ArticlePublisher preview available

The astronomical orientation of the historical Grand mosques in Anatolia (Turkey)

Authors:
Mustafa Yilmaz at Afyon Kocatepe University
Mustafa Yilmaz
Ibrahim Tiryakioglu at Afyon Kocatepe University
Ibrahim Tiryakioglu
Read publisher preview
Download citation
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract and Figures

In the ancient civilizations, the sky has been observed in order to understand the motions of the celestial bodies above the horizon. The study of faiths and practices dealing with the sky in the past has been attributed to the sun, the moon, and the prominent stars. The alignment and orientation of constructions to significant celestial objects were a common practice. The orientation was an important component of the religious structure design. Religious buildings often have an intentional orientation to fix the praying direction. In Islam, a sacred direction (Qibla) towards Kaaba located in the courtyard in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca has been used for praying and fulfilling varied ritual tasks. Therefore, the mosques had then to orientate towards the Qibla direction, being designated by a focal niche in the Qibla-wall, wherever they were built on Earth. In this study, the orientations of the historical Grand mosques in Turkey are surveyed with regard to the folk astronomy derived from pre-Islamic Arabian sources, early traditions of the Islamic period, and geometric-trigonometric computation in mathematical astronomy inherited and developed mostly from Greek sources according to the Islamic view of the World geography.
a Earliest known Kaaba-centred 4-sector, geographical scheme from Kitāb al-Masālik w’al- Mamālik (Book of Roads and Kingdoms) by Ibn Khurradadhbih (ca. 820–912) (King 2005a). b A simplified 12-sector scheme of sacred geography from Athar al-Bilad wa-Akhbar al-Ibad (Monument of Places and History of Allah’s Bondsmen) by al-Qazwini (1203–1283) (King 2005a). c 72-sector scheme of sacred geography from a Turkish translation of Ibn al-Wardi’s (1291/1292–1348/1349) Kharīdat al-ʿAjā’ib wa Farīdat al-Gha’rāib (The Pearl of Wonders and the Uniqueness of Strange Things) (King and Lorch 1992)
a Earliest known Kaaba-centred 4-sector, geographical scheme from Kitāb al-Masālik w’al- Mamālik (Book of Roads and Kingdoms) by Ibn Khurradadhbih (ca. 820–912) (King 2005a). b A simplified 12-sector scheme of sacred geography from Athar al-Bilad wa-Akhbar al-Ibad (Monument of Places and History of Allah’s Bondsmen) by al-Qazwini (1203–1283) (King 2005a). c 72-sector scheme of sacred geography from a Turkish translation of Ibn al-Wardi’s (1291/1292–1348/1349) Kharīdat al-ʿAjā’ib wa Farīdat al-Gha’rāib (The Pearl of Wonders and the Uniqueness of Strange Things) (King and Lorch 1992)
… 
Declination-corrected differences (dated 1210–1579) inside the ± 4.3° declination bounds
Declination-corrected differences (dated 1210–1579) inside the ± 4.3° declination bounds
… 
a Alignment of Kaaba implied by the first section of the treatise authored by a Yemeni astronomer, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Farisi (ca. 1290) illustrated in MS Milan Biblioteca Ambrosiana 73 Sup. (Hawkins and King 1982). b Alignment of Kaaba implied by the second section of the treatise authored by a Yemeni astronomer, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Farisi (ca. 1290) illustrated in MS Milan Biblioteca Ambrosiana 73 Sup. (Hawkins and King 1982). c Actual (luni-solar) alignment of Kaaba (Hawkins and King 1982)
a Alignment of Kaaba implied by the first section of the treatise authored by a Yemeni astronomer, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Farisi (ca. 1290) illustrated in MS Milan Biblioteca Ambrosiana 73 Sup. (Hawkins and King 1982). b Alignment of Kaaba implied by the second section of the treatise authored by a Yemeni astronomer, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Farisi (ca. 1290) illustrated in MS Milan Biblioteca Ambrosiana 73 Sup. (Hawkins and King 1982). c Actual (luni-solar) alignment of Kaaba (Hawkins and King 1982)
… 
a Astronomical alignment of Kaaba and its relationship with the winds in medieval Yemeni texts on folk astronomy (King 2017). b A wind scheme recorded by the celebrated philologian Ibn al-A‛rabi (fl. Kufa ca. 825) (King 2005a). c Four-Qibla scheme related with the winds from an anonymous 18th-century Ottoman treatise (King and Lorch 1992)
a Astronomical alignment of Kaaba and its relationship with the winds in medieval Yemeni texts on folk astronomy (King 2017). b A wind scheme recorded by the celebrated philologian Ibn al-A‛rabi (fl. Kufa ca. 825) (King 2005a). c Four-Qibla scheme related with the winds from an anonymous 18th-century Ottoman treatise (King and Lorch 1992)
… 
Qibla direction as a great circle arc between Afyonkarahisar city of Turkey and Kaaba in Mecca over a spherical triangle
+5
Qibla direction as a great circle arc between Afyonkarahisar city of Turkey and Kaaba in Mecca over a spherical triangle
… 
Figures - available from: Archive for History of Exact Sciences
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
A preview of this full-text is provided by Springer Nature.
