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Objective:The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the partial hydrolysis of virgin coconut oil (VCO) on it's antibacterial activity. Methods:The VCO used in this study was the productof UD SinarNias. Hydrolysis was carried out by enzyme and sodium hydroxide. Enzymatic hydrolysis using lipozyme was conducted in four different incubation time namely, 3 hours, 6 hours, 9 hours and 12 hours. Alkaline hydrolysis preformed with 25%, 50% and 75% NaOH calculated from the saponification valueof coconut oil. Acidified hydrolyzed VCO was extracted with n-hexane. Recovered hydrolyzed products were mixed with water (5 g in water to make 10 ml) to form water in oil emulsion (w/o). Antibacterial activity test was conducted against bacteria Pseudomonasaeruginosa (ATCC 25619), Staphylococcusaureus (ATCC 29737), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 12228) and Propionibacterium acnes (ATCC 6918) by diffusion agar method using the paper disc of 6 mm in diameter. Antibacterial activity of hydrolyzed VCO was compared with tetracycline and ampicillin. Results: Un-hydrolyzed VCO did not show antibacterial activity but hydrolyzed oil did. The longer the incubation time and the higher the amount of NaOH used in the hydrolysis increased antibacterial activity. VCO hydrolyzed by enzyme was more effective than those hydrolyzed by sodium hydroxide. Hydrolyzed VCO were more effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa than other bacteria. Conclusions: Un-hydrolyzed VCO did not inhibit bacterial growth, while VCO after hydrolysis was found to have antibacterial activity. Hydrolyzed VCO by enzyme is more active asantibacterial than VCOhydrolyzed by NaOH. Tetracyclin and ampicillin were more active than those of hydrolyzed VCO.
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Research Article
ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF HYDROLYZED VIRGIN COCONUT OIL
Faculty of PharmacyUniversity of Sumatra Utara, MedanIndonesia 20155
Email: jansen@usu.ac.id
Received: 24January 2014, Revised and Accepted: 20February 2014
ABSTRACT
Objective:The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the partial hydrolysis of virgin coconut oil (VCO) on it’s antibacterial activity.
Methods:The VCO used in this study was the productof UD SinarNias. Hydrolysis was carried out by enzyme and sodium hydroxide. Enzymatic
hydrolysis using lipozyme was conducted in four different incubation time namely, 3 hours, 6 hours, 9 hours and 12 hours. Alkaline hydrolysis
preformed with 25%, 50% and 75% NaOH calculated from the saponification valueof coconut oil. Acidified hydrolyzed VCO was extracted with n-
hexane. Recovered hydrolyzed products were mixed with water (5 g in water to make 10 ml) to form water in oil emulsion ( w/o). Antibacterial
activity test was conducted against bacteria Pseudomonasaeruginosa (ATCC 25619), Staphylococcusaureus (ATCC 29737), Staphylococcus
epidermidis (ATCC 12228) and Propionibacterium acnes (ATCC 6918) by diffusion agar method using the paper disc of 6 mm in diameter.
Antibacterial activity of hydrolyzed VCO was compared with tetracycline and ampicillin.
Results: Un-hydrolyzed VCO did not show antibacterial activity but hydrolyzed oil did. The longer the incubation time and the higher the amount of
NaOH used in the hydrolysis increased antibacterial activity. VCO hydrolyzed by enzyme was more effective than those hydrolyz ed by sodium
hydroxide. Hydrolyzed VCO were more effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa than other bacteria.
Conclusions: Un-hydrolyzed VCO did not inhibit bacterial growth, while VCO after hydrolysis was found to have antibacterial activity. Hydrolyzed
VCO by enzyme is more active asantibacterial than VCOhydrolyzed by NaOH. Tetracyclin and ampicillin were more active than those of hydrolyzed
VCO.
Keywords:VCO, MCT, MCFA, lauric acid, monolaurin,partial hydrolysis, antibacterial
INTRODUCTION
Two kinds of oils can be obtained from coconut tree (Cocosnucifera)
they are coconut oil (copra oil) and virgin coconut oil (VCO). Coconut
oil is extracted from copra by heating process, while VCO is from
coconut milk prepared from fresh and mature coconut meat of
coconut fruit and processed at low temperature. Coconut oil and
VCO are different from most of the other common oils which are
usually composed of long chain fatty acids, while coconut oil is
composed of short and medium chain fatty acids, and therefore
classified as medium chain triglyceride (MCT). Coconut oil has been
used in health promotion and also in ailments prevention and
medication [1,2]. The quality of VCO is determined by medium chain
fatty acid (MCFA) content, especially lauric acid which is influenced
by variety and oil extraction process [3].
Antibiotic resistance is a consequence of the evolutionary adaptation
of bacteria due to the indiscriminate use of antibiotics. In addition, a
high cost and adverse effects are generally associated with synthetic
antibiotics. The emergence of antibiotic resistance in
microorganisms becomes a threat among medical community. There
is a continuous need to discover new antimicrobial compounds with
novel mechanisms of action for new infection diseases. Therefore,
researchers are turning their attention to antimicrobial of plant
origin. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic extract of citrus leaves on
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa was studied and
found to be active [4]. Essential oils of some selected plants was
evaluated for antibacterial activity on methicillin resistant
staphylococcus aureus, and found that essential oils of Clove and
Cinnamon to be more active against tested bacteria [5]. Evaluation of
antimicrobial activity of Pithecellobiumdulce pod pulp was
conducted and found to be potential bactericidal and fungicidal [6].
Potential of medication of coconut oil and coconut products was
discovered by Jon Kabara in the year of 1970s, who found that
coconut oil has antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal activities
exerted by free MCFAs and mainly by their monoglycerides
molecule, especially monolaurin[7,8].
VCO contains high lauric acid content (46-50%) attached to glycerol
backbone to form a triglyceride. In the human gastrointestinal
tract,triglycerides in VCO can be converted into free fatty acids
mainly lauric acid and monolurin which are active as antibacterial,
antiprotozoal, and antiviral components. Moreover, MCFAsare easily
absorbed into cells and then to mitochondria, increase metabolism,
and hence the cells work more efficiently to form new cells and
hence substitute damaged cells faster [3,8,9].
