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Rahman, Anisur and Chattopadhyay, Gopinath (2007) Soil Factors Behind
Inground Decay of Timber Poles : Testing and Interpretation of Results. IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery 22(3):pp. 1897-1903.
© Copyright 2007 IEEE
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007 1897
Soil Factors Behind Inground Decay of Timber
Poles: Testing and Interpretation of Results
Anisur Rahman and Gopinath Chattopadhyay
Abstract—Inground decay is a major problem associated with
the reliability and safety of timber poles. In modeling inground
decay for effective maintenance strategies for timber poles, it is im-
portant to identify soil factors that are influential to the inground
decay. This paper investigates some of the important influential soil
factors and testing methods for those factors.
Index Terms—Inground decay, maintenance, soil factors, timber
poles.
I. INTRODUCTION
T
IMBER POLES are used in the electricity supply and
telecommunications in many parts of the world.
The function of timber pole is to support the overhead
lines and the conductors. Because of their high strength per
unit weight, low cost, excellent durability (service life varies
generally from 25 to 50 years or even more [1]), timber poles
are popular throughout the world. Studies on timber pole
management and simulation of replacement of poles for power
delivery could be found in [2] and [3]. In Australia, more
than 5.3 million timber poles are being used by the utility
sector. This represents an investment of around AU$12 billion
with replacement costs variously stated to be anything from
AU$1500–2500 per pole [4].
Reliability of timber pole is important because breakdown or
failure of any one or more of these poles can cause a huge loss
to electricity supply organizations. These losses may be revenue
loss, loss of property or even loss of life. Reliability and safety
of these components depends on multiple factors such as age,
loads on poles, durability of timber material and environmental
factors such as climatic condition (cyclic wetting and drying,
snowfall, humidity and temperature of the surrounding environ-
ment are the cause of most of the above ground decay), soil char-
acteristics (moisture and clay contents, pH value and chemical
composition are causing most of the inground decay). In Aus-
tralia, a substantial number of failures of these poles are due to
the decrease in peripheral dimensions at or below ground level
and loss of strength due to inground decay. Rotting of fibers
(at or below ground level) from center to outward, or outward
to centre, due to fungal and insect (termite) attack is a signif-
icant problem in the south eastern coastal areas [5]. The fac-
Manuscript received October 25, 2005; revised March 1, 2006. This work was
supported by the Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering, Queensland
University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. Paper no. TPWRD-00615-2005.
The authors are with the School of Engineering System, Queensland Univer-
sity of Technology, Brisbane 4000, Australia (e-mail: a2.rahman@qut.edu.au;
g.chattopadhyay@qut.edu.au).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.893605
tors causing inground decay of poles must be taken into account
when evaluating new or in-service poles.
The strength of a timber pole can be retained to a certain ex-
tent by introducing effective maintenance strategies and man-
aging the influential factors [5]. In order to do so, it is impor-
tant to first identify the influential soil factors causing inground
decay, quantify these wherever possible and develop relation-
ship models to predict inground decay. Although the climate has
significant effect on the above ground decay of timber poles, in
this paper we focus our attention only on the soil factors causing
inground decay of timber poles since only limited research work
has so far carried out in this area.
This paper identifies soil variables influential to the inground
decay of timber poles and develops mechanism for measuring
these variables. Section II investigates possible influential soil
factors; Section III discusses the procedure for soil sampling;
Section IV deals with the development of different testing
methods. In Section V, failure of timber poles according to
Australian Standard is defined. Section VI analyses soil data
to develop relationship models of soil variables for inground
decay; contribution and scope for future research is discussed
in Section VII.
II. I
NVESTIGATION AND
IDENTIFICATION
OF INFLUENTIAL
SOIL FACTORS
The following soil factors were identified after several dis-
cussions with industries based on their initial findings of failure
rate due to inground decay.
Moisture Content: High moisture content in the soil increases
the probability of biological attack. It is significant where the
moisture content is more than 20%. In clayey soils, the moisture
and chemicals are trapped inside the soil and cause algae, moss,
and mould to grow which attack the timber, thereby causing
faster deterioration. On the other hand, by virtue of their per-
meability, cohesion-less sandy soils allow drainage and reduce
moisture content. Fiber saturation occurs when moisture con-
tent reaches around 30% [6].
Bulk Density: The mass of a unit volume of soil, generally
expressed in
. The volume includes both solids and pores.
