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Running head: ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response: Scale Development and Personality Correlates
Natalie Roberts
Macquarie University
Dr. Alissa Beath
Macquarie University
A/Prof. Simon Boag
Macquarie University
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Author Note
Natalie Roberts, Macquarie University; Alissa Beath, Department of Psychology, Macquarie
University; Simon Boag, Department of Psychology, Macquarie University. Part of these
findings were submitted as a thesis for the completion of a Master of Research in 2015.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Simon Boag, Department of
Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109. Email: simon.boag@mq.edu.au
© 2018, American Psychological Association. This paper is not the copy of record and may not exactly
replicate the final, authoritative version of the article. Please do not copy or cite without authors' permission.
The final article will be available, upon publication, via its DOI: 10.1037/cns0000168
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Abstract
Altered states of consciousness refer to qualitative shifts in an individual’s overall pattern of
mental functioning. This article presents the 3-part development and validation of a
multidimensional self-report measure of autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR).
ASMR is an intensely pleasurable, head-orientated tingling sensation that typically occurs in
response to specific, audio-visual triggers, producing feelings of comfort, relaxation and
euphoria. A mixed methods approach was adopted, conducting a content analysis on 303
accounts of ASMR, to derive a comprehensive self-report measure. Exploratory (n = 453; n =
448) and confirmatory analyses (n = 448) were utilised to determine the underlying factor
structure of the ASMR measure and replicability of findings across assessment applications.
Convergent and divergent validity were assessed through comparisons with other, established
alterations of consciousness, including frisson, absorption, alexithymia, flow, misophonia and
anxiety. The resultant ASMR-15 demonstrated sufficient internal consistency ( = .78) and
validity as a measure of ASMR propensity, and may be useful to researchers interested in
further exploring and disentangling ASMR from other alterations of consciousness.
Keywords: ASMR; Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response; Scale Development; Altered
States; Frisson
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Deviations from ordinary, waking consciousness have been well documented
throughout history and across cultures (Polito, Langdon & Brown, 2010; James, 1902;
Maslow, 1964). Recently, the exploration of altered states and other anomalous experiences
has seen a shift towards investigating more specific, unusual sensory experiences and
transient adaptive states, particularly those implicated in moments of peak performance,
euphoria, and emotional identification with external stimuli (Schäfer, Fachner & Smukalla,
2013; Harrison & Loui, 2014). According to Andersen (2014), autonomous sensory meridian
response (ASMR) has unique specific sensory component features that differ from other
deliberately facilitated altered states of consciousness (ASCs). To date, however, little
research has been specifically devoted to the topic of ASMR. As such, it is difficult to know
whether ASMR is a unique ASC, or inter-related with other ASCs such as meditation and
absorption. It is difficult to address this issue without a reliable way of evaluating the
phenomenology of ASMR experiences, and currently there exists no reliable, comprehensive
ASMR measurement tool. One aim of this study is to develop a novel tool for assessing the
broad phenomenology of ASMR experiences, in order to determine whether ASMR in fact
represents a unique experience.
ASMR is an intensely pleasurable tingling sensation that typically begins at the back of
the head and travels down the central nervous system in response to specific, individualised
audio-visual triggers and real world stimuli, resulting in feelings of comfort, relaxation and
euphoria (Andersen, 2014; Colizoli, Murre & Rouw, 2013). The cluster of reported shifts in
mood and sensory perception appear to be distinct from other sensory-induced peak
experiences, including frisson (musically-induced aesthetic chills), as well as absorption (a
state of total attention) and flow states (masterful, effortless and decisive functioning; Barušs,
2003).
Presently, significant online interest in describing, discussing and inducing ASMR has
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seen the emergence of large and diverse online communities, suggesting that ASMR is an
identifiable, common experience across individuals. Currently, the ASMR dedicated
community on popular forum website Reddit, ASMR: Sounds That Feel Good, has attracted
over 150 000 active members since its inception in 2011. Some individuals who report such
experiences claim to regularly encounter the sensation incidentally, while many also
consciously seek it out through online ‘trigger videos’ (Andersen, 2014). There are currently
over 11 million ASMR videos hosted on YouTube, with some recording over 20 million
views. Common triggers identified, and recreated through online audiovisual stimuli include
simulated close personal attention, whispering, crisp sounds, slow movements, smiling, and
the observation of others completing masterful tasks (Ahuja, 2013; Barratt & Davis, 2015).
In an attempt to measure ASMR experiences, Barratt and Davis (2015) utilised a
modified version of the short Flow State Scale (S FSS-2; Jackson & Marsh, 1996) in the
assessment of ASMR media viewing practices. The study focused on the demographics,
viewing habits and specific triggers of 475 individuals who both report ASMR experiences
and actively seek out online trigger videos, as well as subjective accounts of pain and mood
management after viewing ASMR media. It was found that 98% of participants who
described experiencing ASMR, and reported regular engagement with ASMR stimuli,
mentioned seeking relaxation as a primary motivator. Further, of this sample, 82% utilised
ASMR media for the purpose of sleep, while 70% endorsed stress-reduction motives.
Significant improvements in mood during and immediately following ASMR stimulus
exposure were further reported by the majority of the sample (80%), with a similarly
significant reported reduction in chronic pain symptomatology. Nevertheless, while not
definitive, the strong assertion that ASMR induction has practical benefit in promoting
relaxation warrants further exploration.
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ASMR also appears to share many characteristics with the Eastern concept of
kundalini. Kundalini describes the dormant cosmic energy, situated at the base of the spine,
that can be awakened or activated under particular conditions, including yoga, meditation and
near-death experiences (Modestino, 2016; Valanciute & Thampy, 2011; Greyson, 1993).
When aroused, the kundalini may travel upwards through the central nervous system, to the
top of the head, producing feelings of bliss, awakening and enlightenment (Valanciute &
Thampy, 2011; Greyson, 1993). A facet of this experience, known as the physio-kundalini
syndrome, focuses on the physical symptoms of kundalini awakening. In a study by Greyson
(1993), a 19-item physio-kundalini syndrome index was administered to 321 participants,
including those who survived near-death experiences. A significant proportion (54%) of the
sample reported feeling tingling or tickling sensations on the skin or inside the body, and a
further 63% of participants described experiencing spontaneous bliss, ecstasy and positive
emotions. While similar, ASMR appears to be distinct from kundalini for a number of
reasons. Most notably, the direction of sensation in the body appears to begin most
commonly in the head and travel downwards in ASMR experiences, contrasting the
established upwards direction of kundalini. Further, a substantial proportion of participants in
Greyson’s (1993) study reported experiencing intense negative affect (43%), audiovisual
symptoms (32%) and spontaneous, involuntary bodily movements (40%), which appear to be
unique to kundalini phenomena.