Antimicrobial activity is due to free fatty acids of medium chain and
their monoglycerides. Triglyceride and diglyceride are not effective
as antibacterial. Of the free fatty acids present in coconut oil, lauric
acid (C:12:0) is proven to be more active as antibacterial agent
compared to caprilic acid (C8:0), capric acid (C10:0), and myristic
acid (C14:0). Free fatty acids and their monoglycerides inactivate
bacteria by disrupting plasma membrane of lipid bilayer[7,10].
Antibacterial activity of free fatty acid or its monoglyceride has been
tested separately [7]. Combination or mixture of free fatty acidsand
their monoglycerides generated from coconut oil could be
synergistic in bacterial inactivation. To generate monoglyceride
from VCO can be done by enzymatic hydrolysis which is effective
specifically on sn-1 and sn-3 position. This specific enzyme can be
obtained from pancreas, Thermomyces lanuginose and
Mucormiehei[11]. Hydrolysis can also be done by saponification
reaction with alcoholic sodium or potassium hydroxide solution.
Saponification byNaOH with or above saponification value will
hydrolyze all triglycerides completely in to glycerol and free fatty
acids as soap [12,13]. However, hydrolysis using NaOH lower than
NaOHneeded for total hydrolysis (saponification value) would
partially hydrolyze oil into mixture of free fatty acids and their
diglyceride or monoglyceride derivatives depending on the amount
NaOH used. The aim of this study was to compare the influence of
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JANSEN SILALAHI*,YADE METRI PERMATA, EFFENDY DE LUX PUTRA
Jansenet al.
Asian J Pharm Clin Res, Vol 7, Suppl 2, 2014, 90-94
91
partial hydrolysis of VCO by enzymeand NaOH on their antimicrobial
activity.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Apparatus used including vortex (Bender,Germany), analytical
balance (Sartorius, Japan), hotplate (Heidelberg, Germany),
autoclave, oven, spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan), incubator,
reflux condenser, water bath, burette, and glass wares. All chemicals
were pro analysis grade product of E. Merck (Germany) including
potassium and sodium hydroxide, n-hexane, methanol, ethanol, tris-
hydroxymethylaminomethane, hydrochloric acid, calcium chloride,
anhydrous sodium sulfate, phenolphthalein (1% in ethanol) and
Lipozyme TL IM.
VCO used in this study was product of UD SinarNias. Culture media
used were Nutrient Agar(NA), Nutrien Broth (NB), and Mueller
Hinton Agar (MHA). Bacteria tested were Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(ATCC 25619), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 29737), Staphylococcus
epidermidis (ATCC 12228) and Propionibacterium acnes (ATCC
6918). Paper disc used was of Machereynagel with 6 mm in
diameter. Antibacterial activity of hydrolyzed VCO was compared
with those of tetracycline and ampicillin.
Reagents used were calcium chloride solution of 0.063 M, Tris-HCl
buffer solution with the pH of 8, HCl solution of 0.5 N, KOH of 0.5 N,
NaOHof 0.5 N, 1% phenolphthalein indicator solution. These
solutions prepared according to procedure described in Indonesian
Pharmacopeia [14]. Medium used were Nutrient Agar(NA), Nutrien
Broth (NB), and Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA). Preparation of these
media used as described in Difco Laboratory Manual [15].
Enzymatic Hydrolysis
Fifty (50) g of oil placed in an erlenmeyer of 250 ml to which 50 ml
water, 12.5 ml CaCl2of 0.063 M, 25 ml buffer solution Tris-HCl and
500 mg lipozyme were added. This mixture was stirred with
magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes to homogenize. Then it was allowed
to stand (incubated) for various length of time; 3, 6, 9, and 12 hrs at
temperature of 40 ± 0.5oC, and shaken the mixture for 10 minutes in
every one hour during incubation. After the hydrolysis was
completed, the mixture was transferred into separating funnel,
acidified with dilute HCl, extracted with 50 ml n-hexane resulted in
two separated layers [13,16]. The upper layer (n-hexane fraction)
was separated and called as filtrate I. The bottom layer was
extracted again with 50 ml n-hexane and separated as filtrate II.
These two filtrates were combined to which then 50 mg anhydrous
Na2SO4 added and allowed to stand for 15 minutes. It was then
evaporated on a water bath to dryness. The recovered hydrolyzed oil
was used in the antibacterial experiment after acid value was
determined.
Hydrolysis with Sodium hydroxide
Ten (10) g of oil placed in a 250 ml conical flask and 100 ml
methanolicNaOHof 0.5 N was added in to it. The flask was attached
with reflux condenser and heated. As the ethanol boiled, the flask
occasionally shaken till the fat completely saponified (~3 hours).
Solution allowed to cool and added 1 ml solution of 1%
phenolphthalein indicator, titrated with HClof 0.5 N till the red color
disappeared. Saponification value was calculated as the amount in
mg of NaOH needed for the saponification [12,13].
Partial hydrolysis of oil was performed with the same procedure as
described in saponification procedure but the amount of NaOHused
was lowerthan the amount of NaOHused in the total saponification
value. Fifty (50) g oil was weighed then added methanolicNaOH with
the amount of 25%, 50% and 75% from saponification value, and
hydrolysis procedure conducted as already described for 3 hrs. After
hydrolysis, then the mixture acidified with dilute HCl in order to
convert soap (sodium salt of fatty acids) into free fatty acids.
Acidified mixture was then shaken and extracted with 50 ml n-
hexane resulted in two separated layers. The upper layer (n-hexane
fraction) separated called as fraction I. The bottom layer shaken
with 50 ml n-hexane and allowed to stand for a while then hexane
fraction was taken as fraction II. The two fractions were combined
and dried by adding 50 mg anhydrous Na2SO4, allowed to stand for
15 minutes. Dehydrated hexane fraction was then heated on a water
bath to evaporate hexane, and dried hydrolyzed oil was then used
for acid value determination prior to antimicrobial test.
Acid Value Determination
Acid value determination was carried out for un-hydrolyzed VCO
and hydrolyzed oil. Five gram oil was transferred in to 200 ml
erlenmeyer, added 25 ml neutralized ethanol of 95%, then heated
for ten minutes on a water bath and occasionally shaken. This
solution then titrated with KOH of 0.1 N using phenolphthalein
indicator solution. Acid value of the oil was calculated [12].