Learn more
Content available from Archive for History of Exact Sciences
This content is subject to copyright. Terms and conditions apply.
Archive for History of Exact Sciences (2018) 72:565–590
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00407-018-0215-1
The astronomical orientation of the historical Grand
mosques in Anatolia (Turkey)
Mustafa Yilmaz1·Ibrahim Tiryakioglu1
Received: 15 March 2018 / Published online: 17 September 2018
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
In the ancient civilizations, the sky has been observed in order to understand the
motions of the celestial bodies above the horizon. The study of faiths and practices
dealing with the sky in the past has been attributed to the sun, the moon, and the
prominent stars. The alignment and orientation of constructions to significant celes-
tial objects were a common practice. The orientation was an important component of
the religious structure design. Religious buildings often have an intentional orienta-
tion to fix the praying direction. In Islam, a sacred direction (Qibla) towards Kaaba
located in the courtyard in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca has been used for praying and
fulfilling varied ritual tasks. Therefore, the mosques had then to orientate towards the
Qibla direction, being designated by a focal niche in the Qibla-wall, wherever they
were built on Earth. In this study, the orientations of the historical Grand mosques
in Turkey are surveyed with regard to the folk astronomy derived from pre-Islamic
Arabian sources, early traditions of the Islamic period, and geometric-trigonometric
computation in mathematical astronomy inherited and developed mostly from Greek
sources according to the Islamic view of the World geography.
1 Introduction
Ancient civilizations had the benefit of real dark night skies and experienced the full
spectacle of the starry heavens. Our ancestors all around the World would gaze up
at this celestial environment and became intimately familiar with the solar, lunar,
and stellar movements as they revolved across their vision while their sight always
limited by the distant horizon. Throughout various ancient cultures, the movements of
Communicated by George Saliba.
BMustafa Yilmaz
mustafayilmaz@aku.edu.tr
1Department of Geomatics, Faculty of Engineering, Afyon Kocatepe
University, 03200 Afyonkarahisar, Turkey
123
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... The prayer start times and use of the mosque were determined according to the astronomic time [46]. In the present study, six scenarios based on different UHS operating strategies that were determined according to prayer times were devised to observe the possibilities of reducing CO 2 emissions caused by fuel consumption (Tables 5 and 6). ...
