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Affordances in nature: Australian primary school children identify learning opportunities
... Concepts such as intercultural education and empowerment are interconnected, allowing the voice of students to be heard and acted upon (Rud-duck & Flutter, 2004). This is a path with a transformative power (Sharma-Brymer, Davids, Brymer, & Bland, 2018) to facilitate dialogue between individuals and cultures where values, intentions, conceptions, and worldviews are exchanged and reconstructed. This may affect the construction of relationships and mutual affection, the transformation of the modes of knowledge production, the empowerment of individuals and groups, and the development of more equitable, inclusive, and democratic communities. ...
... Studies have reported positive effects for students including engagement in active and critical citizenship, the development of autonomy, responsibility, creativity, reflexivity, and social leadership, along with stronger communication skills (Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018), as well as enhanced cooperation and negotiation (Bourke & Loveridge, 2018;Fielding, 2016Fielding, , 2018. Active participation in the learning process is related to a consequent sense of control (Mitra, 2018) and educational success (Cook-Sather, 2018). ...
... These results are in tune with those obtained by many other researchers focused on the voice of students who highlight the importance of participatory processes involving students and schools (Bourke & Loveridge, 2018;Fletcher, 2005;Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018). Special attention is given to intercultural learning and to the development of an ethic of alterity and care, based on self-reflective and intersubjective processes and built on the interaction with others (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2005;Diaz-Aguado, 2004;Fleuri, 2003;Loo et al., 2019;Meunier, 2014;Rego et al., 2007). ...
This paper presents a multi-case study in the field of intercultural education and it refers to a project named “Voice of children and young people in the development of intercultural education”. The cases are critical action-research projects developed with three groups of middle and high school students. They participated in dialogic processes and shared leadership with their teachers. They co-designed projects, debated and became aware of critical issues related to cultural diversity in their educational communities. The purpose of the research is to analyze participatory processes and associated changes in relation to intercultural education and students’ voice frameworks. Personal changes of the students, such as self-awareness and attention to others and to relationships, and group changes such as cohesion, were underlined, as well as changes extended to other actors —teachers, other students, staff, tutors, and other members of the community— creating collaborative relationships, solidarity, and mutual recognition. There were visible changes during the most active period in which projects were held, but sometimes impacts still endured and deepened afterwards. This stresses the relevance of youngsters’ participatory projects engaged in intercultural processes and change.
... For example, projects can be hampered by factors such as decimated bird populations, which is corroborated by the theme of 'too few birds' recurring in the free-text answers as the least liked aspect of the project (Appendix S5), This shows a well-functioning local ecosystem with high nature values is fundamental for nature interactions to transpire in the first place. Ideally, both affordances for children and biodiversity conservation should be taken into account when designing cities which are areas where most people reside and nature is highly altered (Felappi et al., 2020;Giusti et al., 2018;Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018). Several decisions on a planning level can be made to improve urban nature, such as increasing size and quality of greenspaces, including choosing bird-friendly plants that provide natural food sources, since bird feeding alone may not be beneficial (Dallimer et al., 2016;Jensen et al., 2023;Plummer et al., 2013;Shutt et al., 2021). ...
Children's interactions with nature are important mediators of health benefits and future relationships with nature and conservation. However, there are growing concerns that children are becoming disconnected from nature as societal changes make natural environments and their affordances less accessible. There is now a need to explore ways to reconnect children to nature.
We evaluated bird feeding as an environmental education intervention on species knowledge, attitudes towards birds and well‐being of children (aged 10–11 years) in 14 urban and rural schools across three city regions. We used surveys to investigate the role of urbanisation and socio‐economic factors in children's relationships with nature and possible modulating effects on the intervention response.
Local nature, close to the children's homes, was associated with better well‐being and modulated the effect of the intervention on species knowledge: children from areas with less local nature gained more from the project. Urbanisation per se had no direct impacts but did correlate with the types of affordances associated with nature by the children, suggesting differences in how urban and rural children utilise nature.
We found that socio‐economic factors impacted pre‐existing species knowledge and attitudes towards nature. Higher education was associated with better species knowledge. Higher income correlated with children participating in more outdoor activities, which subsequently correlated with more positive attitudes towards birds. Species knowledge also correlated with positive attitudes. We found large differences in the intervention impact between schools, likely explained by a pivotal role of teachers facilitating nature interactions in school‐based projects.