Note:
A= the amount of ml KOH for titration
N = normality of KOH solution
W= weight of oil (g)
Antibacterial Activity Test
Bacterial inoculum was prepared by suspending bacterial colony in
Nutrient Broth Media solution and turbidity was measured at 580
nm to have transmittance of 25% (bacterial concentration is
106cfu/ml). Antibacterial activity test of VCO and hydrolyzed
VCOwas conducted and the results compared with tetracyclineand
ampicillin.The volume of 0.1 ml bacterial inoculum was mixed with
15 ml MHA in a petri dish, allowed to stand until the media
solidified. Tested material was prepared as an emulsion by mixing
VCO and hydrolyzed VCO in water at the same amount of sterile
distilled water (5 g oil mixed with water to 10 ml, concentration was
500 mg/ml). Paper disc was then dipped in the emulsion for 15
minutes and then incubated in prepared media at 36 - 37oC for 24
hours. Antibacterial activity was determined by measuring diameter
of transparent area around the paper disc (zone of inhibition).The
concentration of the tetracyclin and ampicillin tested were prepared
in 5 mg/ml, 1 mg/ml and 0.1 mg/ml. The test was conducted in
three replicates [14,17].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Acid value of VCO and hydrolyzed VCO
Partial hydrolysis of VCO resulted in the generation of free fatty
acids in hydrolyzed VCO, which was measured by acid value. Acid
value of VCO and VCO partially hydrolyzed by NaOH and enzyme is
presented in Table 1.
Tabel 1: Acid value of hydrolyzed virgin coconut oil
Hydrolysis
method
Incubation
time and
degree of
saponification
Acid values (n = 3)
(mg KOH/g oil)
Un-hydrolyzed
-
0.74 ± 0.153
Enzymatic
3 hour
72.02 ± 0.517
6 hour
79.05 ± 3.405
9 hour
108.08 ± 0.845
12 hour
150.88 ± 0.818
Alkaline
hydrolysis
The percentage
ofNaOHrelative
to
saponification
value
25 %
68.15 ± 0.483
50 %
133.87 ± 0.796
75 %
199.77 ± 2.575
From Table 1 can be seen that the acid value of VCO increased after
hydrolysis by enzyme and NaOH. The longer the incubation period in
enzymatic hydrolysis and the higher the amount of NaOH used in the
hydrolysis the higher the acid value.Acid value exerted by NaOH75%
Jansenet al.
Asian J Pharm Clin Res, Vol 7, Suppl 2, 2014, 90-94
92
was higher than that by enzymatic hydrolysis with incubation for 12
h. Enzymatic hydrolysis of a triglyceride molecule resulted in 2 fatty
acid molecules and 1 molecule of 2-monoglyceride, while partial
hydrolysis by alkaline was difficult to predict [7,13,19].
Zonesof Inhibition by VCO and Partially Hydrolyzed VCO on
Tested Bacteria
Typical zonesof inhibition to evaluate the antibacterial activities by
measuring diameter of paper disc in agar media of different
hydrolyzed products are presented in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1:Antibacterial activities shown by zones of inhibition by
VCO, hydrolyzed VCO compared with tetracyclin and
ampicillin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Note: (A) Zone of inhibition by VCO and hydrolyzed VCO by NaOH;
(B) zone of inhibition by VCO and hydrolyzed VCO by enzyme; (C)
zone inhibition by ampicillin; (D) zone of inhibition by tetracycline.
Zones of Inhibition of VCO hydrolyzed by enzyme and alkaline
(NaOH) are presented in Table 2 and Table 3.Bacterial inactivation
by enzymatic hydrolysis for 12 hours and that by alkaline hydrolysis
(75%) were compared with those of tetracycline and ampicillin
(Table 4).
Table 2: Antibacterial activityof VCO hydrolyzed by enzyme
Tested
bacteria
Antibacterial activity of Hydrolyzed VCO by
enzyme at different incubation time shown by
zones of inhibition (mm)
9 hours
12 hours
P.
aeruginos
a
12.60±0.27
8a
13.43±0.20
8a
S. aureus
10.55±0.15
0
11.28±0.36
2a
S.
epidermid
is
10.65±0.47
7a
10.65±0.32
8a
P.acnes
10.13±0.68
1
10.08±0.46
5
Notea)Zonesof inhibition is significantly difference (P<0.05)
compared with hydrolyzed by enzyme for 3 hours of incubation.
Table 3: Antibacterial activityof VCO hydrolyzed by NaOH
Tested
bacteria
Antibacterial activity of hydrolyzed VCO
byNaOHat different percentage relative to total
saponification value shown by zonesof inhibition
(mm)
25%
50%
75%
P.
aeruginosa
9.87±0.881
10.18±1.056
11.35±1.039
S. aureus
9.20±0.409
9.03±0.029
10.00±0.229b
S.
epidermidis
8.78±0.569
9.53±0.161
11.20±0.397b
P.acnes
9.18±0.808
9.83±0.382
10.53±0.161b
Note:b)Zone of inhibition is significantly difference (P<0.05)
compared with hydrolyzed by NaOH at 25% of saponification
value.Negative antibacterial activity indicated by 6 mm in diameter.
Table 4: Bacterial inhibition of hydrolyzed VCO and antibiotic
tetracycline and ampicillin against tested bacteria
Tested
bacteria
Zones of Inhibition (mm)
Hydrolyzed VCO
(500 mg/ml)
Antibiotic
(mg/ml)
Enzymati
c
(12
hours)
Saponificati
on (75%)
Tetracycli
n
(0.1)
Ampicilli
n
(5)
P.
aeruginos
a
13.43±0.2
08
11.35±1.039
15.90±0.3
91
-
S. aureus
11.28±0.3
62
10.00±0.229
9.15±0.26
5
11.45±0.5
22
S.
epidermi
dis
10.65±0.3
28
11.20±0.397
20.95±0.2
29
10.80±0.2
90
P.acnes
10.08±0.4
65
10.53±0.161
14.15±0.3
12
24.25±0.3
60
Note:(-)zone of inhibition is zero (if diameter is 6 mm)
Hydrolysis of VCO, either by enzyme or NaOH induced antibacterial
activity, but enzymatic hydrolysis was more inductive than by
alkaline hydrolysis. Enzymatic hydrolysis resulted in the formation
of a mixture containing free fatty acids, monolaurin, and
triglycerides depending on the incubation time. The composition
ofoil after alkaline hydrolysis (partial hydrolysis) would be
composed of free fatty acids, monoglycerides, diglyceridesand/or
un-hydrolyzed triglycerides depending on the amount of NaOH used.
