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Karst Landforms of Glaciokarst and Their Development
Abstract
In this chapter, the karst landforms of glaciokarst are presented which are the following: karren, giant grikes, shafts, karst depressions such as giant depressions (dolines, uvalas), small-sized solution dolines, schachtdolines, subsidence dolines, ponors and poljes. We describe their distribution and frequency, their relation to glacial erosional features as well as the relation between each other, their size, morphology, varieties, evolution, development and development age.
... Virov, ki bi sistematično obravnavali konte na določenem območju, še ni. Obstajajo študije, ki konte obravnavajo v kontekstu vrtač glaciokrasa, vendar se raziskave ne osredotočajo na morfogenezo kont na določenem območju (Veress, 2016;Veress, 2017;Veress, 2019). ...
... Termini za konte so v tuji literaturi nekoliko bolj opisni, tako da jih opredeljujejo po velikosti (giant solution dolines, grossgruben, uvala) (npr. Veress, 2019), po času nastanka (paleodoline ali paleodepression) (Smart, 1986;Smart, 2004) ali po analogiji s sorodnimi reliefnimi oblikami (overdeepened cirques) (Hughes in sod., 2006;Hughes in sod., 2011;Adamson in sod., 2014). ...
... Če povzamemo literaturo, so konte glaciokraške kotanje obsežnih dimenzij. Njihov premer lahko presega tudi kilometer, globina lahko znaša več kot 100 metrov (Kunaver, 1983;Stepišnik in sod., 2009;Žebre, Stepišnik, 2015b;Žebre, Stepišnik, 2015;Veress, 2019;Stepišnik, 2020). So rezultat zakrasevanja ter glacialnega, lahko tudi periglacialnega delovanja, zato jih štejemo med poligenetske reliefne oblike (Kunaver, 1983). ...
Julijske Alpe predstavljajo najvišjo in najmasivnejšo gorsko verigo v Sloveniji. V preteklosti so bile Alpe podvržene večkratnemu ledeniškemu preoblikovanju, ki je imelo višek pred 21.000 leti. Julijske Alpe so večinoma sestavljene iz apnenca in dolomita. Zaradi vplivov pleistocenske poledenitve na kraški geomorfni sistem govorimo o glaciokrasu. Gre za tip površja, ki ima podedovane površinske in podzemne oblike nekdanjega poledenelega krasa. Ena izmed teh podedovanih oblik so konte, večje kotanje, ki se pojavljajo na glaciokraškem območju ali tik ob njem. Namen raziskave je bila izvedba geomorfološke analize kont na Pokljuki in Jelovici ter njihova morfogenetska interpretacija. Namen smo dosegli s pregledom literature o kontah, opredelitve in analize morfografskih značilnosti kont in njihove morfometrične ter morfostrukturne analize. Na podlagi ugotovitev smo podali morfogenetsko in morfodinamično interpretacijo kont na Jelovici in Pokljuki. Opravljena raziskava predstavlja prvo sistematično geomorfološko analizo kont na določenem območju v domači in tudi tuji literaturi ter nudi nov vpogled v kvartarno preoblikovanje površja.
... Furthermore, complex topography in karstic areas is widely reported all across the Mediterranean Mountains (Allix, 1930;Barbier and Cailleux, 1950;Nicod, 1968;Hughes et al., 2007) favouring snow conservation during summer (Hughes and Woodward, 2017). Glaciokarst is often characterized by the widespread presence of socalled "negative features" that can vary in shape, size, depth, and morphology as highlighted by Veress (2019). Among them are Shafts and Dolines. ...
... In high mountain karst environments, shafts are defined as transitional features characterized by a sharp margin without a catchment zone and a wide range of diameters and depths. Their formation is linked with dissolution acted by glacier meltwater and is not limited to glaciokarst, while their elongation usually develops among fractures or fault planes (Veress, 2019). Dissolution is also linked to doline formation, such as small-sized solution dolines and Schachtdolines, which according to Veress (2017), are of postglacial origin. ...
Dolines and shafts are common geomorphologies in karst landscapes. When affected also by glacial processes, they are considered an example of glaciokarst landform. In high alpine karst, their typical vertical shape lends itself particularly well to the formation of snow and ice accumulations that can survive the ablation season, potentially becoming perennial. This study analyses the 12-years changes of several permanent snow-ice deposits in Schachtdolines and Shafts (SIDS) and compares them with the mass balance of surrounding external ice bodies. According to recent studies and in contrast with the rest of the Alpine glaciers, ice masses of the area are resilient to climate change and show a slightly positive mass balance in the last decade. The presence of a long term mass balance monitoring program provides an excellent basis for a robust comparison with 75 selected SIDS, all located in the Mount Canin-Kanin massif, in the Julian Alps. Six airborne LiDAR surveys performed from 2006 to 2018 at the end of the ablation season allowed accurate calculation of thickness and volume changes. The measured differences show a general increase in thickness of the SIDS with more than one meter gain, although multi-annual observed variability between the sites is high. The observed 2006–2018 positive mass balance is in agreement with the external cryosphere although SIDS appear even more resilient than the external ice patches to both interannual weather variability and climate forcing.