Our findings show that bird feeding has potential as an intervention to connect children with nature, but ecological and social contexts moderate its efficacy. Local greenspace and socio‐economics influenced children's relationships with nature in both urban and rural areas, indicating that local conditions rather than urbanisation levels govern connection to nature. Role models appeared crucial, suggesting that specialised environmental education organisations have significant potential to enhance nature connection through interventions, particularly in areas with low socio‐economic levels and sparse nature.
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... In the case of students, they include engagement in active and critical citizenship, the development of autonomy, responsibility, creativity, reflexivity, and social leadership. In addition, they develop stronger communication skills (Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018) together with enhanced cooperation and negotiation (Bourke & Loveridge, 2018). Active participation in the learning process is related to educational success, self-esteem, the sense of belonging, integration, and motivation, and students exhibit a greater sense of responsibility, sense of justice, commitment, and care towards the welfare of the school and the wider community (Gordon, 2019). ...
... This study makes the assumption that to achieve this combination of elements, NBL must occur in a naturebased environment outside the classroom where the experience has the potential to be immersive. This assumption stems from an ecological psychology framework that views the most effective learning in a learning context as that which emerges from a person-environment relationship and utilizes both the functional and relational properties of this environment (Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018). This also relates to Gibson's theory of affordances and the properties of an environment that support development (Khan et al., 2020). ...
Nature-based learning within the primary school curriculum offers numerous potential benefits. However, there is a lack of clarity about how school grounds can be designed to enable effective nature-based learning. There is also little knowledge of how specific features within green school grounds contribute to specific desirable outcomes, such as improved academic performance or health. To address this gap, a systematised review of peer-reviewed academic literature was undertaken, with 173 databases searched from January to December 2021. The search included studies of nature-based learning on school grounds and literature concerned with the design of green school grounds for fostering nature connectedness and broader educational outcomes for primary school children aged 5 to 11. No date or geographical restrictions were applied. Of a total of 285 articles initially identified, 11 matched the inclusion criteria. Results from these indicate significant research gaps on the design of green learning spaces in schools. While studies note apparent positive links between nature-based learning in school grounds and improved subject-specific learning, wellbeing, and nature connectedness, there is very little empirical evidence of how specific design features are linked to specific outcomes. Furthermore, the current evidence base is poorly representative of different social, cultural, and geographical contexts and not fully reflective of all primary schooling ages. The challenging contexts of urban schools and schools with small footprints are also inadequately addressed. These findings indicate an urgent need for increased research to guide the design of school grounds for the implementation of nature-based learning programmes for primary school learners.
... Questi risultati sono in sintonia con quelli ottenuti da molti altri ricercatori focalizzati sulla voce degli studenti che evidenziano l'importanza dei processi partecipativi che coinvolgono studenti e scuole (Bourke & Loveridge, 2018;Fletcher, 2005;Sharma-Brymer et al., 2018). Particolare attenzione è data all'apprendimento interculturale e allo sviluppo di un'etica dell'alterità e della cura, basata su processi auto-riflessivi e intersoggettivi e costruita sull'interazione con gli altri (Abdallah-Pretceille, 2005;Diaz-Aguado, 2004;Fleuri, 2003;Loo et al., 2019;Meunier, 2014;Rego et al., 2007). ...
This is a multi-level study in the field of intercultural education and refers to a project called “The voice of students”. The cases are action research projects developed with a group of primary school students. They participated in dialogical processes and shared leadership with their teachers. They co-designed projects, debated and became aware of critical issues related to cultural diversity in their educational communities. The aim of the research is to analyze participatory processes and associated changes in relation to intercultural education and relational structures that have emerged from students’ thoughts. From the data analysis it emerged that students’ personal changes, such as self-awareness and attention to others and relationships, group changes such as cohesion, as well as changes developed to other actors: teachers, other students they have created relationships of collaboration, solidarity, and mutual recognition. There were visible changes during the busiest time of the projects, but sometimes the effects continued and deepened thereafter. This underlines the importance of participatory projects of children engaged in intercultural processes and change.
La voce degli studenti.