The most potential antibacterial activity of MCFA exerted by free
fatty acid and monoglycerides which may inactivate bacteriaby
disrupting microbial plasma membraneof lipid bilayer. Of the many
saturated fatty acids, lauric acid (C:12) shown to be the most active
as antibacterial compared to caprilic(C8:0), carpric(C10:0), and
myristicacid (C14:0) [7,10,18].
In this study, VCO did not show to have antibacterial activity on
tested bacteria, because it contained small amount of free fatty acid
and there was no monolaurin present.On the other hand, a study
showed that VCO without hydrolysis was effective on Pseudomonas
aeruginosaandStaphylococcus aureus, using glycerin as solvent
[20].Bacterial growth inhibition by hydrolyzed VCO was found to be
more active against gram negative Pseudomonas aeruginosathan
gram positive Staphylococcus aureus. The inhibition
ofStaphylococcus epidermidis, was found to be higher by VCO
hydrolyzed by alkaline than that by enzyme, but antibacterial
activity was very low against Propionibacterium acnes.
The evaluation of inhibition can be classified into three categories
based on the diameter of zones of inhibition; very active (above 11
mm), medium activity (active) (between 6-11 mm), while non-active
(6 mm).According to this criterion, un-hydrolyzed VCO was not
active as antimicrobial, where as hydrolyzed VCO by enzyme for 12
hours and by alkaline of 75% were very active since the diameter of
zones of inhibition were above 11 mm (13.43 mm) and 11.35 mm
respectively [21]. The antibacterial activity of synthetic
Jansenet al.
Asian J Pharm Clin Res, Vol 7, Suppl 2, 2014, 90-94
93
monolaurinagainst Staphylococcus aureuswas previously conducted
[18] and reported that zone of inhibition was 13 mm (500 mg/ml)
was better than hydrolyzed VCO in this study with inhibition zone
ranged from 10-11 mm (500 mg/ml) on the same species of
bacteria.This difference could be due to lower content of monolaurin
in the partially hydrolyzed VCO in the present study.
Bacterial inhibition was more effective on gram negative than gram
positive bacteria. It is probably due to the components of hydrolyzed
VCO are non-polar molecules, and therefore they easily interact with
cell membrane and disrupting lipid layer present in the outer part of
cell membrane of gram negative bacteria, while the cell membrane
of gram positive bacteria composed of more peptidoglucan layer
compared with that in gram negative bacteria.The peptidoglucan
layer in gram positive bacteria is rigid and resistant to osmotic lysis
[22,23,24].
Pseudomonas aerugiosa is an opportunistic bacteriacausing infection
when the immunity system of the host is getting
weaker.Pseudomonas aeruginosacould survive from host immunity
system because this bacteria has lipidpolysacharide as a
protectingcomponent [25,26]. It is postulated that the mechanism of
how lauric acid and monolaurin may inactivate bacteria is that by
dissolving lipid component present in bacterial cell membrane [27].
Lipidpolysacharide present in Pseudomonas aeruginosamembrane
through which lauric acid and monolaurin may interact and disrupt
bacterial cell membrane.
Propionibacterium acnes is a gram positive bacteria, itcan not be
inhibited by hydrolyzed VCO. This bacteria may cause skin acnes, a
local inflammation on hair follicle resulted from two stages. In the
first stage is that the excessive sebaceous secretion accumulates in
the hair follicle that is previously blocked by ceratine cells (komedo).
On the second stage is the formation of acne, the excessive sebum
converted into fatty acid by lipase enzymereleased by skin normal
flora Propionibacterium acnes, resulting in inflammation on the
follicle. Acne medication can be done by reducing sebum
productionwith retinoic acidor by lifting off komedoand decreasing
fatty acid content or lipid on the skinwith benzoyl peroxide [24,27].
It is still not clear by which mechanism the fatty acids acting as
antimicrobial agent. But the main target is cell membrane of bacteria
and other mechanisms may involve on the membrane. Retarding
growth effect is related to amphiphilic property of fatty acids
enabling them to interact with cell membrane generating
temporarily or permanent pores of various sizes. With the high
concentration, detergent such as free fatty acids being able to
dissolve cell membrane and hence releasing or disrupting larger
portion.Free fatty acids also influence energy production in cell
membrane by disturbing electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorilation [28].Probable other processes are cell lysis,
impairing enzyme activities, inactivating macromolecular synthesis,
disturbing nutrient absorption or protein DNA denaturation.
Monolaurinmay act as antimicrobial agent by this mechanism
[28,29].
From Table 4 can be seen that antibacterial activity of enzymatic
hydrolysis is greater than that of alkaline hydrolysis agai nst P.
aeruginosa and S. aureus, but similar toward S. epidermis and P.
acnes. Hydrolyzed VCO indicates much lower antibacterial activity
compared with tetracyclin and ampicillin at very low concentration.
Tetracyclin and ampicillin show different activity against tested
bacteria. Tetracycline is most active toward S. epidermis and the
lowest on S. aureus. On the other hand ampicillin is active against P.
aeruginosa and it is most active against P. acnes. It is reported that
monolaurin and lauric acid derived from coconut oil inactivate
pathogenic bacteria but not the beneficial microorganismor
probiotic. In addition, lauric acid and monolaurin do not develop
microbial resistance while the antibiotic would do [30,31].
CONCLUSIONS
Un-hydrolyzedVCO is not active as antimicrobial, but partial
hydrolysis will increase antibacterial activity. The longer incubation
time in enzymatic hydrolysis and the higher the percentage of NaOH
relative to total saponification during alkaline hydrolysis resulted in
the more effective in antimicrobial activity of hydrolyzed
VCO.Hydrolyzed VCO is more effective against Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (gram negative) compared to other tested bacteria.
Hydrolyzed VCO is not as effective as tetracycline and ampicillin.
Ampicillin is not effective againstPseudomonas aureginosa. The
benefit of VCO used orally as antibacterial is that VCO does not cause
any side effectsince it is a common food component which will be
hydrolyzed by lipase in the gastrointestinal tract. Antibacterial
activity of hydrolyzed VCO is necessary evaluated by in vivo
experiment in order to determine the effective dosage of VCO.
