fine lines, skin texture, and skin tone when compared
to the vehicle [
94
]. Together, these factors could offer potential anti-aging effects, but more robust
randomized clinical trials are needed to adequately demonstrate its benefit.
3.9. Plant Stem Cells
Although plant stem cells are not a specific botanical, as are the other entities reviewed here,
we wanted to briefly discuss them as they pertain to other botanical products. There are many
products on the market that advertise plant stem cells as an anti-aging product. The underlying
question surrounding these products is whether products derived from plant stem cells can have
an effect on human skin stem cells. Any plant stem cells in cosmetic products are dead cells, but
secondary metabolites from plant stem cells may offer benefits to aging skin. Companies using “plant
stem cells” in their products are generally using the extracts from these cells, rather than the cells
Cosmetics 2018,5, 54 10 of 15
themselves [
95
]. These plant-derived metabolites a have high binding affinity in humans and can
compete with endogenous ligands, which results in inhibition or induction of metabolic or signal
transduction pathways [
96
]. This use of terminology may be confusing to consumers, who may believe
that their cosmetic product is a source of actual renewable stem cells. Plant cell culture technologies
have been used as a valuable source of plant-based ingredients, specifically for the cultivation of
meristem plant cells [
96
]. This could potentially be a more sustainable method for producing desired
metabolites, in particular those occurring in rare plants [96].
4. Discussion
Botanical products, including those discussed here, have potential anti-aging effects. Mechanisms
of anti-aging botanicals include the free radical scavenging potential of topically applied antioxidants,
increased sun protection, increased skin moisturization, and multiple effects leading to increased
collagen formation or decreased collagen breakdown. Some of these effects are modest when compared
to pharmaceuticals, but this does not discount their potential benefit when used in conjunction with
other measures such as sun avoidance, the use of sunscreens, daily moisturization and appropriate
medical professional treatment of existing skin conditions.
Additionally, botanicals offer alternative biologically active ingredients for patients who prefer
to use only “natural” ingredients on their skin. Although these ingredients are found in nature, it is
important to stress to patients that this does not mean that these ingredients have zero adverse effects,
in fact, many botanical products are known to be a potential cause of allergic contact dermatitis.
As cosmetic products do not require the same level of evidence to prove efficacy, it is often difficult
to determine whether claims of anti-aging effects are true. Several of the botanicals listed here, however,
have potential anti-aging effects, but more robust clinical trials are needed. Although it is difficult
to predict how these botanical agents will directly benefit patients and consumers in the future, it is
very likely that for the majority of these botanicals, formulations that incorporate them as ingredients
will continue to be introduced as skin care products and if they maintain a wide safety margin, high
consumer acceptability, and optimal affordability, they will remain part of regular skin care routines,
providing minimal benefits to skin health. For a limited number of these botanical agents, however,
a greater impact to the general population may be obtained by strengthening the evidence of their
biological action, through standard high throughput biomarker assays and thereafter subjecting the
most promising targets to clinical trial testing.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, M.C. and E.B.; Methodology, M.C. and E.B; Data Curation, M.C.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, M.C.; Writing-Review & Editing, E.B.; Supervision, E.B.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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