As yet, however, ASMR has not been systematically investigated, for the purposes of
developing a measurement instrument. One reason for this is that there has been little attempt
to assess the parameters of the experience. The findings of Barratt and Davis (2015) suggest
evidence for a significant association between the presence of flow state experiences when
watching ASMR videos, and reported number of identified ASMR triggers. This finding
suggests that ASMR triggers function in a similar fashion to the environmental and
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interpersonal factors associated with flow state induction. However, the modified ASMR
short Flow State Scale (Barratt & Davis, 2015; Jackson & Marsh, 1996) pertains particularly
to the passive experience of watching online videos from the perspective of flow, as opposed
to the experience of ASMR itself. As such, the measure does not allow for systematic
comparison between ASMR sensations as a whole, and other constructs of interest, such as
absorption, anxiety and frisson.
The aim of this study was to create a reliable and valid self-report ASMR measure, to
assess the key characteristics, internal structure and relationships to similar phenomena. In
order to do this, we systematically defined and operationalized ASMR through a broad and
comprehensive content analysis of archival accounts of ASMR experiences. These data were
used to determine the core characteristics and parameters of ASMR, which informed the
content for development of an assessment tool.
In order to test the validity of the assessment tool, we also aimed to investigate the
relationship between ASMR and other known alterations of consciousness. Most notably,
ASMR has drawn comparison to frisson (Barratt & Davis, 2015). Frisson describes the
incidence of moments of profound musical resonance, resulting in a marked shift in
emotionality in the listener and an accompanying physical response (Harrison & Loui, 2014).
Similar to Maslow’s peak experiences (1964), transcendental musical experiences are
distinctive, poignant, physical or quasi-physical sensations, manifested in physical markers of
affect, including tears, chills and goosebumps (Harrison & Loui, 2014). Specific alterations
in the construction of music, including loudness, key changes and chord progressions have
been demonstrated as key predictors in eliciting frisson responses (Sloboda, 1991).
However, while similar, ASMR appears to be distinct from frisson in terms of the
comprehensiveness of its cognitive, affective and sensory components, as well as the
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specificity of its sensational locality and direction of movement through the body.
Furthermore, frisson is typically induced via musical triggers whereas ASMR is typically
generated by non-musical stimuli. Additionally, frisson is generally experienced as an
excitatory process (Grewe et al., 2010), whereas ASMR appears to be a distinctly relaxing
phenomenon (Barratt & Davis, 2015). These distinctions suggest that ASMR and frisson are
distinct constructs. We thus expected responses on our developed ASMR assessment tool to
diverge from frisson with respect to reported arousal, quality of sensation and method of
induction.
Both ASMR and frisson involve cross-modal sensory stimulation, also known as
synaesthesia (Colizoli et al., 2013). In some individuals, synaesthesia involves the
experiencing of tastes, smells and colours in response to stimulation of another sensory
domain (Colizoli et al., 2013). Barratt and Davis (2015) assessed the relative prevalence of
synaesthetic experiences within an online ASMR interest group sample. They found that a
higher proportion of synaesthetic experiences were found within the ASMR sample (5.9%)
compared to the general population (4.4%), although this difference was not significant.
Similarly, in a case study conducted by Colizoli et al. (2013), one participant demonstrated
unidirectional synaesthesia, as well as ASMR experiences upon hearing soft, crackling
sounds. It is possible, therefore, that ASMR exists as a form of synaesthesia, or that
individuals who report synaesthetic sensations may have a higher propensity towards
experiencing ASMR.
A related synaesthetic experience, misophonia, which is a condition associated with
decreased sound tolerance, is estimated to affect between 1-6% of the general population
(Wu, Lewin, Murphy & Storch, 2014). Individuals with misophonia report negative emotions
and extreme sensitivity to particular sounds, resulting in anger, avoidance and anxiety (Wu et
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al., 2014). Unlike hyperacusis (a reduced tolerance for all sounds), individuals with
misophonia find specific, known sounds unpleasant and annoying (Møller, 2011).
Misophonia and ASMR share a number of common features, particularly the incitement of
pleasure or displeasure through individualised trigger stimuli. As such, a common
synaesthetic pattern of responding to stimuli has been hypothesised as a key factor across
both conditions (Colizoli, Murre & Rouw, 2013; Barratt & Davis, 2015). However, a careful
disambiguation of the role of synaesthesia in both misophonia and ASMR, as well as the
relationship between ASMR and misophonia has yet to be determined. We expected that
ASMR would demonstrate a negative correlation with misophonia in the present work,
particularly with respect to affect, relaxation and sensory experience.
The study also examined the relationship between ASMR and absorption. As a
dissociative phenomenon, absorption has been defined as a disposition for experiencing
periods of total attention that completely engage one’s representational resources
(Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974). Temporary alterations of self have been associated with
absorption when the focus of attention, or attentional object, is someone else (Tellegen &
Atkinson, 1974). For example, Tellegen and Atkinson (1974) reported passive, sympathetic
kinaesthetic engagement resulted from absorption between an individual and another,
comparable to the establishment of a roleplaying interaction. Numerous online ASMR videos
utilise roleplaying techniques (Ahuja, 2013), and ASMR stimuli possibly produces trancelike
effects through the simulation of a roleplaying relationship that engages latent absorption
tendencies in viewers, producing a temporary alteration of self. Ludwig (1966) acknowledged
the power of simulated roleplaying in the production of altered states of consciousness. This
suggests that ASMR videos may interact with latent absorption tendencies, utilising
roleplaying as a means of establishing a pleasurable, kinaesthetically engaged ASC. In the
present study, we expected that ASMR propensity will be positively related to absorption
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tendencies in respondents.
This study also assessed the relationship between ASMR and alexithymia. Individuals
with high levels of alexithymia experience difficulty discerning and identifying emotions
within themselves, as well as difficulties with expressing emotion and with introspection
(Mason, Tyson, Jones & Potts, 2005). Further, alexithymia has also been associated with an
inability to disambiguate sensations within the self (Bagby, Taylor & Parker, 1994). It is
possible that ASMR may exist as the manifestation of an ambiguous physical or emotional
response to external stimuli. Further, Mason et al. (2005) examined the relationship between
dissociation, dissociative absorption and scores on the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale
(TAS-20; Bagby, Parker & Taylor, 1994). Individuals who reported higher absorption
propensity also demonstrated higher levels of alexithymia symptomatology. Due to this
cluster of common phenomena, and the correlation between absorption and the experience of
unusual physical symptomatology, we expected alexithymia to be correlated with greater
ASMR propensity.
In summary, we set out to create the first psychometrically reliable and valid measure
of ASMR, developed from experiential descriptions. We expected that scores on our newly
created ASMR measure will converge with measures of absorption, flow, alexithymia and
anxiety, and produce a divergent pattern of relationships to frisson and misophonia.