Il presente contributo presenta uno studio a più livelli nel campo dell’educazione interculturale e fa riferimento a un progetto denominato “La voce degli studenti”. I casi sono progetti di ricerca-azione sviluppati con un gruppo di studenti della scuola primaria. Hanno partecipato a processi dialogici e hanno condiviso la leadership con i loro insegnanti. Hanno co-progettato progetti, dibattuto e preso coscienza di questioni critiche legate alla diversità culturale nelle loro comunità educative. Lo scopo della ricerca è analizzare i processi partecipativi e i cambiamenti associati in relazione all’educazione interculturale e alle strutture relazionali emerse dai pensieri degli studenti. Dall’analisi dei dati è merso che i cambiamenti personali degli studenti, come la consapevolezza di sé e l’attenzione agli altri e alle relazioni, i cambiamenti di gruppo come la coesione, così come i cambiamenti estesi ad altri attori: insegnanti, altri studenti, hanno creato relazioni di collaborazione, solidarietà e riconoscimento reciproco. Ci sono stati cambiamenti visibili durante il periodo più attivo in cui si sono svolti i progetti, ma a volte gli effetti sono continuati e si sono approfonditi in seguito. Ciò sottolinea l’importanza dei progetti partecipativi dei bambini impegnati nei processi interculturali e nel cambiamento.
... Attitudes exhibited in a non-lesson and lesson context do vary and this variation can be attributed to the nature and the quality of learning experiences and the way that children interact with their peers. Sharma-Brymer et al. (2018) argue "that more regard must be given to children's voices and learning preferences in the development of school curriculum". The research presented in this article highlights children's attitudinal response to particular learning experiences. ...
Within a class setting, children’s interactions with other children play an important role in their development (Kiuru et al., 2015; Leflot et al., 2011) with several researchers acknowledging the relationship between children who have supportive relationships with peers and their academic engagement, performance and motivation (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Kiuru et al., 2015). In mathematics education, peers have been found to influence attitudes towards mathematics (Mata et al., 2012; Pepin, 2011). Given the body of research recognises that peers influence attitudes, engagement and even achievement, there is a dearth of research that explores how peers influence young children’s attitudes towards mathematics and the implications this has on the teaching and learning of mathematics
... Nevertheless, much of the research appears to show the value of agency for the learner and creative freedom provided by outdoor learning (Flannigan and Dietze 2017;Gustafson & van der Burgt 2015;Maynard et al. 2013;Sefton-Green 2006). Research also highlights the apparent cognitive benefits of the outdoor environment (Ampuero et al. 2015;Dillon et al. 2005;Ulset et al. 2017;Wyver 2017) and the beneficial results to one's wellbeing when in contact with nature (Adams and Beauchamp 2020;Capaldi et al. 2015;Mayer et al. 2009;Pritchard et al. 2019;Sharma-Brymer et al. 2018). Despite these research findings, it has been argued that children are not being given enough opportunities to learn outdoors (Waite 2017). ...
The benefits of taking pupils’ learning outdoors have been widely reported around the world. However, it is argued the simple act of stepping outside the classroom does not inevitably bring rewards. This study examines teachers’ perceptions of the impact of primary school pupils’ music-making in various outdoor rural locations. It analyses qualitative data from semi-structured interviews with seven teachers from six different primary school classes, who observed their classes as they took part in the music-making. The validity of the teachers’ perceptions is triangulated with evidence from semi-structured interviews with six groups of children from the six different classes. The analyses show the teachers perceived that the space, the new soundscape and the close contact with nature afforded by the different locations engendered enhanced experimentation and expressiveness. The teachers suggested that, as a result, the children became immersed in, and focussed on, their music-making. The study suggests teachers identify potential benefits for children aged 7–10 years in making music in outdoor locations. We conclude greater phenomenological, body-focussed understandings in education and an increased awareness of somaesthetic perspectives may be beneficial for teachers to explore in pupils’ music- making and in other creative areas of the curriculum.
... Ecological Dynamics conceptualizes an individual as a complex system influenced by surrounding environmental characteristics [74,87]. Within the person-environment interplay, the physical and social environments shape opportunities for individual responses. ...
Two decades ago, McKenzie’s meta-analysis of literature provided six fundamental elements of adventure education programme design still used to guide research and practice today. While the value of McKenzie’s early work should not be underestimated, adventure education has undergone considerable changes. Adventurous activities are now available in urban and indoor contexts and used to facilitate a growing health and wellbeing agenda. The use of risk as part of adventure education programming has also been critiqued. This paper reflects on contemporary notions of adventure, risk and the emergent narratives emphasising the associated psychological benefits. The Ecological Dynamics framework, along with representative design delivery, are presented as a viable way of building on McKenzie’s work. Both consider how effective outcomes in adventure education programmes are achieved through designs that focus on the unique relationship between the individual and their environment. While McKenzie’s six elements recognise the importance of human relationships, Ecological Dynamics forefronts relational elements, not just between participants but, importantly, the task and the environment. Individual participant needs in relation to their everyday life therefore become the focus of adventure education expanding beyond the traditional long-standing narratives of risk and danger. Through these two important concepts, this paper advocates an approach to the design of adventure representative of a participant’s everyday environment. In this way, adventure education outcomes translate beyond the adventure-specific context and align more holistically with the needs of individual participants while also assuring emphasis on individual health and wellbeing.