View
INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL COMFORT AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY IN MOSQUES AND EVALUATION OF HEATING AND COOLING STRATEGIES FOR ENERGY CONSUMPTION REDUCTION
Thesis
  • Jun 2023
The increasing number of intermittently used temples, such as mosques, should not be overlooked in terms of their energy consumption although the share of continuously occupied spaces such as homes, offices, and workplaces in energy consumption is high. In this thesis study, the existing thermal comfort, indoor air quality, and energy consumption of Hacı Hasan Sert Mosque, representing a typical medium-scale neighborhood mosque in Yalova/Turkey, were experimentally investigated under different climatic conditions and occupancy rates during Friday, Eid, Tarawih, and regular daily prayers. Furthermore, scenarios incorporating HVAC system usage strategies aimed at achieving the current comfort conditions with reduced energy consumption were formed and simulated. The study aimed to determine the most healthy and comfortable conditions in the mosque with less energy consumption depending on the HVAC system's operational strategy and occupancy rates. Experimental investigations revealed that the increase in the number of congregants and the duration of mosque usage had positive effects on thermal comfort during winter months but negative effects during summer months. The indoor CO2 concentration increased up to 3500 ppm when the windows were closed during high occupancy. The lowest and highest indoor PM concentrations were observed after morning and night prayers, respectively. Therefore, it was determined that the most appropriate time for carpet sweeping was after the morning prayer. It was found that the measures taken during the Covid-19 pandemic period improved the comfort conditions, indoor air quality, and energy consumption in the mosque. Simulation studies demonstrated that turning off the underfloor heating system between night - morning prayers and between morning - noon prayers resulted in up to 30% fuel savings. In summer months, the use of air conditioning units for cooling according to the congregation' preferences, as per the formed scenarios, led to lower electricity consumption and CO2 emissions compared to experimental conditions.
View
Secular variation of magnetic declination for the past 500 years from Empire to Republic in Anatolia
Article
  • Jul 2022
  • PHYS EARTH PLANET IN
Seydi Ali Reis first mentioned the declination angle in his book titled Kitab-ı Muhit in 1554. Kitab-ı Cihannüma (1654), Füyuzat-i Mıknatisiye (1731), and Mârifetname (1757) gave the magnetic declination angle values in Anatolia. We have compiled magnetic declination data from 1500 to the present day in Anatolia and Istanbul. The plot of the magnetic declination angle was drawn for the first time using historical data between 1500 and 1947 for Istanbul. Three new magnetic declination maps for the periods of 1909–1910, 1970 and 2009 were produced for Turkey. The annual change map based on the data of 1970 and 2009 is also given for whole Turkey. The agonic line extending in NW-SE direction between Sinop and Antep divides Anatolia into two regions in 1910. The mean declination values obtained from qibla direction measurements made by the Presidency of Religious Affairs in all mosques give 3.11° E for 1970 and 4.74° E for 2009 in Turkey.
View
Finding the qibla by the sun and stars - A survey of the sources for Islamic sacred geography
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2019
Muslim astronomers from the 9th century to the 20th century calculated the qibla or local direction to Mecca from the available geographical data using trigonometric fomulae. But there was another tradition of determining the qibla which began in the 7th century and lasted over a millennium. This was based on the notion of associating different parts of the world with segments of the perimeter of the Kaaba, and using the orientation of those segments to determine the qibla in the associated regions. Since the rectangular base of the Kaaba is astronomically aligned, the qiblas in different regions were defined by astronomical risings and settings. Some 50-odd medieval Islamic sources are identified here, most for the first time, dealing with this tradition which we call “Islamic sacred geography”.
View
The enigmatic orientation of the Grand Mosque of Cordoba
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2019
The curious orientation of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba has troubled investigators for almost a century. Now, thanks to archaeological work in the suburb of Roman Corduba named Colonia Patricia, it is clear that the Mosque is aligned with the former orthogonal street-plan of the suburb. Further, thanks to the discovery over the past few decades of an entire corpus of manuscripts relating to the sacred geography of Islam and the determination of the qibla by means of astronomical horizon phenomena, it is clear that the qibla-axis of the Mosque is parallel to the main axis of the astronomically-aligned rectangular base of the Kaaba in Mecca. This corresponds to what is related in the texts on sacred geography: the qibla of al-Andalus is the direction one faces when standing in front of the NW wall of the Kaaba. This is not the direction for the qibla advocated by Andalusî scientists, but that is another matter.