Study 1
Methods and Materials
Content Analysis
Data utilised in the content analysis were sourced from de-identified comments hosted
in the public domain. Data were gathered through examination of online news articles, blogs
and forums discussing ASMR, as well as user comments found on these webpages. A total of
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39 pages were downloaded into the qualitative analysis program Atlas.ti for analysis, with 24
(61.5%) sourced from the popular sub Reddit forum ASMR: Sounds That Feel Good.
Criterion sampling was undertaken to filter the sample of comments (Rudestam & Newton,
2007), and inclusionary criteria specified that the comments explicitly described the
experiential qualities of ASMR, as opposed to accounts independent of specific
phenomenological descriptors. All accounts of ASMR experiences were initially assessed to
gain a broad understanding of the phenomenon, before isolating and highlighting words and
phrases indicating new concepts (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). With further analysis, larger and
more abstract categories emerged that accounted for more specific key phrases and ideas,
forming conceptual nodes that organised codes into meaningful clusters (Hsieh & Shannon,
2005). Schematic networks and codebooks were generated throughout collection, with data
interpreted based on a rolling increase of new categories and sub categories (Corbin &
Strauss, 1990). A hierarchical structure was established within the coding framework through
the generation of network diagrams. This data set was collected in 2014 and 2015 and has not
been presented previously.
Results
Qualitative Analysis
In assessing 303 experiential descriptions of ASMR, a diverse range of codes,
categories and themes emerged. Codes and categories were mutually exclusive within
themes, however a high degree of interconnectedness was observed between and within
themes. A total of 174 categories were utilised 1140 times, where frequency of code use
ranged from 1 to 108. Through the development of broad categories, three large thematic
nodes emerged: Altered Consciousness, Affect and Sensation. Significant overlap between
themes was observed, producing large, schematic outputs. See Table 1 for the frequency of
prominent codes within nodes.
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Affect: A divide emerged in accounts of ASMR as being either predominately pleasant,
or overstimulating and unpleasant. Accounts of ASMR were most frequently (n = 51) coded
as pleasurable. Less frequently, ASMR was also described as unpleasant within the sample (n
= 10). One case stated my ASMR can feel unpleasant, and it sometimes starts in my
arms...sometimes you need to "put your mind into it to make it feel pleasant (C291). A
significant portion of cases recalled feeling euphoric during ASMR experiences (n = 10).
Commenter 23 asserted that ASMR felt like “tingles down my neck” and a “euphoric head
feeling”.
Akin to the divide over the positivity or pleasantness of ASMR, 13 cases described
ASMR as strange and differentially linked to both the pleasurable and unpleasant coding
categories. For example, one commenter states that ASMR was strange and unpleasant,
reporting a strange sensation on the right side of my back which is as if someone is tickling
me there, and it’s actually a tiny bit unpleasant (C286). Conversely, commenter 263
described the experience as both strange and pleasant, I find myself staring off into space
while I feel my head filling with warmth. Sometimes, I shiver. It’s a whole weird thing that I
don't understand, but I love it.
Altered Consciousness: A large proportion of cases described ASMR as being similar
to a wide range of conventional and unusual practices and experiences (n = 50). Comparisons
between ASMR and meditation featured prominently in the data set (n = 10). Another
descriptor seen across cases were comparisons to orgastic experiences (n = 11). For example,
one commenter described ASMR as a widespread tingly orgasmic feeling (C107), while
another used the term brain orgasm (C125).
ASMR was frequently compared to illicit drug effects, or recreational drug experiences
(n = 22). Commonly mentioned drugs included MDMA (n = 6), LSD (n = 2), opiates (n = 2)
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and DMT (n = 3). One commenter compared ASMR to a head rush from MDMA
(C302), while another stated that ASMR experiences mirror those of MDMA, where the
substance makes everything on Earth produce this effect (C16). Similarly, the
experience of ASMR was associated with the consumption of opiates, with one commenter
stating that ASMR simulates what they imagine heroin must feel like (C166).
The second most prominent concept that emerged within the altered consciousness
node were descriptions of ASMR as relaxing (n = 38). Commenters frequently recalled
ASMR experiences as incredibly relaxing (C181), producing an intense feeling of
relaxation (C187). Some commenters recalled time distortions while experiencing ASMR
(n = 6), and of these cases, 3 comments mentioned going into a trance (C266). Of the 6
cases that mentioned time distortions, all comments were associated with a slowing of time.
Sensation: Specific descriptions of the sensational component of ASMR experiences
varied widely across cases. In total, 8 comments posited ASMR as electric, involving a
spread of energy (n = 8) and producing a sensation akin to static (n = 1) or fuzz (n = 5). For
example, one case stated Its like, fuzz. Electric fuzz. Comes from the back of my head, to
the sides past my ears and then to my shoulders. And my eyes get heavy and I feel the best
type of dizziness (C250).
Sites of ASMR sensations demonstrated wide variability across cases. 31 cases
described experiencing ASMR primarily within the central nervous system (CNS), including
the brain (n = 14) and spine (n = 17). A further 74 accounts cited ASMR sensations within
the head (n = 59), including the ears (n = 3), chin (n =1), face (n = 1), scalp (n = 9) and skull
(n = 1). Four cases mentioned effects within the digestive system, specifically the stomach (n
= 3) and throat (n = 1). Regions encapsulated by the broader peripheral nervous system
(PNS) were also strongly endorsed (n = 43).
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Within the head category, the specific location of the origin of the experience
varied, with 9 cases attributing the sensation to activity on the scalp, and 4 comments positing
ASMR as occurring inside the head. For example, one commenter stated that they feel
ASMR in my scalp (C300), while another described the sensation as scalp tingles
(C142). Conversely, some cases placed the origin of sensation in the head (C55).
Study 2
Methods and Materials
Developing the ASMR-31
Data collected from the content analysis were used to create the 31-item Autonomous
Sensory Meridian Response Scale (ASMR-31). Items were constructed based on hierarchical
prevalence of coding categories. Consistent with the approach outlined by Loevinger (1957),
themes accounting for greater proportions of coding frequency were accorded more items.
Five reversed items were included to highlight acquiescent response styles. Items and scale
instructions were developed to be interpretable to participants who had previously
experienced ASMR. Participants were encouraged to answer honestly, and indicate the
truthfulness of each item, in response to the statement “when I experience ASMR” on a scale
from 1, completely untrue for me, to 5, completely true for me. Total scores were calculated
as the sum of item scores.