... Interactions and exposure to nature not only enhance SWB but also enhance peoples relationship with others and their environment (Fabjanski and Brymer 2017;Sharma-Brymer et al. 2018). Participation in activities that provide opportunities to interact with, or be immersed in nature are likely to enhance SWB and the desire to protect the environment (Brymer and Schweitzer 2017;Brymer et al. 2009;Brymer and Gray 2010). ...
... Interactions and exposure to nature not only enhance SWB but also enhance peoples relationship with others and their environment (Fabjanski and Brymer 2017;Sharma-Brymer et al. 2018). Participation in activities that provide opportunities to interact with, or be immersed in nature are likely to enhance SWB and the desire to protect the environment (Brymer and Schweitzer 2017;Brymer et al. 2009;Brymer and Gray 2010). ...
Citation:
Parsons, H., Houge Mackenzie, S., Filep, S. & Brymer, E. (2019). Subjective well-being and leisure. In W. Leal Filho, T., Wall, A. Marisa Azul, L. Brandli, & P. Gökcin Özuyar (Eds.), Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Good Health and Well-being, World Sustainability Series, Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-69627-0_8-1
This chapter discusses subjective well-being within the context of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) encompassed the key social, environmental and economic dimensions that can universally improve peoples’ lives and protect the planet for future generations. Sustainable Development Goal 3 in particular focuses on ensuring health and promoting well-being for all people, at all ages. Statistics on well-being are increasingly measured, in part, through accounts of subjective well-being (SWB). In this chapter we define SWB, placing it within the context of overall well-being, and summarize the relevant literature to date. The chapter examines hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, introduces global measurements of SWB and discusses both barriers to and facilitators of SWB, focusing particularly on the role of leisure, especially nature-based leisure, as a unique and useful way of developing, maintaining and enhancing SWB.
... Interactions and exposure to nature not only enhance SWB but also enhance peoples relationship with others and their environment (Fabjanski and Brymer 2017;Sharma-Brymer et al. 2018). Participation in activities that provide opportunities to interact with, or be immersed in nature are likely to enhance SWB and the desire to protect the environment (Brymer and Schweitzer 2017;Brymer et al. 2009;Brymer and Gray 2010). ...
The purpose of this chapter is to explore the concept of subjective well-being within the context of the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. In 2015, the United Nations established 17 universal Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These SDGs encompassed the key social, environmental and economic dimensions that can universally improve peoples’ lives and protect the planet for future generations. Sustainable Development Goal 3 in particular focuses on ensuring health and promoting well-being for all people, at all ages. Statistics on well-being are increasingly measured, in part, through accounts of subjective well-being (SWB). This chapter defines SWB, placing it within the context of overall well-being, and summarizes the relevant literature to date. The chapter examines hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, introduces global measurements of SWB and discusses both barriers to and facilitators of SWB, focusing particularly on the role of leisure as a unique and useful way of developing, maintaining and enhancing SWB.
Social participation in schoolyards is crucial for children’s development. Yet, schoolyard environments contain features that can hinder children’s social participation. In this paper, we empirically examine schoolyards to identify existing obstacles. Traditionally, this type of study requires huge amounts of detailed information about children in a given environment. Collecting such data is exceedingly difficult and expensive. In this study, we present a novel sensor data-driven approach for gathering this information and examining the effect of schoolyard environments on children's behaviours in light of schoolyard affordances and individual effectivities. Sensor data is collected from 150 children at two primary schools, using location trackers, proximity tags, and Multi-Motion receivers to measure locations, face-to-face contacts, and activities. Results show strong potential for this data-driven approach, as it allows collecting data from individuals and their interactions with schoolyard environments, examining the triad of physical, social, and cultural affordances in schoolyards, and identifying factors that significantly impact children’s behaviours. Based on this approach, we further obtain better knowledge on the impact of these factors and identify limitations in schoolyard designs, which can inform schools, designers, and policymakers about current problems and practical solutions.