... Талые ледниковые воды, которые формируются на контакте ложе-ледник, весьма агрессивны и растворение горных пород нередко протекает даже в подледных условиях [Лаврушин и др., 1986;Каплянская, Тарноградский, 1993;Veress, 2018a]. Талая вода может способствовать активизации карстовых процессов и создавать небольшие формы рельефа [Veress, 2018b]. Однако плановые очертания реконструируемых нами форм рельефа (см. ...
Рассмотрены проблемы происхождения террас, которые нередко осложняют склоны аномально глубоких долинообразных понижений на северо-западе Восточно-Европейской равнины. В качестве объекта исследования была выбрана Изборско-Мальская долина (Псковская область, Россия), заполненная наполовину четвертичными отложениями. Благодаря отсутствию заполнения в верхней части долины появилась возможность детально рассмотреть геолого-геоморфологическое строение ее терра-сированных склонов, что в контексте проблем, касающихся происхождения погребенных долин и опре-деления роли субстрата, представляет особый интерес. На склонах южной части Изборско-Мальской долины выделены четыре денудационных террасовых уровня: 53, 56-58, 70-72, 75-77 м абс. отм., которые сформировались в ходе разрушения доледникового карстового рельефа под воздействием плейстоценовых оледенений. Формирование террас, вероятно, сопряжено с несколькими этапами переуглубления и расширения долины ледниковым выпахиванием, соответствующим как минимум двум этапам наступания ледника на данную территорию. Последний из них может быть связан как с началом поздне-валдайского (осташковского) оледенения, так и с активизацией края ледникового покрова в его лужскую стадию (~ 15.7 тыс. кал. л. н.). Результаты исследования террас позволяют говорить о том, что заложение Изборско-Мальской долины происходило в субгляциальных условиях. На величину ледникового выпа-хивания оказали влияние различная степень устойчивости карбонатно-терригенных пород девонского возраста, в толще которых долина выработана, а также степень нарушенности территории, прежде всего, процессами карста. Циркообразный облик склонов террас представляет собой следы проявления карстовых процессов в доледниковье. Анализ литературы показал, что вопросам происхождения денудационных террас в погребенных долинах на северо-западе Восточно-Европейской равнины почти не уделено внимания. Полученный материал вносит значительный вклад в рассмотрение данного вопроса, а также проблемы генезиса погребенных долин. Погребенные долины, денудационные террасы, карст, ледниковая эрозия, северо-запад Восточно-европейской равнины
... Meltwaters that form at the bed-ice sheet contact are essentially "aggressive" and rock dissolution tends to occur even under subglacial conditions (Lavrushin et al., 1986;Kaplyanskaya and Tarnogradskii, 1993;Veress, 2018a). Meltwater can contribute to the activation of karst processes and create small landforms (Veress, 2018b). However, the plan-view outlines of the reconstructed landforms ( Fig. 6-I) amount to 80-340 m (diameter along the bottom of the depressions). ...
The paper considers the origin of terraces that often complicate the slopes of abnormally deep buried valleys in the northwest of the East European Plain. The Izborsk-Maly valley (Pskov Region, Russia), which is half filled with Quaternary sediments, was chosen as the object of study. Since the upper part of the valley remains unfilled, it is possible to study in detail both geologic and geomorphologic structures of its terraced slopes being of particular interest in the context of the origin of buried valleys and the role of substrate in it. The four denudation-terrace levels that have been identified on the slopes of the Izborsk-Maly valley at absolute elevations of 53, 56-58, 70-72, and 75-77 m formed during the destruction of the preglacial karst landscape under the influence of Pleistocene glaciations. The formation of the terraces was probably linked with several stages of overdeepening of the valley and its expansion by the glacial erosion processes, which corresponded to at least two stages of the ice sheet advance in this area. The last stage may have been the beginning of the Late Valdai (Weichselian) glaciation or the activation of the edge of an ice sheet during its Luga phase (~15.7 cal kyr BP). Results of the study suggest that the Izborsk-Maly valley formed in subglacial conditions. The degree of glacial erosion was determined primarily by the coherence of Devonian carbonate-terrigenous rocks hosting the valley and the degree of the area transformation by karst processes. The cirque shape of slopes is the evidence of karst processes expression in pre-glacial time. Analysis of literature data shows that the origin of denudation terraces in the buried valleys in the northwest of the East European Plain has been paid little attention. The obtained data contribute to the study of this problem and provide insights into the origin of buried valleys.