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... In general, there are two main methods of producing FFA-rich oils: the chemical and enzymatic approaches. The first one, usually perform saponification reactions chemically catalysed by NaOH or KOH and high temperature to completely yield glycerol and FFAs (Nitbani et al., 2016;Rodríguez et al., 1997;Silalahi et al., 2014). The enzymatic hydrolysis, being more environmentally friendly at mild temperature, use either specific and non-specific hydrolytic lipases, but it has slower reaction rates and costs (Rodríguez et al., 1997). ...
... In both cases, they are additional steps performed after a first step of extracting the lipid fraction from the raw sources. Either the chemical or enzymatic methods have been used for coconut or palm kernel oils to produce FLA-rich oils (Nitbani et al., 2016;Rodríguez et al., 1997;Silalahi et al., 2014), and they just started to emerge on BSFL fat Xu et al., 2021). FLA-rich oils can be also obtained during the distillation of coconut oil as part of the refining process to remove all the FFAs (Rajesh et al., 2021). ...
... This product can be an alternative to the conventional sources used for producing FLA-rich oils, as coconut or palm kernel oils. In this sense, the innovation that we demonstrated in this study is that it is possible to obtain such high FLA-rich product by a natural way, within the own larvae during the processing of slaughtering and drying, before lipid extraction, and avoiding additional enzymatic or chemical processes of transformation by hydrolysis or distillation, as they are typically used for the conventional sources as coconut or palm kernel oils (Nitbani et al., 2016;Rodríguez et al., 1997;Silalahi et al., 2014). Moreover, the proposed method of freezing plus freeze-drying would not be rare for the insect sector, because due to the absence of a standardised or preferred method for the processing of edible insects in general, both thermal and non-thermal methods are currently being explored and combined (Hernández-Álvarez et al., 2021;Ojha et al., 2021), such as those tested in the present study. ...
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The fat of Hermetia illucens larvae (black soldier fly, BSFL) is a rich source of lauric acid (LA), and its free fatty acid (FFA) form holds valuable potential for applications in food, feed, pharmaceuticals, or cosmetics. This study aimed to establish specific processing conditions of BSFL that naturally promote lipolysis, resulting in a high free LA (FLA) rich oil. Freezing was used for slaughtering, with different times of frozen storage (1, 7 and 14 d). Then, thermal (oven-drying) and non-thermal (freeze-drying) drying processes were compared. Additionally, the impact of 24 h restrictive vs non-restrictive feeding before slaughtering was tested. Free acidity, free fatty acid profile, lipid oxidation (peroxide value, PV; TBARs test) and antioxidant activity (DPPH test) were measured at days 0 and 30 of processing. Freeze-dried samples exhibited higher free acidity (42%) compared to oven-drying (4%), progressively increasing with frozen storage (24% at day 1 vs 51% at day 14). A restricted diet caused up to 60% free acidity. Nevertheless, the FFA profile was similar for both diet conditions, with LA as the major FFA (41% of total FFAs and 27% of total fat). After 30 days of storage, free acidity approached 70%. Oven-drying caused the highest PV (4.5 mEqO 2 /kg), especially after 14 d of frozen storage (>5.0 mEqO 2 /kg) and under restricted diet (6.1 mEqO 2 /kg). Conversely, freeze-drying maintained the lowest PV in all cases (0.6 mEqO 2 /kg). TBARs values mirrored the PV pattern. Antioxidant capacity was lower for freeze-drying compared to oven-drying (46% and 71%, respectively), regardless of frozen storage. Irrespective of the drying method, worse antioxidant activity was observed after restrictive diet. After 30 days of storage, the antioxidant activity decreased for all samples. The proposed strategy of freezing slaughtering, followed by frozen storage and freeze-drying offers a promising approach to naturally obtain a FLA-rich product from BSFL.
... These findings of antibacterial activity were consistent with the literature, which confirmed the antibacterial effect of FAs and MAGs (8,41,43,44) and DAGs (9) against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Usually, no antibacterial effect for TAGs (three ester groups but optionally double bonds) would be expected due to the lack of reactive functional groups (41,45). However, the studied TAG, DAG, and MAG had one double bond in each acyl chain, which could induce a genotoxic or cytotoxic effect, as discussed later. ...
... The antibacterial zone d in the B. subtilis bioautogram ( Figure 7B As a further example, coconut oil was digested on-surface and analyzed for any antibacterial effects ( Figure 7B). Coconut oil was selected as a quite different oil sample compared to flaxseed oil since it consists of comparatively much more SFAs of shorter chain lengths (C8:0-14:0, mostly C12:0 and C14:0) (37, 45). In contrast to the flaxseed oil (one antibacterial zone), the 2D B. subtilis bioautogram showed five antibacterial zones. ...
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Introduction Vegetable oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids are assumed to be safe and even healthy for consumers though lipid compositions of foods vary naturally and are complex considering the wealth of minor compounds down to the trace level. Methods The developed comprehensive high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC×HPTLC) method including the on-surface metabolization (nanoGIT) and bioassay detection combined all steps on the same planar surface. The pancreatic lipolysis (intestinal phase) experiment and the subsequent analysis of the fatty acid composition including its effect-directed detection using a planar bioassay was performed without elaborate sample preparation or fractionation to ensure sample integrity. Thus, no sample part was lost, and the whole sample was studied on a single surface regarding all aspects. This made the methodology as well as technology miniaturized, lean, all-in-one, and very sustainable. Results and discussion To prioritize important active compounds including their metabolism products in the complex oil samples, the nanoGIT method was used to examine the pancreatic lipolysis of nine different vegetable oils commonly used in the kitchen and food industry, e.g., canola oil, flaxseed oil, hemp oil, walnut oil, soybean oil, sunflower oil, olive oil, coconut oil, and palm oil. The digested oils revealed antibacterial and genotoxic effects, which were assigned to fatty acids and oxidized species via high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (HRMS/MS). This finding reinforces the importance of adding powerful techniques to current analytical tools. The 10D hyphenated nanoGIT-HPTLC×HPTLC-Vis/FLD-bioassay-heart cut-RP-HPLC-DAD-HESI-HRMS/MS has the potential to detect any potential hazard due to digestion/metabolism, improving food safety and understanding on the impact of complex samples.