Physical activity (PA) is essential for human health and wellbeing across all age, socioeconomic, and ethnic groups. Engagement with the natural world is a new defining criterion for enhancing the benefits of PA, particularly for children and young people. Interacting with nature benefits children's social and emotional wellbeing, develops resilience, and reduces the risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus across all population groups. Governments around the world are now recognizing the importance of children spending more active time outdoors. However, children's outdoor activities, free play, and nature-related exploration are often structured and supervised by adults due to safety concerns and risks. In this context, schools become more accessible and safe options for children to engage in PA outdoors with the presence of nature features. Research on school designs involving young children has revealed that children prefer nature-related features in school environments. Affordances in nature may increase children's interest in physically active behaviors. Given that present school campuses are designed for operational efficiency and economic reasons, there is a need to re-design schools responding to the positive role of nature on human health. If schools were re-designed to incorporate diverse natural features, children's PA and consequent health and wellbeing would likely improve markedly.
BACKGROUND
Students are the heart of the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model. Students are the recipients of programs and services to ensure that they are healthy, safe, engaged, supported, and challenged and also serve as partners in the implementation and dissemination of the WSCC model.
METHODS
A review of the number of students nationwide enjoying the 5 Whole Child tenets reveals severe deficiencies while a review of student-centered approaches, including student engagement and student voice, appears to be one way to remedy these deficiencies.
RESULTS
Research in both education and health reveals that giving students a voice and engaging students as partners benefits them by fostering development of skills, improvement in competence, and exertion of control over their lives while simultaneously improving outcomes for their peers and the entire school/organization.
CONCLUSIONS
Creating meaningful roles for students as allies, decision makers, planners, and consumers shows a commitment to prepare them for the challenges of today and the possibilities of tomorrow.
This study evaluates the landscape perception and preferences of students from different education levels in Düzce province, Turkey. Several research have demonstrated that environmental attitudes and behaviours of adults are formed according to their environmental experiences. Outdoor recreational activity preferences of a family could also have a substantial influence on landscape preferences of children. There has been little research that evaluate children's perception and about their playgrounds. Consideration of children's needs and their landscape preferences would be important for designing better play spaces. Photographs were used to determine naturalness degrees by specialists. These photographs were shown to 280 students attending elementary school, middle school and high school of different levels. Students were asked if the landscapes from the photographs were aesthetic pleasing and safe; and if they would accept them as playgrounds. The results indicated that the students would prefer the areas as playgrounds even though they may not find them safe. However, the majority of students regarded some of the landscapes were aesthetic and safe. The findings show that the students' ages, education levels and physical appearances could yield substantial differences on their landscape perception and preferences. The students would highly prefer the landscapes if they have been involved in rural recreational experiences which could have a substantial effect on their landscape perception and preferences.
An increasing number of Danish teachers have started introducing school-based outdoor learning as a weekly or biweekly ‘outdoor school’ day for school children—often called udeskole in Danish. Although at least 14% of Danish schools practise this form of outdoor teaching with some classes, it is not mentioned in the national curriculum and little is presently known about the nature of udeskole. Drawing on a conceptual framework about different curriculum domains, we explore outdoor learning theory and practice in Danish schools. We describe and analyse the advocated pedagogy and didactics of the Danish udeskole movement as well as current practice through a review of the literature and a nationwide survey of 107 responding teachers. We also reveal discrepancies between the advocated and practised outdoor learning curriculum. Finally, we present recommendations on how to bridge these gaps and develop the practice further.
In children's lives there are a lot of instigators for actions in every milieu and situation. When children grow older, the cortical activity starts to regulate the action instigation from the limbic system. The school system makes demands of action regulation for children. In outdoor education the many instigators for actions are not under the same demands for regulation as inside the classroom. In this study we have interviewed nine children about their experience with outdoor education. The interviews shows a wide variability of affordances grasped from outdoor education, as well as a tendency toward gender differences in what kind of action possibilities they grasp. These activities give the children useful experiences that are directly and indirectly relevant for their curriculum.
The purpose of this article is to quantitatively and qualitatively explore children's physically active play outdoors in a traditional playground and natural (nature) environment and discuss how these environments influence children's physical activity. Fjørtoft has previously explored the relationship between environmental affordances and children's play and development. She suggests that environmental complexity and diversity in nature are highly associated with increased play opportunities and activities. To explore the interactive relationship between children and their material environments, Kyttä has theoretically specified and clarified this relationship in the view of ecological perceptual psychology based on Gibson's theory of affordances. To understand how affordances in the play environment influence 3-to 5-year-old children's (n = 16) level of physical activity play, accelerometers were used to measure physically active play, and Heft's functional taxonomy of children's outdoor play environment was utilised in observing how the children actualised the potential affordances in free play. The results show there is no difference in the level of physically active play between the traditional playground environment and the natural environment in this study. Strong correlations of level of physically active play on an individual basis were found among the different days. This indicates that the children's physically active behaviour on an individual basis is similar from day-to-day, relatively independent of the environment. In analysing these results for the potential benefits of physically active play in pre-school, constraints in the individual (personal characteristics), the physical environment (complexity, diversity) and the sociocultural environment (pre-school culture) are discussed.