In 2019 a sinkhole (doline) occurred in Late Devensian till above fissured limestone in northern England. Most sediment plugging the fissure was evacuated down into a karstic drainage system. The residual sedimentary fill comprises three main lithofacies, dated using optically stimulated luminescence to between 170.7 ± 40.0 and 56.1 ± 13.5 ka. The earliest date demonstrates fissures were present in the limestone pavement at the time of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, or shortly thereafter. The fissure filled with fine sand and silt due to surface runoff and aeolian processes probably at the MIS 6 to MIS 5e transition after Wolstonian glacial ice had retreated. The deposits then collapsed into the karst system. Further fine sand and silt deposition occurred during MIS 3; this deposit filled the central cavity surrounded by residual MIS 6/5e deposits. The sequence was capped by till as Late Devensian (MIS 2) ice transgressed the area. Solution fissures in the karst surfaces of northern England may pre‐date the Late Devensian glaciation. Moreover, fissures are repositories of pre‐Devensian sediment deposits which survived the Late Devensian glaciation and the Ipswichian interglacial. Such sites should provide information on the nature and timing of pre‐Devensian glacial–interglacial events and shed light on basal ice conditions and glaciokarst drainage behaviour.
The karstification of the paleodolines of glaciokarst is studied. Our methods included topographical mapping, geomorphological mapping and analysis, vertical electrical sounding (VES) measurements, areal imaging, investigation of the material of the superficial deposit. On glaciokarst, the paleodolines without cover are the bare karst patches, while paleodolines with cover belong to allogenic karst (if the cover is impermeable) or covered karst (if the cover is permeable). The covered karst also occur in patches, their pattern depends on the distribution of paleodolines, the size of glacier valleys and on the type of the former glaciers. The paleodolines can be exhuming or infilling. A paleodoline is infilling if more sediment is transported into the doline than from the doline into the karst. In case of exhuming paleodolines, more sediment is removed into the endokarst. If there is little sediment input, the allogenic karst depressions become exhumed. Covered karst depressions remain unaffected in case of non-soluble debris in permeable cover. No subsidence dolines can be observed in the cover and the endokarst is not able to receive sediment. Covered karst depressions can be exhuming a.) to small extent if the cover comprises soluble limestone debris and the subsidence dolines have little ability to receive and transport sediment, b.) to a medium extent in case of large shafts beneath subsidence dolines, and c.) to large extent if the cover is partly impermeable, but gullies and creeks lead to the dolines. In case of a recent sediment input of large extent, the paleodolines (mainly those with covered floor) are filled up.
The epikarstic (or subcutaneous) zone forms the upper layer of limestone rocks and its specific properties are due to the processes of weathering which directly affect this layer. A summary of the structural peculiarities of this zone and of the major features of epikarstic hydrology is provided, and the morphogenetic evolution of karst forms at the top of a massif is considered. A model of morphogenesis in the epikarstic zone is suggested which involves speleogenic development at its base. The role of condensation processes in epikarstic morphogenesis are also briefly considered.
The Hochschwab is one of the large karst massifs in the Northern Calcareous Alps, situated in the Austrian province of Styria. As it provides freshwater for the city of Vienna karst morphological field mapping covering 59 km2 of the plateau area was financed by the Viennese Waterworks. A total of 12,668 karst features - including 7151 dolines - were mapped, attributed and integrated into a GIS. With these data statistical analyses of dolines, dry valleys and corridors were performed and compared to independently derived lithologic and tectonic data. Dolines were analysed with respect to the volume distribution function, spatial density, elevational distribution, host rock lithology, elongation direction and direction of linear arranged features. Additional analyses deal with the direction and inclination of dry valleys and corridors. Glacial overprint proved to be a dominant factor for the occurrence and distribution of several karst features in this high alpine setting. Extremely high densities of rather small dolines are found in areas that suffered from major glacial erosion whereas big features are found on elevated palaeolandscapes. A semi-quantitative classification of the occurrence of dolines, polygenetic poljes, glaciokarstic depressions, cave entrances, Karren and Tertiary clays with respect to the extent of glacial erosion is provided. The dependence of doline occurrence on lithology is not interpretable, as lithologies are not homogenously distributed with respect to glacial erosion, which seems to be the dominating factor. Fault control proved to be the dominant factor for doline elongation and linear arrangement of dolines. Comparison with fault data shows that orientational alignment of karst features mostly parallels sinistral strike-slip faults. Corridors, which are also solutional features, show the same preferred orientation, whereas dry valleys are mainly bound to E-W-directed faults with thick cataclasites that seem to favour erosion.
The researched area of the mountain massif Prenj with surface of 463 km2 is located in the zone of high karst of Outer Dinarides of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is circular mountain morphostructure with assymetrical transversal profile. Developed in Mesozoic subhorizontal layers of limestone and dolomite over 3500 thick, fissured by numerous reverse and normal faults. Prenj is folded-thrusted mountain massif (2103 m a.s.l.) uplifted during neotectonic phase of Dinarides development, structurally represented by three blocks. A high degree of correlation between lithology, fault structures and relief has been determinated. The main fault structures caused by rotation of Prenj blocks which were reflected on different orientations of stretching of the mountain ridges and composite valleys of Neretva, Konjička Bijela, Mostarska Bijela, Glogošnica and Idbar. Thrusts express tectonic, lithological, and morphological border of the considered mountain with inter mountain Neogene depressions in the North and South. Netectonic movements and dominanting carbonate composition of the terrain have influenced on reticular relief structure of the massif. Linear landforms of ridges formed in karst are neotectonically, rectilinearly and half-arc elongated up to 12 km. In regards to morphogenesis during the Quaternary, the massif is characterized by development: derasional, glacial, periglacial, karstic, fluviokarstic, fluviodenudational and fluvial erosional and accumulational processes and landforms. Finally, geomorphological regionalization of Prenj was made on the basis of the criteria of similarity of morpho-evolutionary, structural-lithological and orographical characteristics.