View
View
King: The Petra fallacy The Petra fallacy - Early mosques do face the Sacred Kaaba in Mecca but Dan Gibson doesn't know how / Comparing historical orientations with modern directions can lead to false results
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2018
Dan Gibson claims that early mosques face Petra rather than Mecca. But he compares the mosque orientations with MODERN directions of Petra and Mecca. He does not realise that historical qibla directions cannot be the same as modern qibla directions. In fact, the easiest mosque orientations were not calculated at all, but relied on astronomical horizon phenomena, not least because the Kaaba itself is astronomically aligned.
View
View
The enigmatic orientation of the Grand Mosque of Cordoba
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2019
The curious orientation of the Grand Mosque in Cordoba has troubled investigators for almost a century. Now, thanks to archaeological work in the suburb of Roman Corduba named Colonia Patricia, it is clear that the Mosque is aligned with the former orthogonal street-plan of the suburb. Further, thanks to the discovery over the past few decades of an entire corpus of manuscripts relating to the sacred geography of Islam and the determination of the qibla by means of astronomical horizon phenomena, it is clear that the qibla-axis of the Mosque is parallel to the main axis of the astronomically-aligned rectangular base of the Kaaba in Mecca. This corresponds to what is related in the texts on sacred geography: the qibla of al-Andalus is the direction one faces when standing in front of the NW wall of the Kaaba. This is not the direction for the qibla advocated by Andalusî scientists, but that is another matter.
View
View
View
View
View
Science and Islam
Book
  • Jan 2007
Science and Islamprovides a detailed account of the relationship between Islam and science from the emergence of the Islamic scientific tradition in the eighth century to the present time. This relationship has gone through three distinct phases. The first phase began with the emergence of science in the Islamic civilization in the eighth century and ended with the rise of modern science in the West; the second period is characterized by the arrival of modern science in the Muslim world, most of which at that time was under colonial occupation; and the third period, which began around 1950, is characterized by a more mature approach to the major questions that modern science has posed for all religious traditions. Based on primary sources, the book presents a panorama of Islamic views on some of the major issues in the current science and religion discourse. Written in accessible language,Science and Islamis an authentic account of the multi-faceted and complex issues that arise at the interface of Islamic intellectual tradition and science. Rich in historical details, the book is a fascinating survey of the interaction of Islamic beliefs with the enterprise of science.
View
View
The sacred direction in Islam: A study of the interaction of religion and science in the middle ages
Article
  • Jan 1985
  • INTERDISCIPL SCI REV
In Islam the sacred direction is towards Mecca, or more precisely, towards the sacred Kaaba in Mecca. Muslims face this direction in prayer and during various other ritual acts. Muslim astronomers from the 9th century onwards dealt with the determination of the qibla, as the sacred direction is called in Arabic. They treated it as a problem of mathematical geography and they produced highly sophisticated trigonometric and geometric solutions. They even compiled tables displaying the qibla as an angle to the local meridian for each degree of latitude and longitude difference from Mecca. But these were not the only means used for finding the qibla, a fact immediately apparent from the orientation of medieval mosques, which in general do not face Mecca as they are supposed to. This paper addresses the question: what means were used in practice? The answer is contained in texts on folk astronomy, in which celestial phenomena are discussed without recourse to theory or computation, and texts on the sacred law, in which the qibla is always discussed because of its fundamental importance in Islamic practice. In these sources, astronomical risings and settings were advocated for the qibla. The reason for using astronomical horizon phenomena to face the Kaaba was that the Kaaba itself is astronomically aligned, a fact known in the medieval period but only rediscovered a few years ago. These findings cast new light on the origin of the Kaaba, and the author suggests that it may have been built originally as an architectural representation of an early Arab cosmology.
View
View
Which way is Jerusalem? Which way is Mecca? The direction-facing problem in religion and geography
Article
  • Jan 2002
Determining the direction in which to face another location on the globe is a problem with significant social and religious meaning, and one with a rich and interesting history in the Western world. Yet a fully satisfying geographic solution to this problem is hindered by our intuitive perception of the world as a flat surface-where a "straight" path (1) is the shortest distance, and (2) maintains a constant angle. On a curved surface, however, only one of these two properties can be satisfied: the first, by a great circle; the second, by a rhumb line. These two solutions are analyzed, compared, and applied to the direction-facing problem.
View