Thus, soils that are light and porous will have low bulk densities,
while heavy or compact soils will have high bulk densities.
pH Value: Presence of excessive acidity or alkalinity of
groundwater in soils can be quantified by the pH value of the
ground water.
Salinity: Presence of chloride, sulfate, carbonates or magne-
sium salts in soil are the indication of salinity. High salinity can
cause decay of the timber [7]. A buildup of salts can also be
threat to the foundation.
0885-8977/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
1898 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
Temperature: The strength of timber pole is inversely propor-
tional to the temperature of the surrounding soil. An increase in
temperature will result in decreased strength of the pole. Sea-
sonal changes also influence cyclic stresses on the pole.
Climate: Climate has influence on soil condition and proper-
ties since the moisture content and temperature of soils changes
with climate.
Electrical Conductivity: Electrical conductivity can be used
to determinethe soluble salts in the extract and hence soil salinity.
Chemical Composition: The presence of kaolin, quartz, and
other chemicals may have an effect on inground decay.
Effectiveness of Preservatives: Poles in the U.S. and most of
the countries are treated now a days with preservatives to pro-
vide a protective shell to resist from fungi and insects. However,
this protection diminishes over time, permitting degradation of
the outer surface, typically by the action of the soft rot, and also
degradation of the internal cells. According to Australian Stan-
dard AS 2209-1994, hardwood poles are preferred in Australia
because of their natural strength. In Australia, 14 different eu-
calypts have been used. The Australian Standard allows durable
Class 1 and 2 species to be used for poles that are not full length
preservative treated.
III. S
OIL SAMPLING
Power supply timber poles are spread over a wide range of
areas and soil conditions and compositions vary from place to
place. Foliente et al. [8] have grouped Australian land into four
inground decay hazard zones. A (lowest decay hazard rate), B,
C, and D (highest decay hazard rate) on the basis of intensity of
decay of timber due to ground condition. Their studies showed
that eastern coastal areas of Queensland and NSW in Australia
have the high decay hazard rate. For this study the soil data
of different suburbs in Brisbane and the failure rates of timber
poles were collected. Suburbs in Brisbane with high replace-
ment rate such as Wynnum, Lota and Manly and Caboolture,
and suburbs with less replacement rate such as Chelmer and
Holland Park were selected. The soil samples were collected
around poles that have failed.
A. Equipment and Instruments Used in Sampling and Testing
Fig. 1 presents some of the essential equipment and instru-
ments used for traditional soil sampling and testing. A brief de-
scription of these equipment and instruments is given as follows:
• 50- or 76-mm hand auger with an extension rod, sample
bags, and 30 m tape for soil sample collection;
• sample extruder, weigh balance, scale and ruler (Fig. 1);
• electronic tester for measuring PH value, salinity and
conductivity—A TPS WP-81 electronic Ph–Cod-salinity
meter;
• compact gauge for soil compactness;
• moisture can and oven with temperature control to deter-
mine moisture content;
• volumetric flask, 250 ml or 500 ml, vacuum pump and as-
pirators for supplying vacuum, mortar and pestle, balance
(0.1 g), de-aired, temperature-stabilized water for determi-
nation of specific gravity of soil;
• X-ray spectroscopy.
Fig. 1. Equipment and instruments used for traditional soil sampling and
testing. (a) Hand augar and sample extractor with accessories. (b) Sample
mould. (c) Sample extruder. (d) Nata weigh balance. (e) Drying oven.
B. Sample Collection
• Australian standards [9] specify the selection of sites at
random.
• Boundaries of test areas from failed pole data were deter-
mined and recorded.
• Length (X) and width (Y) of the area and number of sites
to be sampled were decided.
• For each site a random number was selected to multiply it
with the length of the area to obtain a longitudinal distance
from the start point.
• Another random number was used to obtain a lateral dis-
tance from the datum edge.
• The intersection of the above two steps defined the location
of the site. Three random numbers were selected to decide
sample points for each recently replaced pole within this
area. Samples were taken from 0.6 m below the ground
and within 1–1.5 m range from the pole.
Samples were obtained by using a soil sampler tube (see
Fig. 2 for sampling procedure) and immediately covering it
with a layer of wax in order to protect it from the external
interference [10]. As satisfactory storage to maintain natural
properties of soil samples is difficult, it is recommended to
inspect and test the samples at the sites or immediately after
their arrival at the laboratory. But when the sample sites are
far away from the testing laboratory or further studies are
needed, then storage is essential. Each collected sample should
have a label with a tag for identification, location of sampling,
sampling date and type of soil.