Snežnik and Gorski Kotar are mountainous areas in the Northern Dinaric Alps. We investigated this remote and densely forested area on the border between Slovenia and Croatia between 2011 and 2014. The result of the fieldwork campaign is a 1:30,000 geomorphological map covering almost 600 km2. The study area mainly consists of Mesozoic age limestone and dolostone. Karstified carbonate lithology results in almost the complete absence of surface run-off and a dominance of typical karst morphology. The extensive karstified area was modified by Quaternary glaciations; therefore, the recent landscape is characterized as a glaciokarst. The focus of the presented map is to provide a basis for further research of Quaternary glaciations in the areas of Snežnik and Gorski Kotar. Along with the map, we propose a legend for glaciokarst landscape mapping.
On the central part of the Velebit Mountain the traces of the Pleistocene glaciation have been found. The domination of the dissected relief, characterized by numerous elevations and depressions, in the conditions of low temperatures and richess of snow precipitation during the Pleistocene were a very good predisposition for glaciation development on the central part of the Velebit Mt.
We present and investigate the karren forms of the Island of Diego de Almagro. We mapped the bigger karren forms and we measured the density and the size of the smaller forms. We analysed the connection between the karren formation and the effect of the wind by using the morphological data. Because of the wind such karren forms developed on the island, which do not occur on the Earth elsewhere. (For example there are 'ripple karren'. These are steps with 1-2 cm width and height occurring on each other on a slope in several decimetres' length.) The direction of some karren forms is or can be the same as that of the wind and they become streamlined. Other forms can be (for example dissolutional basins) asymmetrical and these are very extensive. We present varieties of wind effect at karren formation. We analyse the role of these effects in the increasing of the dissolution, and in control of dissolution.
Morphological maps of a few meandering karren in Totes Gebirge have been made, and a range of meander parameters were measured. By using the terrain observations and the parameters of the meanders on the maps the development of the meanders can be explained and furthermore different types of meandering karren can be distinguished. © 2004 Gebrüder Borntraeger, D-14129 Berlin · D-70176 Stuttgart.
The relation between the inclination and the quality of the bearing slope, and the channel type and channel density of various rinnenkarren (type A and type B channels) was investigated. On the bare karren slopes of Totes Gebirge, the connection between the densities of type A and type B (type A channels have no tributary channels, and they are smaller; type B channels have tributary channels, and they are larger) channels and the slope angle was studied, while in laboratory the relation between the number of rivulets forming the channels and the slope angle and the quality of slope was analysed. The density of type A channels increases with the increase in the slope angle, while that of type B channels decreases. In the laboratory the number of rivulets on the various parts of the slope was studied on glass, gypsum and metal plates between 5 and 50° (as well as on metal plate between 1 and 70°). The dip angle of the bearing slope was modified every 5°. The number of rivulets increases with the slope angle mainly on the upper part of the slope and on the metal plate. The number of rivulets decreases towards the lower part of the slope in the case of the same slope and the same slope angle. The number of rivulets (and thus the number of channels) depends on the speed of water flow and the roughness of the surface. On a slope with a small dip angle (smaller than 20°), few rivulets and channels develop and, thus, rinnenkarren systems with large catchment areas may form whose main channels develop into large, type B channels. On slopes with a large dip angle (greater than 30°), numerous rivulets develop even at the beginning of channel development. Because of large rivulet density, channels with small catchment area and thus small-sized (type A) channels may develop. On the karren slopes, two models of channel development are possible: according to model 1, on slopes with a continuously smaller dip angle, the beginning of channel development is increasingly different, thus rinnenkarren systems form which are built by main and tributary channels. In the case of an increasing slope angle, this tendency is less and less valid. On slopes with an increasingly larger slope angle, the beginning of channel development will not be different. According to model 2 (based on the laboratory model), the rivulets that developed on the upper part of the slope join on the lower part of the slope. In this case the initiation of channel formation of the main and tributary channels of the rinnenkarren systems is similar. On the bare slopes of Totes Gebirge, model 1 can be regarded as the dominant one.