The aim of this paper is to investigate children's views and experiences of democracy and pupil participation in relation to everyday school life, and to let their voices be heard on these issues. The data for this paper was derived from two ethnographic research projects conducted in three elementary schools in Sweden. In the classes investigated at two of the three schools, the adults are those who make decisions about school and classroom rules. Pupils are seldom given any opportunity to create, modify or repeal formal rules through open negotiations. In contrast, at the third school, children's influence and their ability to have a say are an important explicit goal for the teachers. Nevertheless, as well as in the two other schools, even in this school with the declared goal of working with democracy in this way, we found obstacles and limitations that counteracted school democracy: (a) discontinuity, (b) the long-term interaction pattern of teacher power and pupil subordination in the school organisation, which in turned encouraged and educated compliance with authority rather than deliberative democratic participation, (c) naive trust in teachers, (d) the school process of suppressing children's voices, and (e) unfair inconsistencies constructed by teachers.
Education is often understood as the sole responsibility of parents and teachers. Reggio Emilia identifies a 3rd teacher between child, teacher, and parent: the environment. In its attention to how space can be thoughtfully arranged, Reggio Emilia has reconceptualized space as a key source of educational provocation and insight. In what ways does this idea support and challenge existing understandings within early childhood education? The article draws on educational literature on space(s) and early childhood education, including but not confined to Reggio Emilia, as well as classroom-based practice, to pursue the implications of the notion of environment as 3rd teacher to classrooms and teacher education and how both preservice and experienced teachers can use this knowledge to inform their practice.
This paper compares two types of purpose-built recreational space – indoor climbing walls and outdoor fishing ponds – using participant observation and interviews with climbers and anglers in England. We show how these notionally ‘indoor’ and ‘outdoor’ spaces have strong similarities in terms of how they are used and perceived. We draw on literature about consumption and technology to demonstrate changing expectations and social norms about using each space. We also compare walls and ponds with supermarkets to highlight how this consumerist interpretation is used in a moral ordering of leisure behaviour. We therefore take a very different approach from research that emphasises sensation, risk and embodiment in outdoor leisure and adventure tourism. Instead, we show how such spaces reflect modernist domestication and control, problematising the indoor/outdoor dualism and emphasising the multiple experiences of environmental leisure.
The concept of agency has been central to ecological approaches to psychology. Gibson, one of the founders of this movement, made room for this concept by arguing against the mechanistic conceptions in psychology. In his view, the environment is not a collection of causes that pushes the animal around, but consist of action possibilities, which he coined affordances. In making their way in the world, animals regulate their behavior with respect to these possibilities. Reed later developed this ecological conception of agency, following Gibson in conceiving of affordances as action possibilities. However, drawing upon industrial design, architecture, and phenomenology, we argue that affordances are not mere action possibilities but that they can also invite behavior. We suggest a mutualist perspective on invitations, suggesting that they depend on the animal–environment relationship in multiple dimensions. The implications of this new conception of affordances for the ecological account of agency are explored.
The purpose of this article is to qualitatively explore the affordances for risky play in two different preschool outdoor
environments, an ordinary preschool playground and a nature playground, based on Gibson (The ecological approach to visual
perception, 1979) theory of affordances and Heft’s and Kytteä’s (Heft in Children’s Environ Qual 5(3) 29–37, 1988; Kyttä in J Environ Psychol 22:109–123, 2002, Kyttä in J Environ Psychol 24:179–198, 2004) extended work on this theory. Observations of risky play in two Norwegian preschools, one ordinary preschool (where play
took place on an ordinary playground) and one nature and outdoor preschool (where play took place in a nature area) were conducted.
In addition, the children were interviewed about their actualized affordances of risky play, their mobility license, and the
constraints on risky play. The results show that both play environments afford an extensive amount of risky play among the
children, and that the degree of mobility license tolerated by the staff is an important factor for the children to actualize
these affordances. Differences in the qualities and features in the two play environments were found to have an impact on
the degree of riskiness in the play situations. As such, the nature playground afforded a higher degree of risk in children’s
risky play.