IV. S
OIL TESTING
Both “On the site” and “Off the site” (in the laboratories)
tests were carried out to analyze each sample’s physical and
chemical properties that are important to identify the influential
soil factors and their severity.
A. On the Site Testing
For pH value, conductivity and salinity of the sample testing:
a WP 81-pH, salinity and conductivity meter TPS (Fig. 3) was
used. Solutions were prepared by mixing one part by vol. of
soil and five parts by volume of distilled water. pH of soil is
measured by dipping the probe of the electronic pH tester into
RAHMAN AND CHATTOPADHYAY: SOIL FACTORS BEHIND INGROUND DECAY 1899
Fig. 2. Procedures for sample collection and measuring the depth of drill. (a).
Drilling with the augar. (b) Sample extraction.
Fig. 3. WP 81-pH, salinity, and conductivity meter.
the prepared solution. Similarly, conductivity and salinity are
determined by using specified probes.
B. Laboratory Testing
1) Moisture Content: The percentages of moisture content
was estimated by subtracting the final weight of the sample after
being dried from the initial weight and dividing it by the initial
weight and then multiplying by 100 as given as follows:
moisture content
where and are the initial and final wt. of the sample.
Fig. 4. S4 explorer X-ray Defractometer (Bruker AXS, Inc.).
2) Soil Compactness: Estimated by determining the bulk
density. Bulk density
is given by
where
where , , , and are the mass, volume, diameter, and height
of the cylindrical sample, respectively.
3) Chemical Composition: Soil samples were analyzed by
X-Ray Powder Diffractometry (see Fig. 4) at the chemical
laboratory.
Clay analysis:
• Soil samples were put in a container and distilled water was
added to make a solution.
• The mixture is fractionized by using ultrasonic equipment
(Branson Sonics) to break up the clay in the soil.
• The mixture is then left for settlement for 10 to 15 min for
analyzing the clay content of the particular location.
Chemical analysis:
• The samples are powdered to less than 100
m using a
swing mill.
• 2.7 g of soil are used to mix with 0.3 g. of corundum. The
corundum is used to determine the percentages of mineral
compositions for the test.
• The mixture is then further broken down to 5
in the
crushing lab.
• The final samples are then poured into a beaker and placed
in the oven for about 16 h to dry it. The dried powdered
sample from the beaker is then used for analysis.
• When dried, it is put on an X-ray defractometer (see Fig. 4)
for chemical composition analysis.
V. T
IMBER POLE FAILURE
According to the Australian Standard for timber pole spec-
ification, AS 2209-1994, the design life of a timber pole is
1900 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
TABLE I
S
UMMARY OF
SOIL
TEST
RESULT
TABLE II
S
UMMARY OF
CHEMICAL
ANALYSIS
the period over which a timber pole is required to perform its
designated functions. The design life for timber poles from AS
1720.2-1990 Clause 4.17 is up to 50 years for untreated timber
of durability class 1. This life of a pole may be shortened due
to decay causing strength degradation, which mostly occurs
within a region extending about 460 mm above and 460 mm
below the ground line. This decay of wood materials is exten-
sive in the presence of oxygen and moisture, as this condition
enables metabolic activity and growth of aerobic micro-organ-
isms, such as bacteria, fungi, and insects. Biological decay can
extend where the moisture content is more than 20% [6]. An
in-service pole is said to be failed or discarded when it failed to
conform to the minimum requirements of AS 2209-1994 due
to decay above or below ground level. In addition, pole failure
may also be due to reasons other than decay, for example,
storms, motor accidents, road realignment and loads due to
pole mounted equipment. In this research, we only consider the
pole failures due to inground decay. The pole failure data used
here were collected from the electricity supply and distribution
company at Brisbane, Australia. These are taken from the pole
replacement data due to poles fallen over and identified weak
during inspection.
VI. R
ESULTS OF SOIL TEST
A summary of the test result are presented in Table I (for
physical properties) and Table II (chemical analysis). These data
were then analyzed with the failure data of the respective sub-
urbs to determine the effects of identified soil factors on the
failure or decay process of timber pole.
Fig. 5. Relationship of the moisture content of soil with the pole failure rate.