The geomorphological map of the northeastern Durmitor Mountains and the plateau Jezerska Povrs (1:10,000, 47 km2, Montenegro, Dinaric Alps) was prepared from an intensive fieldwork campaign and remote sensing analysis, and was compiled within a GIS. The basic components of the legend are (i) processes/genesis, (ii) materials, (iii) morphometry/morphography, (iv) hydrography, (v) vegetation and (vi) anthropogenic features. The geomorphological setting of the area consists of Mesozoic limestones which are physically deformed by Quaternary glacial and periglacial activity and chemically affected during interglacials. Glacial deposits on the plateau of three middle-to-late Pleistocene glacial phases are intersected by a well developed network of palaeo melt water channels. In the mountains, Holocene glacier retreat left behind a series of well-preserved recessional moraines. The map serves as a valuable tool for Quaternary research in the Durmitor Mountains, and also in other mountains of the Western Balkans.
Recent work in the Aladaglar Massif (37°45' N, 35°15' E) in the Central Taurids Range, resulted in new observations on the extent of the Pleistocene glaciation in this area. The massif, comprising mainly of carbonate rocks of Mesozoic age, covers an area of 800 km 2 between 1100 m and 3756 m of altitudes. Many of the glacial landforms, such as moraines and ice-dammed lake deposits, are well preserved because the fluvial system is poorly developed on the highly permeable karstic bedrock. The ice cap once located in Yedigöller high plateau (3200 m) covered 40 km 2 . Ice flowed into the valleys to the northeast, west and east. Based on the smoothed bedrock surfaces, the peak elevation of the ice cap during its maximum extent is estimated to be around ca. 3600-4000 m. Glacial landforms suggest the existence of 7 episodes of glacial advances and retreats. Young, fresh looking deposits are above 1800 m; older moraines extend further down to 1400 m. The Hacer valley has the largest number of moraines. Outwash deposits at the mouth of this valley extend down to 1200 m. Apart from the lateral and terminal moraines, dekameter-sized errat-ics are observed on top of the glacially sculpted bedrock. Today, a small glacier remnant, measuring ca. 1 km 2 , exists in the southwestern part of the Yedigöller plateau; it is in the form of dead ice buried under rock debris. Numerous freshly formed kettle holes, ice caves, glacial melt-water streams, stone circles and girlands represent glacial and periglacial processes. On the eastern flank of the Yedigöller plateau, at around 1800 m, moraines overly the doline fields of typical tropical karst (cockpit type). At higher elevations, all pre-glacial karstic landforms have been destroyed and many of the sinkhole type caves are blocked by till. However, the accesible caves in the form of verti-cal shafts usually terminate at till. Many of the open shafts above 2200 m contain snow, firn and ice that contains gas inclusions and layers of till. A thickest (up to 120 m) record of snow, firn and ice was discovered in a vertical karstic shaft located at ca. 3400 m. Preliminary results from our two years of field work in the Aladaglar show that the Pleis-tocene glaciation was much more widespread than previously thought. Future work will include cosmogenic 36 Cl dat-ing of morainic boulders, 14 C dating of glacio-lacutrine material and U/Th dating of speleothems found within ice in the karstic caves. Citation:
Kvithola is a system of vertical, relict phreatic karst conduits. The cave extends parallel with, and close to the wall of a formerly glaciated valley. The majority of passages were developed from sheet-fractures close to the surface. The corresponding paleohydraulic gradient was more than two orders of magnitude less than the surface slope. The only conceivable mode of phreatic flow is then by ice contact. -from Author
We compared karren formation of various slopes (three bare slopes and two with a plant patch) in a glacier valley close to Tragl peak (in Totes Gebirge, Austria). They were covered with a net of 50 × 50 cm mesh size for mapping purposes. Karren features of the slopes were mapped, their width and depth were measured along profiles. The averages of the specific width of the rinnenkarren (channels, runnels), the specific cross section area of the runnel and runnel density were calculated and averages for profiles and slope segments. It could be established that bare slopes have a larger average specific width, channel shape and channel density. The specific width and the specific cross-section area decrease moving from the lower parts towards the upper margin on bare slopes but they increase towards the margin of the plant patch on the slopes with a plant patch. The phenomena can be explained by the fact that the solution capacity is increased by the plant patch. Additional amounts of water with solution capacity flow from the surrounding surfaces into the karren forms on bare slopes. Therefore the solution capacity does not decrease down slope but increases. The solution capacity is low but scattered on the upper part of the bare slope but is intensive and concentrated on the upper part of the slope fed from a plant patch. The dynamics of karren features are different on the bare slopes and slopes fed from a plant patch. Karren features tend to widen on bare slopes, while they tend to deepen on slopes with a plant patch. The specific width is greater on slope with Pinus mugo than on slopes with a grass patch, and the specific cross-section area of the channel is also greater. Hence the solution intensity is higher on slopes fed from Pinus mugo than on slopes fed from a grass patch.