Administering the ASMR-31
Data were gathered on 453 (320 male) English speaking adults from 34 countries, via a
link hosted on ASMR sub-Reddit ASMR: Sounds That Feel Good. Participants ranged in age
between 18 and 60 years (M = 24.64 years; SD = 6.51). Respondents completed the ASMR-
31 and demographics items prior to completing the 8-item modified Short Flow State Scale
(FSS-2; Jackson & Marsh, 1996; Jackson & Eklund, 2002; Barratt & Davis, 2015), modified
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10-item Aesthetic Experiences Scale (AES; Silvia & Nusbaum, 2011), with 3-item frisson
subscale (i.e. AES-FR), and 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20; Bagby, Taylor &
Parker, 1994). This resulted in 394 (278 male, M = 24.82; SD = 6.54) completed cases for the
remaining measures. Prior to completion, participants were instructed that the purpose of the
study was to increase understanding of ASMR through the development and validation of a
measure of ASMR propensity. Approval for the studies were granted by the human research
ethics committee at Macquarie University. Participants were informed that the study would
take approximately 15 minutes to complete. This data set was collected in 2015 and has not
been presented previously. See Table 2 for reliability statistics.
Results
ASMR-31
The ASMR-31 received 453 completed responses, while 394 participants completed the
total battery of instruments. Outliers were examined following Hoaglin and Iglewicz’s (1987)
outlier labelling rule, where outliers are identified relative to the interquartile range. These
parameters are established by multiplying the interquartile range of a variable by the
constant, g, and adding the value to the upper quartile, and subtracting the value from the
lower quartile. Using this method, cases were considered exceptional on the ASMR-31 if
they exceeded the parameters of 78 and 154, calculated by adding and subtracting the product
of the interquartile range (14) and constant g (2.2), to the upper and lower quartile values. For
this study, the more conservative standard of g was adopted, at 2.2 (Banerjee & Iglewicz,
2007), resulting in the removal of two cases from the dataset.
A parallel analysis was undertaken on the ASMR-31 to inform the ideal number of
factors for further analysis. The results suggested 12 factors for extraction, with numerous
single item factors and items with cross-loadings. Further, factors 5 through 12 produced
eigenvalues less than 1. Through examination of variance and the produced scree plot, six
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factors were suggested for extraction. As a result, the proposed parallel analysis solution was
rejected, and a progressive exploratory factor analysis was undertaken.
Exploratory Factor Analysis. EFA was conducted using principal axis factoring
with a direct oblimin rotation, and produced a factor matrix after 16 iterations. A scree plot
was produced to guide analysis, which identified 6 factors as ideal for extraction. Factor
loadings were considered in line with criteria outlined by Worthington and Whittaker (2006),
where items with factor loadings that failed to reach a minimum of .32 were removed
progressively, as they were deemed to be weakly associated with a common theoretical
grouping. Items that loaded onto more than one factor above .3 were also removed. In total,
11 items were removed (including all items from one of the original six factors), producing a
final 20-item, 5-factor ASMR scale which will be referred to throughout the remainder of the
analyses and discussion as the ASMR-20. See Table 3 for factor loadings.
The 20-items loaded strongly onto five theoretically meaningful factors, Affect,
Sensation, Altered Consciousness, Relaxation and Movement. Factor labels were informed
by the conceptual and thematic groupings within factors. Factor 1, labelled ‘Movement’,
comprised items related to the spread of sensation throughout the body (e.g. “The sensation
feels like a wave of energy”). Factor 2, ’Altered Consciousness’ contained items associated
with shifts in perception and awareness, particularly items related to established altered states
of consciousness and deviations from general functioning, independent of emotional or
physical input (e.g. “It feels like an altered state of consciousness”). Factor 3 described items
related to ‘Affect’ or emotional experience and appraisal (e.g. “The experience is blissful”).
Items loaded onto Factor 4, ‘Relaxation’, represented a distinct physical and emotional shift
in arousal and appraisal (e.g. “I find the experience calming”). The final factor, Factor 5 or
‘Sensation’, captured descriptors of location and physical sensation (e.g. “The sensation feels
“tingly””).
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Reliability Analyses
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients were calculated for the total score scale and
subscales, utilising the George and Mallery (2003) guidelines of acceptability, where values
greater than .7 are sufficient. The total score ASMR-20 measure (= .81) and Movement (
= .71), Affect ( = .73) and Altered Consciousness ( = .76) subscales met requirements.
However, the Relaxation and Sensation subscales produced alphas of .69 and .63
respectively, which are considered less acceptable (George & Mallery, 2003). As a result,
these findings will be interpreted with caution.
Frisson, Alexithymia and Flow
The ASMR-20 total score was correlated with the existing TAS-20, AES-FR and S
FSS-2 measures to assess construct validity. Correlations have been considered at the .001
level, to account for multiple correlations. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient between
participant scores on the ASMR-20 and the TAS-20 was non-significant (r = .07, p = .197),
suggesting that the ASMR-20 and TAS-20 assess different constructs. As hypothesised, the
AES-FR and FSS-2 recorded weak, and moderate correlations with the ASMR-20, at r = .25
(p <.001) and r = .44 (p <.001) respectively. Pearson correlation coefficients were also
generated to assess the relationship between the existing total score measures. The TAS-20
failed to correlate strongly with the AES-FR (r = .13, p = .011) or the S FSS-2 (r = .01, p =
.890). Lastly, while significant, the AES-FR and S FSS-2 measures did not correlate strongly
(r = .21, p <.001)
Of the ASMR-20 identified subscales, Affect correlated significantly with the FSS-2 (r
= .23, p <.001). Similarly, Movement demonstrated positive, significant correlations with
frisson (r = .20, p <.001) and flow (r = .28, p <.001). Finally, Altered Consciousness
demonstrated significant, positive correlations with frisson (r = .21, p = .001). Of the ASMR-
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20 subscales, Altered Consciousness produced the largest correlation with flow (r = .48, p
<.001). See Table 4 for correlations between ASMR-20 subscales and other measures.
Demographic Factors
The ASMR-20 (n = 451) was further explored with respect to gender, age, level of
education and country of residence, to assess the relationship between demographic factors
and ASMR propensity. There was no significant correlation found between scores on the
ASMR-20 and age (r = -.001, p = .981). Similarly, males (M = 74.31, SD = 10.56) and
females (M = 76.21, SD = 8.50) did not differ significantly with respect to ASMR, t (438) = -
1.78, p = .076. The main effect of educational attainment on ASMR-20 scores was not
significant, F (4, 446) = 1.16, p = .326, nor was there a significant difference in ASMR
propensity across geographical location F(5, 445) = 1.890, p = .095). See Table 5 for
frequencies and means.
Prior to re-testing, the ASMR-20 was refined with the intent of increasing the number
of items related to Relaxation (>2), in line with the recommendations of Raubenheimer
(2004). Item generation was informed by categories identified in the previous content
analysis. The item I feel sleepy and relaxed was separated into I feel sleepy and I
feel relaxed to improve interpretability. A reverse scored item I feel anxious was also
included, increasing the number of anticipated Relaxation specific items to four, and
producing a 22-item ASMR scale.