How might one account for the organization in behavior without attributing it to an internal control structure? The present article develops a theoretical framework called behavioral dynamics that integrates an information-based approach to perception with a dynamical systems approach to action. For a given task, the agent and its environment are treated as a pair of dynamical systems that are coupled mechanically and informationally. Their interactions give rise to the behavioral dynamics, a vector field with attractors that correspond to stable task solutions, repellers that correspond to avoided states, and bifurcations that correspond to behavioral transitions. The framework is used to develop theories of several tasks in which a human agent interacts with the physical environment, including bouncing a ball on a racquet, balancing an object, braking a vehicle, and guiding locomotion. Stable, adaptive behavior emerges from the dynamics of the interaction between a structured environment and an agent with simple control laws, under physical and informational constraints.
The Forest School movement offers children valuable outdoor experiences; however, pedagogically it is under-theorised and under-researched in diverse contexts. As a result, it has at times become a “drag and drop” program, which does not necessarily acknowledge local place, environment or culture. Alternatively, place-based outdoor learning is examined as a place-responsive approach, where a year-long outdoor program was implemented and evaluated in an Australian primary school. Place-based outdoor learning is a broader integrated approach that is interconnected with place, curriculum and learners. This paper re-envisions a perspective on outdoor teaching to individualise meaningful learning in nature, within specific contexts.
Forest School in the UK has arguably provided a space of pedagogical ‘difference’ whilst wider structural pressures have reduced the room for novelty and diversity in delivery of state education. This article explores how perceived ‘differences’ between everyday educational contexts can benefit the wellbeing of participants in Forest Education across different ages. It calls into question the application of play-based learning theory to underpin English Forest School as advocated by Leather in this issue. Drawing on Forest School principles, empirical evidence and the theory of cultural density, we examine how Forest School can present important cultural and material contrasts in English young people’s experience and argue for the importance of this function within this context. We critique aspects of the dilution of Forest School principles, arguing that in England, and perhaps other cultures where outdoor experiences have become relatively rare, it is important that Forest School is valued as a site of divergence from more common learning spaces and situations.
Spatial designers, who engage children in their design process, most often frame children in this context as experts in their own lives. Findings from a study based at the University of Sheffield, point to new understandings of this participatory role, in which children move towards the role of designer. Drawing on interviews including visual methods with 16 spatial designers and guided by phenemonography, the paper seeks to represent the designers’ perspectives on the under-explored area of child–designer interactions. Findings suggest that the designers understand these interactions to comprise a reciprocal and co-created space – a sphere of behaviours, actions and ways of being which together becomes an enabler of change. It is proposed that what Bhabha (The Location of Culture, 1994) refers to as a ‘Third Space’ in which the ‘dominant culture might be temporarily subverted and its structural systems of power and control renegotiated’ can be re-imagined in this co-design context. The paper weaves together theoretical discourse and empirical illustrations of perceived creativity, play and transgression, which – at their intersection – support a potential transformation of understandings of children as co-designers and of the design process itself.
In 2001, The Guardian launched a competition called The School I'd Like, in which young people were asked to imagine their ideal school. This vibrant, groundbreaking book presents material drawn from that competition, offering a unique snapshot of perceptions of today's schools by those who matter most - the pupils. The book is wonderfully illuminated by children's essays, stories, poems, pictures and plans. Placing their views in the centre of the debate, it provides an evaluation of the democratic processes involved in teaching and learning by: Identifying consistencies in children's expressions of how they wish to learn. Highlighting particular sites of 'disease' in the education system today. Illustrating how the built environment is experienced by today's children. Posing questions about the reconstruction of teaching and learning for the twenty-first century. This book offers a powerful new perspective on school reform and is essential reading for all those involved in education and childhood studies, including teachers, advisors, policy-makers, academics, and anyone who believes that children's voices should not be ignored.
There is growing evidence that contact with nature and physical activity in nature have considerable benefits for human health. Exposure to nature has been shown to improve psychological well-being, relieve stress, increase positive mood, enhance life skills, reduce mental fatigue, increase concentration, and reduce aggression. In this paper, we propose a functional perspective from ecological dynamics, which emphasizes the person-environment scale of analysis for understanding the psychological benefits of physical activity in nature. From this viewpoint, psychological benefits of green exercise emerge from a rich landscape of affordances or behavioral opportunities during interactions with natural environments to enhance human health and well-being.