This paper analyses for the first time the influence of glaciation on underground karst landforms in the Croatian part of the Dinarides, as well as the interrelation between underground and surface relief developments under glacial conditions. The karst environment, as a good recorder of palaeo-environments, provides some new information on Quaternary glaciation in the Velebit Mountain in Croatia, and reveals, generally, the morphogenetic evolution of Stirovaca Ice Cave (in Croatian, "Ledenica u Stirovaci") and of the surrounding area. During cold periods, glacial exaration produced a particularly significant quantity of sediments. Consequently, underground karst conduits situated below the snow line during the Pleistocene were filled with high-energy sedimentary structures, glacial and fluvioglacial sediments. This reduced or even stopped their conduit function, and led to difficulties in the drainage of meteoric water, to lake formation within morphological depressions and to a rise in the local water-table level. With the denudation of these deposits, conduit reactivation and a drop in the underground water level occurred. Stabilisation during milder climatic conditions led to aggradation of the cave and to the deposition of flowstones from 8,230 +/- 150 years BP.
Glacio-karst closed depressions are the major large scale karst landforms of the Eastern Massif of the Picos de Europea. The depressions are associated with a higher density of caves than the surrounding areas, and major shaft systems presently drain their floors. During valley glaciation the major depressions functioned as cirques, with smaller depressions also developing in the floor of glacial troughs and in glacier margin locations. Active sub- glacial karst circulation occurred to the major resurgence which was beyond the glacial limit, but sub-glacial initiation of caves is also indicated. Overall glacial erosion dominates surface landform development, but underground the relative effects are more equal. -from Author
It is hypothesised that glacial truncation of the pre-glacial surfaces was imperfect. Where truncation was partial, an older set of grikes was preserved and have widened in post-glacial times. Where truncation was complete, grike initiation took place entirely during the post-glacial period. On any one stretch of pavement the 2 populations of grikes may be detected by the careful analysis of the morphometric data. In the present study, histograms of grike width data from several pavements in the Morecambe Bay karst area have been examined. -from Authors
In this study, the evolution, the development and the development environment of solution dolines of glaciokarst (the Alps and the Dinarides) are studied. Based on morphological observations (partly with the help of literary data), the dolines of sample sites were put into doline types (giant solution doline, small-sized solution doline and schachtdoline). The various features of the dolines belonging to different doline types were analysed and compared: their size, shape, elongated nature and the slope angle of their side slope. Giant solution dolines are much more similar to the dolines of the temperate belt rather than to small-sized solution dolines or schachtdolines. At temperate climate, giant solution dolines developed under the tree line similarly to dolines of the temperate belt, and not above the tree line. Below the tree line, the dolines grew horizontally to the effect of horizontal dissolution. Later, in the glacials, they developed laterally mainly along their longer axis by glacial erosion. They got into their periglacial environment during the uplifting of the bearing area. In mountains where they are absent, the circumstances of their environment were not present either because the uplifting of the mountain was fast or it was covered by non-karstic rock. The shapes of small-sized solution dolines and schachtdolines prove that their increase happened by deepening. Their deepening was caused by the meltwater of the snow patches of snow drifts which water does not move laterally because of the rock debris of the floor and thus, solution works downwards in the features. Deepening and snow accumulation strengthen each other. These karstic depressions are connected to the periglacial zone because treeless environment favours snow drifts. If the depression is completely filled with snow in most part of the year, the snow patch is wide thus, dissolution affects the total width of the doline. A doline (schachtdoline) with vertical sides and plain floor develops. If snow-fill is only partial in most part of the year, the snow patch and thus, dissolution will have a smaller area and a small-sized solution doline with funnel shape develops.
Addresses two problems: establishing the extent of modern karst ground water circulation and associated karst landform genesis in terrains with permafrost today; determining whether there may be significant development of karst below glaciers in regions that will become permafrozen upon deglaciation. It appears that subglacially generated karst systems cannot be passed on as a viable inheritance when the terrain reverts to deep continuous permafrost conditions upon deglaciation. -K.Clayton
There is extensive karst development in Paleozoic carbonate and sulphate strata of the Front and Main ranges, southern Rocky Mountains of Canada. Its characteristics are summarized under six headings: 1) Lithology and structure. 2) Spatial and typological patterns of carbonate solution. 3) Groundwater systems and caves. 4) Karst groundwater systems and glacial hydrology. 5) Types of surface karst landforms. 6) Altitudinal zonation of surface karst. -from Author
This book provides an overview of covered karst types, covered karst features, functioning of covered karst features, the evolution of covered karst features and the development of covered karst reliefs. The introductory chapters present the characteristics of karst, the investigated areas and the applied methods. The covered karsts are categorized according to the quality and development of the superficial deposit and its geomorphological position and environment. The morphology, development, functioning, sediment development and the transformation of the karst features are presented. The relationship between the covered karst formation and climate is analyzed; including the covered karst formation of the tundra climate, taiga climate, temperate zone climate, subtropical, tropical climate and the high mountains. The manifestation of the human activity on covered karsts is presented.