... Kondisi ini yang menyebabkan VCO menjadi lebih istimewa diabandingkan jenis minyak kelapa yang lain. Beberapa hasil penelitian menunjukkan aspek VCO sebagai obat herbal/nabati, diantaranya sebagai pencegah luka tekan pada pasien stroke (Sumah 2020), antimikroba (Silalahi, Permata, and Putra 2014), dan mencegah penuaan dini (Illam, Narayanankutty, and Raghavamenon 2017); (Rahmawati and Khaerunnisya 2018). Selain itu, VCO juga menyehatkan otak, mengurangi resiko penyakit jantung, membakar kalori, menyehatkan kulit, rambut dan gigi (Aini 2021); (Muharun and Apriyanto 2014); (Putri and Ali 2021) Pelatihan pengolahan minyak kelapa murni bagi Perempuan di Dusun Watumere dapat menjadi salah satu cara yang efektif dalam meningkatan keterampilan mereka. ...
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Pemberdayaan perempuan memiliki peran penting dalam meningkatkan kesejahteraan masyarakat, terutama di daerah pedesaan. Kegiatan pelatihan pengolahan minyak kelapa murni di Dusun Watumere, Kelurahan Lokoboko, merupakan salah satu inisiatif untuk meningkatkan keterampilan dan ekonomi masyarakat perempuan setempat. Program pelatihan ini bertujuan untuk memberikan pengetahuan dan keterampilan dalam memproduksi minyak kelapa murni yang berkualitas, yang memiliki nilai jual tinggi. Metode pelatihan meliputi sesi teori dan praktik langsung mengenai teknik pemilihan bahan baku, proses pengolahan, hingga tahap pengemasan yang sesuai dengan standar. Hasil pelatihan menunjukkan peningkatan pemahaman dan keterampilan peserta dalam memproduksi minyak kelapa murni, serta potensi pemasaran produk secara lokal maupun regional. Melalui pemberdayaan ini, diharapkan perempuan di Dusun Watumere dapat berperan lebih aktif dalam ekonomi keluarga dan meningkatkan kesejahteraan komunitas mereka. Program ini juga berpotensi menjadi model untuk pengembangan keterampilan serupa di wilayah lainnya
... Elution was performed using a gradient of solvent A (methanol/water, 70/30, v/v) and solvent B (methanol) at a flow rate of 0.9 ml/min. The elution protocol of BAVE was as follows: (0-20) min: 100% A. The elution protocol of CAVE was as follows: (0-5) min: 100% A; (5-10) min: (100-0) % A in B; (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20) min: 100% B; (20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25) min: (100-0) % B in A; (25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30) min: 100% A. All components in reaction mixtures were detected at 215 nm. Conversion yield (%) and products concentration were calculated based on the decrease of VA. ...
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Phytosterols are naturally found in lipid-rich plant foods and oils. These compounds exhibit various pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and cholesterol-lowering properties. However, their industrial application has been limited due to their high melting points and poor solubility in both water and oil. Some unsaturated fatty acids can enhance phytosterols' oil solubility while exhibiting antimicrobial activities against various bacterial strains. In this study, we synthesized a linolenic acid stigmasterol ester (LASE) to improve oil and emulsion solubility of stigmasterol, a phytosterol known for its beneficial physiological effects in humans. LASE was synthesized with Candida antarctica lipase A through a transesterification reaction using stigmasterol and α-linolenic acid-rich linseed oil as substrates. The reaction was conducted at 50°C in isooctane with 20 mM of both stigmasterol and linseed oil. Following synthesis, LASE was purified using preparative liquid chromatography. The purified LASE demonstrated a 20-fold improvement in solubility in tricaprylin (TCN) compared to stigmasterol. Additionally, its antibacterial activities against specific food spoilage bacteria were confirmed using a TCN-based emulsion system.
... VCO dapat meningkatkan pembentukan pembuluh darah baru pada luka. Aliran nutrisi dan oksigen yang baik dapat mempercepat penyembuhan luka (Silalahi, Yademetripermata and Putra, 2014). ...
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Diabetic wounds are a complication of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) which is caused by peripheral blood vessel disorders and neuropathy. Treatment for diabetic wounds is not sufficient to be treated using antibiotics, but wound care must be carried out. The important thing in wound care is time and quality to improve the healing of the procedure and to reduce the costs associated with healing. The aim of this research was to determine the effect of administering VCO on diabetic wound healing. This study used a one group pre- post test experimental design to determine differences in the degree and extent of wounds as well as wound healing time after being given VCO. The number of samples in this study was 11 people in 1 group of patients who had DM wounds. Most of the respondents were aged 56 – 65 years (54.6%) and were male (63.6%). In pre-test conditions or before being given VCO. Most of the wound area before intervention was (11.85) with the base color of the wound being red, the type of fluid being serious to haemooserous, the skin around the wound being healthy, erythema, edema and hyperpigmentation with an average of epithelium (1.82). Most of the wound areas after intervention were large (6.65) with the base color of the wound pink (epitilization), dry to serous fluid type, the skin around the wound was healthy, with an average epilation (68.64). There was a significant difference between before and after wound treatment using VCO in terms of diabetic wound area of 0.006 and wound epithelialization of 0.000 where p < 0.05. VCO can increase skin moisture which can stimulate collagen synthesis thereby accelerating epithelialization and granulation of wound tissue.
... Among different lipases, Eversa® Transform 2.0 from Thermomyces lanuginosus, has recently shown promising results in the hydrolysis of fats and oils (Su et al., 2018). Although the hydrolysis of fats and oils is a well-known process, it is noted that in various stud-ies where free-form lauric acid is required, only partial hydrolysis of the original coconut oil has been achieved Silalahi et al., 2014), and not much literature has been found specifically aimed at optimizing the degree of hydrolysis in coconut oil. Besides, current studies do not consider the impact of the process on the oxidation state of the hydrolyzed product. ...
Article
Lauric acid is present in various vegetable fats and has been shown to be beneficial for human health and well-being. The interest in the properties of this fatty acid has led to an increase in the production and consumption of oils rich in lauric acid, primarily coconut oil. Despite being less known, there is an atypical animal source of lauric acid that can be considered more sustainable and that has levels of this fatty acid comparable to coconut oil, as the case of the larvae of the edible insect black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ) is. Due to the fact that some of the bioactive properties of lauric acid are linked to its free form, and also to facilitate subsequent concentration processes, the release of the fatty acid from the triacylglycerols present in fats becomes necessary. In this study, chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis for transforming both lauric acid-rich fats into a product rich in free fatty acids (FFA) were investigated. Different variables were studied, such as reaction time and the amount of catalyst used, resulting in maximum conversions to FFA in the case of chemical hydrolysis in just 20 min for both fats. Furthermore, the efficiency of the lipase Eversa® Transform 2.0 in generating a lauric acid-rich product from both oils was demonstrated, but in this case, a longer time was needed. The products obtained through both types of hydrolysis contained high percentages of free lauric acid, also exhibiting high stability against oxidation. This makes H. illucens larvae fat a comparable and alternative source to coconut oil to produce lauric-acid rich products useful for different applications.