A. Data Analysis
Table I represents the mean value of each of the physical prop-
erties of soil for suburbs of Brisbane
1) Moisture Content: The percentage of moisture content
in the soil depends on the rain falls, humidity, and tempera-
ture of the air and drainage. Meteorological conditions of the
sampling site are recorded during sample collection. As the cli-
mate changes over seasons, it was necessary to do soil sam-
pling in different seasons. Table I shows that the moisture con-
tent of the soil around the poles in Wynnum, Lotta, and Manly
suburbs ranged from 5% to 20% with mean moisture content
13.5%. Similarly, the average moisture contents of Caboolture,
Holland Park and Chelmer were found to be 16.73%, 11.58%,
and 10.88%, respectively. The average service life of timber in
Caboolture, Wynnum, Holland Park, and Chelmer are 22, 27,
32, and 37 years, respectively. Estimated failure rates of these
suburbs are 0.045, 0.037, 0.031, and 0.027, respectively. A rela-
tionship model of failure rate with soil moisture content is pre-
sented in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 shows that the moisture content of the surrounding soil
has an influence over the timber pole failure due to the inground
decay process. The failure rate increases with the moisture con-
tent of the soil.
Moisture is a problem for the stiffness of rail tracts and road
bases. Geocomposite is used in the subbase of the rail track to
drain out water from the soil. High flow triplanar geocomposite
is engineered for long term drainage of water from the base soil.
Similar techniques can be used in draining out water from the
soil surrounding the timber poles in clayey soil.
2) pH Value: The pH values of the collected samples were
found to be between 4 and 7 with a mean of 5.88, in Wynnum,
Lota, and Mansfield suburbs which indicates a slightly acidic
soil. The average pH value of soil samples collected from Ca-
boolture, Holland Park, and Chelmer were 5.143, 6.12 and 6.01,
respectively, which is also slightly acidic. The effect of acidity
or alkalinity of soil on the failure rate of timber pole is analyzed
and presented in the Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 exhibits that the decay or failure rate of a timber pole
is related to the acidity of the surrounding soil. The failure rate
increases slightly with the increase of soil acidity. This is con-
sistent with the findings of Charman and Murphy [11] that the
soil acidity problem appears to have occurred when the pH value
RAHMAN AND CHATTOPADHYAY: SOIL FACTORS BEHIND INGROUND DECAY 1901
Fig. 6. pH of soil versus timber pole failure rate.
Fig. 7. Relationship model of bulk density and timber pole failure rate.
falls below 5.5 and at pH value less than 5.5, the soil can be toxic
to the timber component and can affect the buried portion of the
timber material.
Liming (application of “Fluid Lime” or “Liquid Lime”)
could be a probable solution to reduce harmful acidic condi-
tions which develop in soils around the timber poles in the
identified acid hazard areas. Generally applying lime is the
most practical way of reversing soil acidification. Monitoring
pH of the soil around the pole is recommended every 3 to 5
years, or more frequently if problems develop. If pH continues
to decline below 6.0, lime additions may be needed.
3) Bulk Density: Bulk density of the samples collected
from Wynnum, Lota and Mansfield were in the range 1.5 to
2.1
with mean of 1.86 . It is consistent with
Charman and Murphy’s findings. The mean of bulk density of
soil in other selected suburbs Caboolture, Holland Park, and
Chelmer are recorded 1.764
, 2.54 , and 2.66
respectively. These values indicate a clear trend of
decreasing of failure rate with the increase of bulk density. The
trend is shown in Fig. 7.
Analysis shows that the bulk density of soil has some effects
on the failure rate of timber poles. It has an effect on drainage
and is related to moisture trapped during the hot season. Soil
compaction changes pore space size, distribution, and soil
strength. As the pore space is decreased within a soil, the bulk
Fig. 8. Relationship model of salinity and timber pole failure rate.
Fig. 9. Relationship model of electrical conductivity and timber pole failure
rate.
density is increased. High soil compaction results in high bulk
density where soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore
space, and heavily compacted soils contain few large pores and
water traps inside the soil surrounding the pole. A periodic
compaction of soil around the pole can play an important role
in increasing the bulk density.
4) Salinity: The mean salinity of coastal suburbs Wynnum,
Lota and Mansfield are found 86.73 ppM and the mean salinity
of another coastal suburb Caboolture is recorded as 56.67 ppM.
The mean salinity of Chelmer and Holland Park are as 51.93 and
26.55 ppM, respectively. Fig. 8 shows a relationship of salinity
of soil with failure rate of timber poles. The figure shows that
there is an increased trend of failure rate of timber poles due to
inground decay with the increase of salinity of soil.
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) gypsum is being tested in
the Lockyer Valley (Queensland) to reclaim Australian salinic
and sodic soils. This could be explored for problems with soil
salinity.