Most of the largest and best-known karst forms in non-tropical climates are linked to litho-hydrologic contacts. The essay presents some evidence for their genetic linkage to horizontal and vertical contract. At the same time, it explains the conception of contact karst and its main types. -from Author
This book provides a broad account of glacial geology which is particularly suited to students at undergraduate level. Following an introductory chapter the book is organised as follows: chapter two introduces the history of ice on Earth underlining the causes of ice ages; chapters three and four detail the mechanisms of the glacial system; chapters five and six continue with the processes of glacial erosion and consider the landforms they create; chapters seven to eleven tackle the processes of glacial sedimentation and landform development; and finally chapter 12 interprets how large scale patterns of glacial erosion are reflected in the landscape.
Gomance is a piedmont karst polje in the northern Dinaric Alps presenting geomorphological and sedimentological evidence of past glaciation. During the Pleistocene the polje was situated at the edge of the Snežnik and Gorski Kotar ice fields from where two outlet glaciers reached Gomance. The morphogenesis of the polje was reconstructed by means of geomorphological mapping, sedimentological studies, and ground penetrating radar (GPR) measurements, supported by hand-drillings. With GPR an almost entirely buried moraine system was also imaged and mapped, crucial in reconstructing the polje history. The depression was karstified and well drained without any surface streams before the Last Glaciation. When the glacier front reached the depression, the entire floor became covered by glacial and outwash deposits. Surface runoff dominated over karst drainage in a large part of the polje, particularly where distal outwash deposits with low effective porosity functioned as an aquitard. These deposits diverted surface drainage toward the lowest edge of the polje, which functioned as a ponor front along the entire length. The outwash system of the Gomance polje was active during the Last Glaciation as suggested by radiocarbon-dated outwash deposits.
With a focus on karren formation in high mountains, and specifically in the European Alps, this text summarizes the scientific results of systematic observations made during field trips, as well as the interpretation, using modern analytical methods, of the data collected. Márton Veress, who has been working in different types of karren landscapes for more than fifteen years, presents the conditions and processes of high mountain karren formation as well as the properties of karren features. The book analyzes karren phenomena, their development, and their formation under different environmental conditions. Introductory chapters provide an overview of karren formations, in addition to charting the history of research into karst environments at high altitude. The author then provides details of the sampling sites and the localities he has studied, and experimental procedures undertaken. After covering the details of the age and rate of karren form development, Veress gives an in-depth explanation of the general characteristics of high mountain karren formations. The text then provides an overview of morphogenetic types of karren formations as well as karren assemblages, and an explanation of karren belts on slopes, emphasizing the key reconstruction role they play in slope development. The final chapters describe coalescing types and their origin, offer the reader a detailed description of karren cells and their characteristic features, and analyze the relationship between different karren formations.
The Orjen Massif is situated in the southeastern part of the Dinaric Mountains on the border between Montenegro, Croatia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its highest peak is Zubački kabao (1894m). Detailed geomorphological mapping was used to facilitate reconstruction of the extent of ice advance during the last glacial maximum within four valley glaciers in western Orjen. The length of the glaciers in the valleys was up to 4km. Glaciation of the karstic surface resulted in a series of features that are typical of glaciokarst. In the upper of the valleys there are a number of over-deepened cirques, kotlič and cave entrances. In the accumulation-dominant areas of the glaciers distinct lateralterminal moraine complexes were formed and proglacial fans exhibit features indicative of formation by multiple glacial floods that were an indirect result of the contemporary functioning of the glacial and karstic geomorphic system. By studying the up-valley limits of lateral moraines and applying an altitude-ratio methodology, the equilibrium line altitude of the glaciers during their maximum extent was determined at an elevation of 1325m.
This paper attempts to dispel the notion that limestone pavements are typical karst landforms. The confused terminology is briefly discussed, and the relation between lapiés and pavements is explained. A summary of views on the origin of limestone pavements precedes their detailed analysis. In the British Isles, glacial scouring is shown to be of fundamental importance in their creation, while solution of limestone--a karst process--is subservient; corrosion simply modifies the glaciated surface. Limestone pavements are therefore glacio-karstic features. Geological influences on pavement formation are examined. Pavements are found most extensively developed on dense, pure, horizontally bedded limestones; hence in the British Isles, Carboniferous limestones are favoured. Sedimentary cycles and petrological variations in the limestones are also considered to have a bearing on pavement morphology. Finally, the development and rate of erosion of limestone pavements are discussed. The evolution of pavements is seen to be a sequence which can be repeated only if the locality is glaciated afresh.
On a world scale, the dissolution of limestone and gypsum by natural waters creates extensive karst landforms that can be very difficult ground for civil engineers. Caves threaten foundation integrity, notably where their width is greater than their roof thickness. Sinkholes pose many problems, and are classified into six types, including subsidence sinkholes formed in soil cover within karst terrains. Rockhead morphology varies from uniform to pinnacled, also creating difficult ground to excavate or found upon. A proposed engineering classification of karst defines various complexities of ground conditions by the geohazards that they provide, mainly the caves, sinkholes and rockhead relief. Ground investigation techniques and foundation design philosophies are considered so that they are appropriate to the ground conditions provided by the different classes of karst.
