Video Games: A Medium That Demands Our Attention
... Theories of media selection broadly describe implicit and explicit motivations for media use (Bowman, 2018). Implicit perspectives such as mood management theory (Zillmann & Bryant, 1985) explain a mostly hedonic motivation to optimize positive moods and terminate negative mood, whereas explicit perspectives such as uses and gratifications theory (Katz et al., 1973) provide a more comprehensive list of social psychological needs underlying media selection that are not necessarily hedonic. ...
... As suggested in the literature review, one reason for this relative lack of well-being impact is that veteran WoT players already play quite often and their gameplay already serves as a well-being maintenance behavior. Although we presumed a priori that the implicit presence of a global stressor in the COVID-19 pandemic would result in a much greater need for mood management and need satisfaction, already heavy gamers likely already play video games in part for their psychologically restorative properties (overviewed in Bowman, 2018;Reinecke, 2017). In this way, heavy gamers might have developed buffers from the negative influence of the pandemic through gaming as an enduring maintenance behavior, with further buffering may have been irrelevant in the presence of a ceiling effect. ...
... Although not established in a serial causal chain, the findings are sensical for several reasons. For example, competence is an important aspect of gaming enjoyment (Tamborini et al., 2010) and likewise that games are designed to present gamers with a steady stream of variably intense cognitive demands (Bowman, 2018). Such demands are critical to the expected challenges and difficulties presented in video games (Vorderer et al., 2003), and games such as WoT known for their difficulty are likely to attract players who value cognitive effort (Inzlicht et al., 2018). ...
Amidst the disruptions of the COVID-19 pandemic, video games were used heavily, presumably to help cope with negative moods and social isolation. This study sought to understand the implications of such play on well-being within a particular sample. Drawing on uses and gratifications and self-determination theories, the study adopted a longitudinal perspective incorporating data from one game, both before and during the pandemic. Data included both repeated cross-sectional surveys as well as unobtrusive, within-game measures. Among players of a marginally social, large-scale, team-based vehicle combat game (World of Tanks), play time increased slightly while well-being was generally steady. Increases in play were associated with increases in competence, which in turn lead to higher well-being. The theoretical implications and generalizability of the findings are discussed.
... One such tool for assessing perceived challenge is the Challenge Originating from Recent Gameplay Interaction Scale (CORGIS) [21] -a validated questionnaire that differentiates and measures four types of perceived challenge in digital games: cognitive, performative, emotional, and decision making challenge. Unlike the Video Game Demand Scale (VGDS) [6] that measures demand -a conceptually similar experience to challenge [24] -the CORGIS assesses the experience of the player exclusively inside the game, while the VGDS also covers the social aspects of gaming and other facets external to the on-screen experience. ...
... Rush toward Vault 111 with their spouse and son, and enter the Vault just moments before a nuclear detonation. 6 Follow the vault's scientist and enter a cryo pod, with the spouse and Shaun entering another. 7 ...
... (5 participants chose this) Talk to Danse to learn the crime of synths in an abandoned rocket silo. 6 Find the lab control terminal to unlock a door in the way. 7 ...
Challenge is the core element of digital games. The wide spectrum of physical, cognitive, and emotional challenge experiences provided by modern digital games can be evaluated subjectively using a questionnaire, the CORGIS, which allows for a post hoc evaluation of the overall experience that occurred during game play. Measuring this experience dynamically and objectively, however, would allow for a more holistic view of the moment-to-moment experiences of players. This study, therefore, explored the potential of detecting perceived challenge from physiological signals. For this, we collected physiological responses from 32 players who engaged in three typical game scenarios. Using perceived challenge ratings from players and extracted physiological features, we applied multiple machine learning methods and metrics to detect challenge experiences. Results show that most methods achieved a detection accuracy of around 80%. We discuss in-game challenge perception , challenge-related physiological indicators and AI-supported challenge detection to inform future work on challenge evaluation.