5) Effect of Electrical Conductivity on the Failure/Decay:
The mean electrical conductivities of the collected samples are
101.91
in Chelmer, 54.07 in Holland park, 108.03 in
Wynnum and 123.91
in Caboolture. From Fig. 9 it is seen
1902 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 3, JULY 2007
Fig. 10. Relationship model of quartz and timber pole failure rate.
Fig. 11. Relationship model of Kaolin and timber pole failure rate.
that the failure rate of timber pole increases with the increase
of electrical conductivity. The relationship model of electrical
conductivity and timber pole failure rate can be seen in Fig. 9.
6) Chemical Analysis Result: Table II exhibits the summary
of chemical tests. The mean value of major chemicals and
failure rate of each of the suburbs are shown.
From Table II we see that Quartz (SiO2) and Kaolin
(Al2Si2O5(OH)4) are the two common ingredients present in
collected samples.
The average percentage by weight of quartz against failure
rate is analyzed in Fig. 10. This showed some relationship be-
tween failure rate of timber pole and the amount of quartz con-
tent. Failure rate decreases with the increase of quartz content
of the surrounding soil. We know that the sandy soil. Because
the high percentages of quartz content allows the soil to drain
water and keeps the soil less moist. This helps in preventing the
biological attack. This, in turn, allows a better decay condition
of timber materials.
The main factor of clay is the presence of Kaolin and Table II
and Fig. 11 show that Kaolin accelerates the inground decay
process. Because of its non-permeable property, Kaolin allows
more water to trap inside the soil that causes algae, moss, and
mould to grow and attack the in ground timber component,
and results in increased deterioration. The effect of Albite
((Na,Ca)Al(SiAl)308) and Amorphous on the decay/failure
rate is not clear.
VII. C
ONCLUSION
Inground decay is a major problem with timber poles widely
used in electricity and telecommunication industry. Soil factors
influential to inground decay were identified after analysis of
failure data from electricity supply industries. Higher failure
rate was observed in areas with clayey soils.
Sampling of soils from the identified areas and subsequent
analysis increased the understanding of decaying process of the
inground portion of timber poles. Testing methods for identifi-
cation of influential soil factors were developed.
The moisture content, pH value (acidity/alkalinity), bulk den-
sity, salinity and electrical conductivity showed influence over
inground decay of timber pole. It is also found that the chem-
ical composition of soil such as presence of Kaolin or Quartz has
some influence on the decaying process. This is due to the fact
that Kaolin allows more water to be trapped inside the soil. This
causes algae, moss and mould to grow and attack the inground
portion of timber poles. Findings of this research resulted in rec-
ommendation of different installation specifications to improve
drainage system in clayey soil areas. Other methods for correc-
tive measures include soil compaction and liming of soil where
needed.
Findings from this investigation can be useful in deciding in-
spection intervals, maintenance actions and replacement deci-
sions of timber poles, bridge footings and house stumps and
railway sleepers based on factors which include soil conditions.
R
EFERENCES
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RAHMAN AND CHATTOPADHYAY: SOIL FACTORS BEHIND INGROUND DECAY 1903
Anisur Rahman received the Master by Research
degree on modeling reliability and maintenance plans
for infrastructure components from Queensland Uni-
versity of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Australia, in
2003. He received the M.Sc. degree in engineering
management from QUT in 1999, where he is cur-
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree.
His research area includes mathematical mod-
eling, maintenance policies and cost analysis in
maintenance, reliability, and warranty. He has
published 10 articles in international journals and
conference proceedings.
Gopinath Chattopadhyay received the B.Eng.
degree from Calcutta University, India, in 1979, and
the Ph.D. degree in operations management from
the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia,
in 1999.
He is a Senior Lecturer and Coordinator of the
Master of Engineering Management Program in
the School of Engineering System, Queensland
University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia. His
research interests are stochastic modeling in the area
of product failure and degradation, reliability, and
maintenance cost analysis, life-cycle costing, risk analysis, warranty cost mod-
eling, and cost-benefit analysis of maintenance decisions for rail tracks. He has
published many papers in international journals and conference proceedings.
Dr. Chattopadhyay is a member of the editorial boards and reviewer for many
international journals. He is President of the Australian Society of Operations
Research (Qld. Branch) and Executive Committee Member of Maintenance En-
gineering Society of Australia. He is Secretary of the Asset Management and
Maintenance Research Program at Queensland University of Technology. He
is active in research projects under the Centre of Integrated Engineering Asset
Management and Centre of Railway Technologies research programs.