Study 3
Methods and Materials
Data were gathered on 897 English speaking adults from 44 countries, via a link hosted
on ASMR: Sounds That Feel Good, in order to assess the convergent and divergent validity of
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the ASMR scale by assessing the relationships between ASMR and anxiety, absorption and
misophonia. All respondents completed the ASMR-22 and demographics items prior to the
remaining measures, resulting in 820 (male = 580) completed cases for the entire
questionnaire. Other variables of interest were measured using the 10-item modified
Behavioural Inhibition Scale (BIS; Carver & White, 1994) assessing anxiety proneness, the
8-item absorption subscale of Goldberg’s (1999) Curious Experiences Scale (CES),
measuring propensity towards dissociative absorption, and a 21-item modified Misophonia
Assessment Questionnaire (MAQ; Johnson, 2014; Dozier, 2015), assessing the frequency of
misophonic experiences. It was anticipated that scores on the ASMR-22 would converge with
scores on the CES and BIS, and demonstrate divergence from the MAQ. The questionnaire
consisted of 62 items, and respondents were instructed that the study would take
approximately 10 to 12 minutes to complete. This data set was collected in 2016 and has not
been presented previously. See Table 6 for scale reliabilities.
Data gathered (n = 897) were randomly divided into two samples for factor analyses.
EFA was undertaken utilising principle axis factoring with a direct oblimin rotation on the
first sample (n = 448), consisting of 320 males and 123 females, ranging between 18 and 56
years (M = 24.66, SD = 6.31). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run on the second
sample through Amos (Version 25.0), consisting of 323 males and 120 females, ranging
between 18 and 58 years (M = 24.85, SD = 6.41). Model fit was assessed through an
examination of CFI, TLI, AIC, BIC and RMSEA fit indices.
Results
Scale Refinement.
Solution 1 (ASMR-20).
Exploratory Factor Analysis. In line with the recommendations of Worthington
and Whittaker (2006), and consistent with the approach employed in the generation and
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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19
assessment of the ASMR-31, exploratory factor analysis was undertaken on Sample 1 (n =
448) via principle axis factoring with a direct oblimin rotation, producing a five factor matrix
after 13 iterations. The 22-items produced a similar factor structure as in the previous study.
However, R4 (“I feel anxious”) failed to load onto any factor at the .32 level (Worthington &
Whittaker, 2006), and was removed, producing a 21-item scale.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed
on Sample 2 (n = 448) to assess the factor structure of the ASMR-21. Modification indices
between residuals were evaluated, and included only for items within the same factor, that
explained interpretable variance unaccounted for by the identified factor. In total, 4
covariances were added to the model, with 2 between Altered Consciousness items, and 2
within the Affect factor. See Table 7 for a summary of included covariances.
In examining the regression weights, AC5 (“the experience is similar to meditation”)
produced a weak path coefficient (<.400), with high error variance, and was subsequently
removed. The overall 20-item model demonstrated modest fit with respect to RMSEA (.06),
CFI (.92) and TLI (.90), suggesting further refinement of the model.
Solution 2 (ASMR-15).
Exploratory Factor Analysis. Due to the modest model fit of the proposed
ASMR-20, EFA was undertaken on the ASMR-22 via principal axis factoring with a direct
oblimin rotation, specifying 4 factors for extraction. The factor matrix converged after 12
iterations, where the Sensation and Movement factors combined to create an 8-item Sensation
factor. Through refinement, 4 items were removed progressively. Three items failed to load
above .32 on any factor (R4 “I feel anxious”; S3 “I feel a strange sensation inside my skull”;
M3 “The sensation feels warm”), and one item produced high cross loadings onto 2 factors
(A5 “It feels like a positive occurrence”). These items were removed, producing an 18-item
scale.
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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20
Confirmatory Factor Analysis. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
undertaken on Sample 2 (n = 448) to assess the factor structure of the ASMR-18.
Modification indices between residuals were assessed, and included judiciously to improve
model fit. In total, 8 covariances were added, with 7 added between Sensation items, and 1
between Altered Consciousness items. For a summary of included covariances, see Table 8.
In examining the regression weights, M4 (“It feels as though there is a build-up
followed by a release”) and AC5 (“The experience is similar to meditation”) produced weak
path coefficients (<.400), with high error variances, and numerous unjustified covariances
between residuals. It was determined that the items were not critical to the description of
ASMR, and removal would not eliminate core features of the construct. M5 (“the sensation
begins in my head and moves downwards through my body”) also demonstrated numerous
covariances, and was removed. Through progressive removal of underperforming items, the
overall fit of the model improved, producing a final, 15-item ASMR scale. See Table 9 for
ASMR-15 factor structure, and Table 10 for final ASMR-15 items.
Chi-square value for the overall fit of the model was significant !" (82) = 188.09, p
<.001, suggesting a lack of fit between the data and the hypothesised model. However, given
the large sample size (n = 448), other measures of fit were assessed. The ASMR-15
demonstrated good fit with respect to CFI (.96), TLI (.94) and RMSEA (.05; Hu & Bentler,
1999). Further, in comparing AIC and BIC fit indices, the ASMR-15 produced a lower AIC
(264.09) and BIC (420.07), than the ASMR-20 (AIC = 518.18; BIC = 735.73), suggesting a
superior model in the ASMR-15 (Schreiber, Nora, Stage, Barlow & King, 2006). See
Diagram 1 for model.
Reliability Analyses
Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients were calculated on the combined sample (n =
896) for the total score scale and subscales, in line with the George and Mallery (2003)
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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21
guidelines of acceptability. The total score ASMR-15 measure ( = .78) met requirements.
The Sensation ( = .72), Affect ( = .74) and Altered Consciousness ( = .82) subscales
demonstrated sufficient reliability, consistent with previous findings. However, the
Relaxation ( = .74) subscale demonstrated considerably improved reliability.
See Table 11 for reliability comparisons between the ASMR-20 and ASMR-15.
Demographic Factors
The ASMR-15 (n = 896) was further explored with respect to demographic factors.
Scores on the ASMR-15 did not correlate with age (r = .027, p = .425), or demonstrate a
significant difference across genders, t (881) = -.872, p = .384. There did not appear to be an
effect of level of education on ASMR scores, F (7, 888) = 1.424, p = .192. However, a
significant difference was found between scores on the ASMR-15, when examined alongside
location, F (5, 890) = 2.863, p = .014. Location was categorised into 6 regions, based on
frequency, including Europe, Australia and New Zealand, the United States, United Kingdom
and Canada. For countries represented infrequently, an “Other” category was created,
comprising 14 countries, including Brazil, Costa Rica, India, Israel, Mexico, Pakistan, the
Philippines, Singapore, Sint Maarten, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, Venezuela and
Zimbabwe. Bonferroni post-hoc contrasts revealed a significant main effect of location on
ASMR scores F (5, 890) = 2.600, p = .019, with participants residing in the United States (M
= 56.47, SD = 7.52) recording significantly higher scores on the ASMR-15 than those from
Europe (M = 53.87, SD = 8.20). The largest mean difference was found between participants
from the United States and countries grouped under ‘Other’ (M = 53.29, SD = 9.34), F (5,
890) = 3.186, p = .553), however, these findings were non significant. See Table 12 for
frequencies and means.