Glaciokarst is a landscape which combines karst features and hydrology as well as inherited glacial features. It is a result of glaciation upon a karst geomorphological system. The relationship between glaciers and karst is rather poorly known and inadequately recognised. This research focuses on three distinct karst areas along the Adriatic coast in the southern Dinaric Alps that were affected by the Quaternary glaciations. An insight into specific glaciokarst processes and surface features was provided through the study of the areas of the Lovćen, Orjen and Velež Mountains. A glaciokarst geomorphology is in general well preserved due to the prevailing vertically oriented chemical denudation following deglaciation and almost the entire absence of other surface processes. Typical glacial erosional features are combined by a variety of depressions which are the result of a karstic drainage of subglacial waters. The majority of glacial deposits occur as extensive lateral-terminal moraine complexes, which are often dissected by smaller breach-lobe moraines on the external side of the ridge. Those moraine complexes are likely to be a product of several glacial events, which is supported by complex depositional structures. According to the type of glacial depositional features, the glaciers in the study areas were likely to have characteristics of moraine-dammed glaciers. Due to vertical drainage ice-marginal fluvial processes were unable to evacuate sediment. Fluvial transport between glacial and pro-glacial systems in karst areas is inefficient. Nevertheless, some sediment from the glacier margin is washed away by the pro-glacial streams, filling the karst depressions and forming piedmont-type poljes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
In the monsoon tropics of northern Australia, a strongly-developed karrenfield is intimately associated with extensive underlying epikarstic maze caves. The caves, and the mesokarren and ruiniform megakarren are mainly restricted to a flat-lying, 20 m thick, unit of interbedded limestone and dolomite. However, microkarren are mainly found on the flaggy limestones of the overlying unit. These are the best-developed microkarren in Australia, and possibly worldwide.
A retreating cover results in a zonation of the main karrenfield from a mildly-dissected youthful stage at the leading edge through to old age and disintegration into isolated blocks and pinnacles at the trailing edge. Cave undermining has formed collapse dolines and broader subsidence areas within the karrenfield. Tufa deposits occur in major valleys crossing the karrenfield. The karrenfield shows some similarities to other tropical karren, including tsingy and stone forests (shilin), but in this area there has not been any initial stage of subcutaneous preparation
The Folded Molasse zone of the Northern Alps consists of clastic sedimentary rocks that are usually not considered to be karstifiable. However, large areas within this zone are composed of carbonatic conglomerates. Numerous karst landforms have recently been discovered but are not recorded on official maps and in the literature. Therefore, a research programme was initiated at the Hochgrat site (Austria/Germany) that included geomorphological mapping and characterisation of the karst phenomena. Both fracture-controlled and hydrodynamically-controlled karren were observed on conglomerate outcrops. The predominant karst landforms, dolines, are typically circular, funnel shaped, most often 2 to 9m in diameter, 1 to 6m deep, and frequently act as swallow holes. Poljes that are atypically small (~1ha) occur in either glacial cirques or syncline depressions, are flat floored and lined with sediment and soil, and drain underground via swallow holes. Short caves, springs with marked discharge variations and estavelles are further evidence for karst development. Karstic landforms are widespread in carbonatic conglomerate terrains, but their dimensions are smaller than in typical limestone karst. The practical implications of these findings are also briefly mentioned in this paper.
Cvijic was the first to collect evidence on the glacial morphology of the Balkans, at the end of the 19th century. He reported the existence of glacial features on the three highest mountains of Serbia, Prokletije, Sara and Koritnik. The most recent investigations have been carried out using remote sensing techniques supplemented by field observations. This approach has led to the discovery of numerous cirques, glacial troughs, moraines and other characteristic features produced by Pleistocene glaciers in these mountains. Analysis of the positions and mutual relationships between the glacial features of these three mountain areas has enabled determination of the Pleistocene snowline altitude. Results indicate that it occurred at 1900 m elevation on the northern faces and 2200 m on the southern faces. These results indicate that the development of the Pleistocene, more precisely the Würmian glaciation, was restricted to the highest elevations within the areas investigated. The type of glacier, which was formed, was dependent on the snowline position (i.e. on the topographic surface above it). Most glaciers developed in cirques, as hanging glaciers, and troughs, as valley glaciers. On Sara Mountain, where a vast plain existed at 2200–2400 m altitude, plateau-type glaciers developed.
Joint systems in the Great Scar Limestone of the Settle area have been re-examined and three varieties found: conjugate joints, tension joints and low angle joints, the first being by far the commonest. Plumose structures found on conjugate joint faces suggest cleavage fracture as the method of origin.
Conjugate joint spacings are fairly regular except where joints extend across bedding planes. A method for assessing conjugate joint densities in beds from scars is described and its application throughout the area shows consistent results; the limestones of the S zone present little variation whereas those of the D1 zone form a sequence of nine rhythms where the succession is complete.
Modal analyses of limestone suites collected from the rhythms of the D1 zone demonstrate a correlation of high joint density with coarse-grained limestones and low joint density with carbonate mudstones. Differences in joint density do not appear to influence the orientation of conjugate joints, and bed thickness does not control densities.