... Coconut is a superior product commodity that has an important role in development (Kusuma & Putri, 2020). Several research results show aspects of VCO as an herbal or vegetable medicine, including preventing pressure sores in stroke patients (Sumah, 2020), being antimicrobial (Silalahi et al., 2014), and preventing premature aging (Ahmad et al., 2023). Apart from that, VCO also makes the brain healthy, reduces the risk of heart disease (Aini et al., 2021), burns calories, and makes skin, hair, and teeth healthy (Putri & Ali, 2021). ...
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Regional Featured Product Development Program activities in Carangsari Village, Petang, Badung, and Bali were carried out at the Sari Nadhi Business Study Group. Coconuts into coconut oil have been produced and marketed by partners, but this has not been implemented. intensive, and partners want to have new superior products by processing local agricultural products, especially coconuts and nuts, to support the Carangsari Tourism Village. Partners do not know the field of business management, so they experience problems managing production and marketing. The solutions taken to overcome the problems faced by partners are: providing appropriate technology in the processing of coconut and nut-based products; storage and packaging; marketing; and business management; and assisting with processing equipment and business capital. The output target that has been achieved is Appropriate Technology for Processing Coconuts and Nuts.
Article
Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) merupakan minyak yang dihasilkan dari buah kelapa tanpa melalui proses pemanasan, pemurnian, atau penambahan bahan kimia. Kelurahan Jatiayu Yogyakarta merupakan daerah dekat pantai selatan Pulau Jawa yang memiliki banyak pohon kelapa maka daerah tersebut merupakan daerah yang ideal untuk sasaran sosialisasi pembuatan VCO. Metode yang digunakan adalah strategi partisipasi aktif dengan keterlibatan peserta. VCO dibuat dengan cara fermentasi sederhana menggunakan air kelapa sebagai starter. Rangkaian kegiatan yang dilakukan meliputi pretest, pemberian materi, demonstrasi pembuatan VCO, dan posttest. Hasil pretest menunjukkan bahwa 100% peserta belum mengetahui tentang VCO. Namun, berdasarkan hasil posttest diketahui 88% peserta telah memahami tentang pembuatan VCO hal ini menandakan terjadi peningkatan pengetahuan dan keterampilan peserta tentang pengertian dan cara pembuatan VCO sehingga kegiatan yang telah dilaksanakan telah memberikan manfaat bagi peserta. Peserta pelatihan mampu menghasilkan sekitar 800 mL VCO diakhir kegiatan. Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO) is oil produced from coconuts without going through a process of heating, refining, or adding synthetic chemicals. This oil has many health benefits including being anti-microbial, maintaining heart health, facilitating the digestive process, and maintaining healthy skin and hair. Considering that Kelurahan Jatiayu Yogyakarta is an area near the south coast of Java Island which has lots of coconut trees, this area is an ideal area for the socialization target of VCO production. The method used is an active participation strategy with the involvement of participants. VCO is made by simple fermentation using coconut water as a starter. The series of activities carried out included a pretest, giving material, demonstrating the manufacture of VCO, and posttest. The pretest results showed that 100% of the participants did not know about VCO. Based on the results of the posttest, it was found that 88% of the participants had understood about making VCO and were able to produce around 800 mL of VCO. There was an increase in the knowledge and skills of the participants regarding the meaning and method of making VCO so that the activities that had been carried out provided benefits for the participants.
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Abstrak: Desa Malikian Kecamatan Mempawah Hilir, Kabupaten Mempawah adalah salah satu desa penghasil kelapa di Kalimantan Barat. Selama ini kelapa diolah menjadi kopra, dengan nilai jual yang rendah. Sementara jika kelapa diolah menjadi virgin coconut oil (VCO) harga jual akan meningkat 5-12 kali lebih tinggi dari kopra. Kegiatan pengabdian ini bertujuan untuk meningkatkan pengetahuan dan keterampilan masyarakat dalam membuat VCO untuk diversifikasi produk minyak kelapa, sehingga berpotensi meningkatkan pendapatan. Metode yang digunakan adalah pelatihan dengan tahapan: penyampaian materi, diskusi, dan praktek langsung membuat VCO. Mitra sebagai peserta pelatihan adalah ibu-ibu anggota PKK yang berjumlah 25orang. Hasil evaluasi menunjukkan bahwa kegiatan pelatihan diterima positif oleh mitra. Pengetahuan dan keterampilan masyarakat dalam membuat VCO meningkat 76,5% dari 21,5% sebelum pelatihan menjadi 98% setelah mengikuti pelatihan. Jika masyarakat konsisten melakukan diversifikasi produk minyak kelapa menjadi VCO, maka pendapatan akan meningkat, dan ke depan dapat diperluas produknya menjadi sabun mandi, shampoo dan body lotion berbasis VCO.Abstract: Malikian Village, Mempawah Hilir District, Mempawah Regency is one of the coconut-producing villages in West Kalimantan. So far, coconuts are processed into copra, with a low selling value. Meanwhile, if coconut is processed into virgin coconut oil (VCO), the selling price will increase 5-12 times higher than copra. The objective of this service activity was to increase the knowledge and skills of the community in making VCO for coconut oil product diversification, so that it has the potential to increase their income. The method used is training with stages: delivery of material, discussion, and hands-on practice of making VCO. Partners as training participants were PKK members, totaling 25 people. The evaluation results show that the training activities were received positively by the partner. Community knowledge and skills in making VCO increased by 76.5% from 21.5% before training to 98% after attending training. If the community consistently diversifies coconut oil products into VCO, their income will increase, and in the future, their products can be expanded into body soap, shampoo, and body lotion based on VCO.