Misophonia, Absorption and Anxiety
The ASMR-15 and subscales were correlated with the existing BIS, CES, and MAQ
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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22
measures to assess construct validity on the combined dataset (n = 820). It was expected that
ASMR would demonstrate convergence with measures of anxiety and absorption, and
divergence from misophonia. Somewhat consistent with expectations, the Pearson’s
correlation coefficient for the relationship between participant scores on the ASMR-15 and
BIS was very weak, yet significant (n = 820; r = .13, p < .001). Similarly, anxiety (BIS)
correlated weakly with Relaxation (r = .11, p =.002), Altered Consciousness (r = .09, p =
.008), and Affect (r = .09, p = .011). Further, a weak correlation was found between
absorption (CES) and ASMR (r = .29, p <.001), as well as the Altered Consciousness (r =
.25, p <.001), Affect (r = .26, p <.001), Relaxation (r = .12, p = .001) and Sensation (r = .11,
p = .001) subscales. Weak, yet significant correlations were found between absorption and
misophonia (r = .15, p <.001), absorption and anxiety (r = .19, p < .001), and between
anxiety and misophonia (r = .26, p <.001). For correlations, see table 13.
Regression Analysis
A multiple linear regression was undertaken to predict the ASMR-15 and subscales
based on the CES, MAQ and BIS. A significant regression equation was found for the
ASMR-15 (F(3, 816) = 27.092, p < .001), with an #" of .091, suggesting that a very small
proportion of variance in the ASMR-15 can be explained by existing measures. Absorption ($ =
.399, p = <.001) and anxiety ($ = .136, p = .036) were found to be significant predictors of
ASMR. Further, absorption was found to be a significant predictor of Altered Consciousness
($%= .178, p <.001), Sensation ($ = .073, p = .003), Relaxation ($ = .036, p = .003) and
Affect ($ = .112, p <.001). Anxiety significantly predicted scores on Relaxation ($ = .017, p
= .017), and misophonia was a predictor of scores on Altered Consciousness ($ = .042, p =
.050).
Discussion
Overall, the results of the factor analyses support the conceptualisation of ASMR seen
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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23
in content analysis and scale construction. As the first designated ASMR scale, the measure
intended to assess a range of common features of the phenomenon as well as establishing a
means from which to assess relationships to similar paresthetic sensations and altered states.
A mixed-methods approach was undertaken to address these aims. Through content analysis,
significant variation across cases was observed. Specific points of contention emerged within
nodes and categories suggesting that accounts of ASMR may differ experientially. Despite
this, a large proportion of cases reported similar shifts in affect, consciousness and specific
sensations.
The created ASMR-31 was derived from emergent categories in content analysis, and
assessed with respect to internal consistency, factor structure and divergent validity from
related constructs. Following reduction, the resultant 15-item ASMR scale identified four
underlying factors, Altered Consciousness, Sensation, Relaxation and Affect. Across EFA
and CFA, the ASMR-15 appears to adequately reflect the factor structure seen in a large
convenience sample (n = 896). Future work will assess the performance and reliability of the
ASMR-15 when administered to a non-specialised sample. Assessment of the internal
consistency of the ASMR-15 suggested the creation of a sufficiently reliable total score
measure ( = .78), with four reliable subscales (George & Mallery, 2003). It is expected that
a more generalised sample will allow for greater variation in scores on the ASMR-15, and
may further improve reliability statistics.
A number of items were removed in refining the ASMR measure, notably M5 (“the
sensation begins in my head and travels downwards through the rest of my body”). The
cephalocaudal direction of sensation was previously thought to be a defining feature of
ASMR, and one that distinguished the phenomenon from other paresthetic experiences.
However, due to the combination of head and body in M5, it is possible that ASMR
sensations predominantly travel in a cephalocaudal manner, beginning in the neck or
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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24
shoulders, or that the experience is primarily head oriented in some participants. Further
qualitative examination of the specific location and direction of ASMR experiences would be
of benefit, and allow for greater differentiation between ASMR, frisson and kundalini.
The ASMR-15 demonstrated convergent and divergent validity from a number of
similar constructs. As expected, ASMR demonstrated some convergence with absorption and
flow states, and divergence from frisson. Contrary to expectations, alexithymia did not
demonstrate convergence with ASMR; rather the relationship between alexithymia and
ASMR was non-significant (r = .07, p = .197). This suggests that ASMR is not associated
with poor discrimination of sensations within the self, however further examination is
required. ASMR does not appear to be adequately accounted for by existing constructs such
as misophonia, anxiety, or absorption, and demonstrates substantial differences from frisson
(r = .25, p <.001) and flow states (r = .44, p < .001).
Importantly, while ASMR appears unrelated to misophonia, environmental context may
have influenced the results. The modified MAQ provided examples of sounds that commonly
induce misophonia. However, a number of respondents in Study 3 provided feedback that
emphasised the role of context in determining whether an audiovisual stimulus is experienced
as pleasant or aversive. For example, intentional engagement with whispering in an ASMR
video produced a pleasant sensation, while incidental whispering resulted in feelings of anger
and displeasure, akin to misophonia. Due to the highly individualised nature of these
experiences, and the ecological differences encountered when viewing ASMR media in a
controlled setting, compared to incidental interactions, future work will need to consider the
role of context, expectations and environmental influences in disambiguating these
experiences.
Additionally, there were a number of limitations in the present work that would be best
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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25
addressed in future research. Firstly, as de-identified, archival data was utilised in Study 1 for
the generation of ASMR items, no demographic information was available for the sample.
This was unfortunate as it did not allow for evaluation of the representativeness of the
sample, and examination of the effect of gender or age on qualitative accounts. Similarly,
there was a significant mean difference found between country of residency and ASMR-15
scores (p = .014). The largest mean difference, and lowest mean was found for countries
within the “Other” category, which are primarily non-English speaking countries. It is
possible that there may be a language effect complicating the relationship between ASMR
scores and location. However, it is important to note that the majority of participants resided
in Western, English-speaking regions, which may limit the generalisability of findings
overall. Further, as the data came from numerous online sources, including forums, there may
have been some effect of suggestion on the descriptions provided by commenters,
particularly in response to other’s reported experiences.
In utilising a niche sample, participant responses may have potentially been influenced
by perceived demand characteristics. In other words, participants sourced from an ASMR
interest group might display a somewhat homogenous perception of the phenomenon of
interest, and may have endorsed items accordingly, or unwittingly responded in ways that
would aid the researcher (Nichols & Maner, 2008). Future research could attempt to examine
ASMR experiences in a less specialised sample, and through utilising Modern Test Theory
analyses such as Rasch scaling (Lange, 2017). Such approaches are becoming increasingly
recognised and adopted in studies of consciousness, and may address response bias issues
(Lange, 2017). Consequently, with respect to replication of the present research, addressing
issues such as potential demand characteristics and suggestibility, and adopting these
alternative statistical approaches is advisable. Similarly, scores on the ASMR and absorption
measures may have been somewhat inflated due to the dissociative content of some items.