In this paper, we are concerned with the notion of ‘pedagogic voice’ as it relates to the presence of student ‘voice’ in teaching, learning and curriculum matters at an alternative, or second chance, school in Australia. This school draws upon many of the principles of democratic schooling via its utilisation of student voice in respect of the curriculum and pedagogy. We recognise that within the schooling context, voice can represent many things. Drawing on interview data, we outline two key areas of student voice: community membership associated with the ownership of practices and decision-making related to the young people’s learning and improved engagement; and encouraging curricular choice and the inclusion of personal interests and strengths within a school environment that is flexible and encourages individual freedom while balancing these with a young person’s required progress at school. Given that a lack of voice in schools has been attributed to many marginalised students’ alienation from mainstream schooling, we demonstrate how attention to pedagogic voice can not only work to engage students in learning, but also improve civic engagement.
Contrasting Piaget’s emphasis on the invariant logic of growth with Vygotsky’s emphasis upon the centrality of culturally patterned dialogue in the enablement of growth, one is led to conclude that their two approaches were incommensurate. This incommensurateness may expresss a deep and possibly irreconcilable difference between two ways of knowing: one seeking to ‘explain’ and the other to ‘interpret’ human growth and the human condition. We are blessed to have had such gifted exponents of the two views at the very start of our discipline, for their divergence has alerted us to the deeper puzzles posed by research in human development.
In this paper we present key ideas for an ecological dynamics approach to learning that reveal the importance of learner–environment interactions to frame outdoor experiential learning. We propose that ecological dynamics provides a useful framework for understanding the interacting constraints of the learning process and for designing learning opportunities in outdoor experiential learning.
A visual research project addressed school children's concepts of ideal learning environments. Drawings and accompanying narratives were collected from Year 5 and Year 6 children in nine Queensland primary schools. The 133 submissions were analysed and coded to develop themes, identify key features and consider the uses of imagination. The children's imagined schools echo ideas promoted by progressive educators. The results of this study suggest benefits for school designers can emerge from the imaginative contributions of children in creating engaging environments, while educational policy makers can benefit from children's ideas in the promotion of engaging, student-centred pedagogies.
In this article we suggest that the current popularity of student voice can lead to surface compliance—to a quick response that focuses on ‘how to do it’ rather than a reflective review of ‘why we might want to do it’. We look at the links between student consultation and participation and the legacy of the progressive democratic tradition in our schools and we look also at the difference between teaching about democracy as an investment for the future and enacting democratic principles in the daily life of the school (a commitment to the present). The tension between institutional gains (the school improvement perspective) and personal gains (confidence, a view point and the shaping of identity) is discussed and three of the ‘big issues’ are identified that underlie the credible development of student voice: power relations between teachers and students, the commitment to authenticity, and the principle of inclusiveness. Finally we reflect on some of the organizational implications of developing student voice: finding time and building a whole‐school culture in which student voice has a place.
Traditionally, at least according to popular wisdom, learning took place in venues that were custom-designed for the purpose. The purpose, given the evidence of the artefacts with which we are confronted, seems to have been the educational equivalent of the production line that so succinctly characterised the industrialisation of society. One consequence of this design logic, however, is that learning is defined as something that is married to a ‘place’. This paper will argue that the conceptual ‘slippage’ that characterises the disappearing differences between ‘learning spaces’ and ‘learning environments’, coupled with the further ‘displacement’ of the learner (turned avatar) in virtual spaces such as Facebook and Second Life, serves to ‘displace’ learning itself. The paper argues further that we have failed to recognise the primacy of ‘physical situatedness’ to our conceptions of learning itself. In short, our difficulty in understanding and articulating the nature of learning is partly brought about by our inability to articulate where learning takes place—in a world characterised by virtual space and electronic selves. If we are to articulate the nature of learning in our age, then we need to articulate the nature of the real and virtual spaces and bodies that we inhabit.
The school I'd like: here is what you wanted. The Guardian
- D Birkett
The school I’d like. News and Features
- L Doherty
School design: how important are buildings to learning? The Guardian
- M Jenkins
The impact of physical design on student outcomes
- G Wall
Designing affordances for physical activity: an ecological dynamics perspective
- K Davids
- D Araujo
- E Brymer
Value priorities and subjective wellbeing: direct and congruity effects
- L Sagiv
- S H Schwartz
Imagination and creativity in childhood
- L Vygotsky
Play as preparation for learning and life: an interview with Peter Gray
- P Gray
No fear: Growing up in a risk averse society. London: CalousteGulbenkian Foundation
- T Gill