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Objective-Emergence of Multi Drug Resistance indicates a dire to understand the bacterial involvement in infections and find out new alternative approaches in its therapeutics and prevention. The present study was undertaken to study the antimicrobial resistance patterns of S. aureus isolated from various samples collected from Hospitals of Gwalior. During the present study an effort was made to find out the information about mecA protein of Staphylococcus and their conserved regions were analyzed in order to assess their antigenic potential. Methods-In the present study, a total of 872 samples were collected and processed for MRSA screening. Conventional methods were used for the isolation and identification of bacteria. Thereafter, antibacterial property of 20 various drugs as well as aromatic compounds of 18 herbal plants was performed against multiple resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates according to the guidelines of National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (NCCLS). In silico prediction of vaccine candidates in mecA through bioinformatics approach was also performed. Results-The study revealed that drug resistance pattern of MRSA isolates is increasing. But the major concern is the development of resistance against Vancomycin which is thought be the most effective drug against Staphylococcus. In comparison to antibiotics, essential oils showed very good activity against the test bacteria with few exceptions. Conclusion-The essential oils of Clove and Cinnamon were found to be more active against the test organism. We predicted multi-epitope peptide which was having very good potential to induce B cell response and a very good candidate for binding to MHC II molecule and thus can act as a suitable vaccine target against S. aureus.
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Objective: The objective of the study was to evaluate the antibacterial activity of the ethanolic extracts of leaves of Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (EECM) on Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Methods: The ethanolic extract of leaves of Citrus maxima (Burm.)Merr.(EECM) was prepared by percolation method. Pathological isolates Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were obtained from the Department of Microbiology, Assam Medical College & Hospital. Disc diffusion method for antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed according to the Kirby-Bauer method. The whatman-1 filter paper discs of 6mm sizes impregnated with the plant extract were placed on Mueller-Hinton agar plates seeded with bacterial cultures of 0.5 Mc Farland standards. The antibacterial activities were assessed by the presence or absence of inhibition zones after incubating the plates at 37°c for 24 hours. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of EECM for the selected pathogens were determined by broth macrodilution method. Results: Maximum zone of inhibition in antibacterial susceptibility test was shown by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. MIC value of the extract for Pseudomonas aeruginosa (0.312mg/ml) was found to be lower than Escherichia coli but MBC value (1.25mg/ml) was found to be the same for both the bacteria. Conclusion: The plant extract of Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr showed significant antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
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The monolaurin compound had been synthesized from lauric acid and glycerol by using sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as catalyst. The synthesis of monolaurin was done by batch esterification on the free solvent system. The esterification reaction was performed on the equivalent mol ratio between lauric acid and glycerol 1:1, in the presence of 5% H2SO4, at 130 °C, for 6 hours, produced ester compounds on 59.29%. The products of column chromatography on silica gel purification are monolaurin and dilaurin in amount of 31.05 and 4.48%, respectively. The monolaurin and dilaurin were identified by TLC, FTIR, GC-MS, and NMR spectrometer. The spectral data of monolaurin was compared to spectral data of standard monolaurin. The result of NMR identifications showed that synthesis products were a-monolaurin and a,a'-dilaurin. The antibacterial activity of synthesis products was tested against Staphylococcus aureus. The activity result showed that the antibacterial activity of monolaurin is more active than dilaurin. Keywords: monolaurin, esterification, identification, antibacterial activity.
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Analytical information on fats and oils is required for trading, quality control, nutritional labeling and forensics. Development of analytical procedures was one of the historical reasons for the organization of the Society of Cotton Products Analysits; it continues as a major effort of the successor organization, the American Oil Chemists’ Society, through its Uniform Methods Committee and final publication of methods in the Society’s “Official and Tentative Methods.” A review of the current status of methods development will be followed by a glimpse of methodological research currently underway.
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Objective: Diseases due to pathogenic bacteria and fungi represent a critical problem to human health and they are the major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Plants based antimicrobials are effective in the treatment of infectious diseases while simultaneously mitigating many of the side effects that are often associated with synthetic antimicrobials. In the series of medicinal plants, one such medicinal plant which has been widely used in traditional medicine but lacks scientific scrutiny is Pithecellobium dulce. The present study was aimed to investigate the antimicrobial properties of P.dulce pod pulp extract against common pathogenic gram positive, gram negative bacteria and fungi. Methods: Ethanolic extract was used for the study. Phytochemical screening, total phenolic and flavonoid content were determined. The antibacterial and antifungal activity of ethanolic extract of pod pulp was tested against clinically important Gram positive, Gram negative bacteria and pathogenic fungal strains. The inhibitory effect was assessed by well diffusion method. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC), Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) and Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) were also determined by serial dilution method. Results: Phytochemical analysis of the pulp extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, phytosterols, and triterpenoids. The pulp extract was found to contain significant amounts of total phenols and flavonoids. The pulp extract showed significant zone of inhibition in a dose dependent manner. The MIC and MBC values of the pulp extract against both Gram positive and Gram negative bacterial strains varies from 1mg to 5mg and the results are comparable with chloramphenicol. The MIC and MFC values of pod pulp extract against fungal strains varies from 1 mg to 7 mg and the results are comparable with Amphotericin B. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the pulp extract possesses potent bactericidal and fungicidal activity which in turn may be due to the presence of biologically active ingredients with antimicrobial activity in the pod pulp.
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Coconut oil has a unique role in the diet as an important physiologically functional food. The health and nutritional benefits that can be derived from consuming coconut oil have been recognized in many parts of the world for centuries. Although the advantage of regular consumption of coconut oil has been underappreciated by the consumer and producer alike for the recent two or three decades, its unique benefits should be compelling for the health minded consumer of today. A review of the diet/heart disease literature relevant to coconut oil clearly indicates that coconut oil is at worst neutral with respect to atherogenicity of fats and oils and, in fact, is likely to be a beneficial oil for prevention and treatment of some heart disease. Additionally, coconut oil provides a source of antimicrobial lipid for individuals with compromised immune systems and is a nonpromoting fat with respect to chemical carcinogenesis.
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Enzymatic modification of fats and oils using lipases has recently come into limelight, giving rise to a breakthrough in modification technology. This paper describes the latest development and future trend of this new technology with respect to the enzyme lipases, lipase reactions, and bioreactor systems. Particular attention is paid to the utilization of this technology in industrial production of functional fats and oils. A new topic of the reasearch work of an enzymatic reaction of conversion from diglycerides to triglycerides in crude palm olein is presented in detail.