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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26
Higher endorsement of dissociative items has been seen in individuals less adept at
discerning feelings and sensations within the self (Merckelback, Boskovic, Pesy, Dalsklev &
Lynn, 2017), which may complicate the relationship between absorption, alexithymia and
ASMR experiences.
ASMR appears to share numerous characteristics with other, established alterations and
altered states of consciousness. Examination of dispositional differences in participants who
score highly on the ASMR-15, alongside physiological markers would help to further
disentangle ASMR from other established phenomena, and may provide further validity for
the ASMR-15. Similarly, measures assessing the highly sensitive person construct, and
transliminality would be valuable inclusions in future work, particularly items in the Revised
Transliminality Scale (RTS; Lange, Thalbourne, Houran & Storm, 2000) related to
immersion and altered states.
The ASMR-15 appears to be an effective self-report measure of ASMR propensity,
demonstrating sufficient replicability of factor structure, reliability and internal consistency
across assessments. Through reliability and factor analyses, the ASMR-15 appears to meet
necessary preliminary criteria for a self-report measurement instrument. It is of note,
however, that the predictive validity of the ASMR-15 with respect to physiological markers
has yet to be assessed. This assessment is a necessary step in disambiguating the underlying
affective and cognitive components of ASMR, as well as increasing the specificity of the
physical and experiential markers of the phenomenon. As demonstrated, the ASMR-15 shows
consistency in the recognition and encapsulation of diverse facets of ASMR experiences. The
ASMR-15 may, in turn, be a valuable measurement tool in assessing the relationships
between ASMR propensity, personality factors, and alterations of consciousness more
broadly.
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27
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Appendices
Table 1.
Frequency of Prominent Codes Within Major Themes
Theme
Codes
Frequency
Total Theme (f)
Affect
Pleasurable
Appraisal
Positive
Strange
Euphoric
51
43
32
13
10
Total = 149
228 (20.0%)
Altered
Consciousness
Relaxation
Trance-like
Recreational Drug High
Mental State
Orgastic
38
27
22
21
11
Total = 119
282 (24.7%)
Sensation
Location
Tingle
Head
Intensity
Movement
92
73
59
38
29
Total = 291
630 (55.3%)
Total = 1140
Note. N = 303. Total Theme reflects the total frequency of all codes within each theme. The
percentage refers to the proportion of total frequencies (n = 1140) accounted for by each
theme.
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Table 2
Study and Literature Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) of Measures
Instrument and Subscale
Literature α (items)
Study α (items)
S FSS-2
0.77 - 0.78 (8)
0.61 (8)
AES
0.87 (10)
0.87 (10)
AES-FR (Frisson)
0.85 (3)
0.87 (3)
TAS-20
0.81 – 0.87 (20)
0.72 (20)
DIF
0.78 – 0.81 (7)
0.83 (7)
DDF
0.75 (5)
0.79 (5)
EOT
0.64 – 0.66 (8)
0.57 (8)
Note. N = 394. TAS-20 = Toronto Alexithymia Scale; DIF = Difficulty Identifying Feelings;
DDF = Difficulty Describing Feelings; EOT = Externally Oriented Thinking; AES =
Aesthetic Experiences Scale; AES-FR = Frisson; S FSS-2 = Short Flow State Scale.
*Reliability statistics were not provided for the modified 8-item S FSS-2, so published alphas
for the original 9-item S FSS-2 were included as a guide.
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Table 3
Final Item Matrix of the ASMR-20
ASMR-20 Item
ASMR-20 Factors
(M)
(AC)
(A)
(R)
(S)
M1
.749
.051
-.104
-.095
-.062
M2
.546
-.073
-.016
.103
.283
M4
.456
.027
.087
-.030
.137
M3
.455
.118
-.080
.018
-.119
M5
.450
-.020
-.039
.065
.159
AC1
-.027
.784
-.116
-.101
.084
AC2
-.025
.739
-.058
.013
.072
AC3
.035
.573
-.129
.075
.065
AC4
.080
.512
.143
.046
-.038
AC5
.058
.432
.012
.125
-.063
A1
.169
-.006
-.789
.043
-.123
A3
.021
-.042
-.690
.051
.085
A2
.083
.251
-.575
-.098
.031
A5
-.092
-.044
-.446
.194
.103
R1
-.031
-.018
-.173
.753
-.049
R2
.000
.175
.034
.701
-.012
S1
-.006
.040
-.172
-.105
.611
S2
.212
-.195
-.019
.155
.527
S3
.050
.214
.034
-.016
.458
S4
.295
-.158
.018
.070
.375
% of Variance
19.79
9.80
7.31
4.36
2.52
Cumulative %
of Variance
19.79
29.59
36.90
41.26
43.79
Note. N = 451. 5 factors extracted, 16 iterations required.
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AES-FR
AES
EOT
DDF
DIF
TAS-20
AC
R
A
S
M
ASMR-20
Measure
.773**
M
.498**
.614**
S
.236**
.304**
.622**
A
.290**
.082
.130*
.367**
R
.220**
.301**
.072
.241**
.657**
AC
.131*
-.003
-.026
.017
.026
.065
TAS-20
.805**
.244**
.026
.095
.027
.112
.188**
DIF
.540**
.735**
.112
.019
.022
.032
.121
.117
DDF
.155*
.143*
.126
.151*
.167*
.222**
.067
.168*
.233**
EOT
.166*
.204**
.312**
.141*
.311**
.101
.171*
.095
.243**
.322**
AES
.783**
.162*
.194**
.220**
.128
.209**
.084
.110
.113
.196**
.245**
AES-FR
.206**
.242**
.177**
.018
.110
.007
.480**
.138*
.232**
.109
.283**
.436**
S FSS-2
Table 4
Correlations Between the ASMR-20, Subscales and Total Score Measures
Note. N = 394. ASMR-20 = Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response Scale; M = Movement; S = Sensation; A = Affect; R = Relaxation;
AC = Altered Consciousness; TAS-20 = Toronto Alexithymia Scale; DIF = Difficulty Identifying Feelings; DDF = Difficulty Describing
Feelings; EOT = Externally Oriented Thinking; AES = Aesthetic Experiences Scale; AES-FR = Frisson subscale; S FSS-2 = Short Flow
State Scale. **p <.001 (2 tailed), *p <.01.
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Table 5
Means and Frequencies of Demographic Variables for the ASMR-20
Variable
Frequency
ASMR-20 Mean (M)
Gender
Male
276
74.47
Female
109
76.05
Level of Education
High School or Equivalent
191
74.84
Bachelor’s Degree
141
75.15
Master’s Degree
30
72.17
Doctoral Degree
9
74.33
Other
23
78.09
Country of Residency
Australia and New Zealand
29
73.69
Canada
44
75.14
Europe
54
72.83
United Kingdom
46
75.52
United States
207
75.66
Other
14
72.07
Note. N = 394.
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Table 6
Study and Literature Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) of Measures
Instrument
Literature α (items)
Study α (items)
BIS (Anxiety)
0.84 (10)
0.89 (10)
CES (Absorption)
0.75 (8)
0.70 (8)
MAQ (Misophonia)
*
0.95 (21)
Note. N = 820. BIS = Behavioural Inhibition Scale; CES = Curious Experiences Scale; MAQ
= Misophonia Assessment Questionnaire. *Reliability statistics were not available for the
modified Misophonia Assessment Questionnaire.
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Table 7
Included Covariances Between Residuals in the ASMR-21
Covariance
M.I.
Items
Common Element
Rc12 – Rc13
13.67
“It feels as though I have slipped into a hypnotic,
trance-like state” and “I experience time
distortions”
Hypnotic and trance
state experience
Rc13 – Rc14
13.08
“I experience time distortions” and “The experience
is similar to meditation”
Meditative
experience
Ra16 – Ra18
11.95
“I feel euphoric” and “It feels like a positive
occurrence”
Positive feelings
Ra15 – Ra16
10.24
“The experience is blissful” and “I feel euphoric”
Pleasure
Note. N = 448.
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Table 8
Included Covariances Between Residuals in the ASMR-18
Covariance
M.I.
Items
Common Element
Rm5 – Rm6
44.04
“The sensation feels like a wave of energy” and
“The sensation spreads like a wave”
Wave
Rm5 – Rm8
15.33
“The sensation feels like a wave of energy” and “It
feels as though there is a build-up followed by a
release”
Energy
Rc12 – Rc13
14.22
“It feels as though I have slipped into a hypnotic,
trance-like state” and “I experience time
distortions”
Hypnotic and trance
state experience
Rm6 – Rm9
11.90
“The sensation spreads like a wave” and “The
sensation begins in my head and travels downwards
through the rest of my body”
Movement
Rm6 – Rm8
10.79
“The sensation spreads like a wave” and “It feels as
though there is a build-up followed by a release”
Movement
Rm8 – Rm9
8.47
“It feels as though there is a build-up followed by a
release” and “The sensation begins in my head and
travels downwards through the rest of my body”
Movement
Rs2 – Rm8
4.33
“The sensation feels “tingly”” and “It feels as
though there is a build-up followed by a release”
Blood rush
Rs4 – Rm8
4.57
“It feels like goosebumps on the back of my head”
and “It feels as though there is a build-up followed
by a release”
Build up and arousal
Note. N = 448.
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Table 9
Final Item Matrix of the ASMR-15
ASMR-15 Item
ASMR-15 Factors
(AC)
(S)
(R)
(A)
AC1
.871
-.038
-.038
-.038
AC2
.820
-.055
.019
-.019
AC3
.634
.107
.137
-.057
AC4
.552
.019
-.023
-.025
M2
.066
.766
.003
.097
M1
.176
.616
.008
.025
S2
-.128
.522
-.029
-.162
S4
-.041
.520
.003
.022
S1
-.072
.517
.010
-.158
R3
-.038
.055
.937
.054
R1
-.068
.000
.638
-.100
R2
.133
-.043
.536
.029
A1
-.013
-.084
.125
-.718
A2
.147
.029
-.075
-.706
A3
.031
.194
-.006
-.536
% of Variance
21.48
13.42
9.08
4.73
Cumulative %
of Variance
21.48
34.90
43.98
48.71
Note. N = 448. Rotation converged in 6 iterations. S = Sensation; A = Affect; R =
Relaxation; AC = Altered Consciousness.
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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Table 10
Final Items and Subscales of the Four-Factor ASMR-15
Factor
Item
Question
AC
AC1
It feels like an altered state of consciousness.
AC2
It feels like a different state of mind.
AC3
It feels as though I have slipped into a hypnotic, trance-like
state.
AC4
I experience time distortions.
S
S1
I experience an unusual sensation in my head and body.
S2
The sensation feels “tingly”.
S4
It feels like goosebumps on the back of my head.
M1
The sensation feels like a “wave of energy”.
M2
The sensation spreads like a wave.
R
R1
I find the experience calming.
R2
I feel sleepy.
R3
I feel relaxed.
A
A1
The experience is blissful.
A2
I feel euphoric.
A3
I find the sensation intensely pleasurable.
Note. N = 448. AC = Altered Consciousness; S = Sensation; R = Relaxation; A = Affect.
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Table 11
Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) of Measures
Instrument and Subscale
Study 2 α (items)
Study 3 α (items)
ASMR
0.81 (20)
0.78 (15)
Altered Consciousness
0.76 (5)
0.82 (4)
Sensation
0.63 (4)
0.72 (5)
Relaxation
0.69 (2)
0.74 (3)
Affect
0.73 (4)
0.74 (3)
Movement
0.71 (5)
-
Note. Study 2 n = 451; Study 3 n = 896. ASMR = Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response.
Movement data not available for Study 3, items combined with Sensation subscale.
ASMR: SCALE DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY CORRELATES
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Table 12
Means and Frequencies of Demographic Variables for the ASMR-15
Variable
Frequency
ASMR-15 Mean (M)
Gender
Male
580
55.57
Female
229
56.26
Level of Education
Some High School
34
57.18
High School or Equivalent
132
56.30
Some College
232
55.75
Associate’s Degree
52
58.15
Bachelor’s Degree
263
55.29
Master’s Degree
71
54.64
Doctoral Degree
24
55.83
Other
12
53.00
Country of Residency
Australia and New Zealand
57
56.30
Canada
76
54.84
Europe
105
53.79
United Kingdom
84
55.48
United States
472
56.50
Other
26
53.00
N = 820.
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Table 13
Correlations Between the ASMR-15, Subscales and Total Score Measures
Note. N = 820. AC = Altered Consciousness; S = Sensation; R = Relaxation; A = Affect. **p
<.001, *p <.01. BIS = Behavioural Inhibition System Anxiety Scale; CES = Curious
Experiences Scale; MAQ = Misophonia Assessment Questionnaire.
Measure
AC
S
R
A
BIS
CES
MAQ
ASMR-15
.676**
.669**
.493**
.714**
.129**
.291**
.075
AC
.075
.145**
.272**
.093*
.250**
.112*
S
.168**
.403**
.060
.113*
.005
R
.337**
.106*
.120*
.036
A
.089
.261**
.020
BIS
.188**
.258**
CES
.150**
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Diagram 1.
ASMR-15 Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model
Note. N = 448.
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