... The influential Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) of Learning [20] considers that cognitive load is a key moderator on whether material can be learnt. It may be that learning is reduced in non-integrated games because they demand [39] higher cognitive load than integrated games. CLT uses the term intrinsic cognitive load to refer to the amount of cognitive load required to learn the desired learning material; "intrinsic" here does not refer to intrinsic integration, but the "intrinsic" complexity of the material which, coupled with the learners' prior knowledge, determines how much cognitive load is needed to process it. ...
... Secondary dependent variables were players' performance in the game (indicated by their top score) and their level of motivation which was measured using the Enjoyment subscale of the IMI questionnaire [48] (chosen as one of the most commonly used game enjoyment measures [49]). Players' final score was used as a proxy for cognitive load, as the game was cognitively demanding [39] and any additional variation in cognitive load between conditions is likely to impact players' performance and their score at the game. If the integrated condition required less cognitive load this is likely to both increase learning and improve game performance in that condition. ...
... Our finding that attentional selection within the game moderates learning is predicted by the Task-Attention Theory of Game-Based Learning (Task-Attention Theory for short) [27]. This theory posits that game design features such as Mechanics, Goals, Uncertainty and Rewards direct players' attention within the game and that additional demands [39] on the player such as Perceptual and Cognitive load further serve to moderate attentional focus. In line with predictions from this theory, our study moderated the Mechanics of the game so they were either integrated with the learning content or not, this then directed attention and moderated learning as Task-Attention Theory would predict. ...
Educational games have long been seen as having great potential, but evidence for their effectiveness is mixed, suggesting deficiencies in our theoretical understanding of learning in games and associated design principles. The principle of “Intrinsic integration” of learning content with game mechanics (Hapgood and Ainsworth, 2011) increases learning in educational games, but the theoretical mechanisms behind the principle are unclear, leading to implementation issues. In response, we performed a pre-registered study (n=210) to test possible motivational, cognitive load or attentional mechanisms for moderating learning at an abstract learning task within an educational game similar to Pacman. Learning was higher in the intrinsically integrated version with no significant effects of motivation or cognitive load leading to the conclusion that intrinsic integration increased learning via an attentional mechanism where players only pay attention to features needed for the game task and ignore task-irrelevant information. We discuss theoretical implications for game learning as well as insights for designers of educational games.
... Based on the critical differences mentioned above, examining the impacts of 3D animated models on ad effectiveness in a VR environment is an important step in understanding VR ad effectiveness and the underlying mechanisms. In the light of The Limited Capacity Model of Motivated Mediated Message Processing (LC4MP; Lang, 2000) and interactivity-as-demand perspective (Bowman, 2018), the main focus of this paper is on the potential of the appearance of 3D animated agents before the video ads are played in the VR environment to foster greater ad effectiveness as measured by several different indicators across two studies. In Study 1, we tested the effects and delved into the underlying mechanisms of 3D animated agents on audiences' enjoyment, attitudes, memory, and intentions under the restriction of ad-skipping behavior through a laboratory experiment. ...
... Can we expect the similar or even more evident effects of animated agents on the audience's responses will be observed in VR? In the following, we will discuss how the 3D animated agents might affect audience response to the ad in a VR environment in light of the LC4MP (Lang, 2000) and interactivity-as-demand perspective (Bowman, 2018). ...
... In VR, the ad viewing experience is not just a 2D navigation with video and animations. Instead, it is a multifaceted, demanding experience (Bowman, 2018) with a 360-degree space to explore and navigate, and the audience can do much more than just see the ads play and the objects moves. Moreover, unlike 2D animated ads, where the animation itself is a part of the ad, the 3D animated agents in the virtual environment can be unrelated to the content of the ad or the brand in the ad. ...
With the popularity of virtual reality (VR) devices, advertisers are starting to seek the potential advertising tactics and effects in VR. This study investigates the influence of introducing 3D animated agents on video ad effectiveness in a VR context (i.e., brand/product attitude, brand/product recall, purchase intention, and ad-skipping behavior). Findings from a between-subjects experiment in Study 1 confirm that when 2D video ads are played in a VR environment, the presence of 3D animated agents will make the audiences enjoy the ad-viewing experience more and further promote the audiences’ positive attitudes toward the brand and the product and their purchase intention. In Study 2, employing a large industry dataset of VR users, we found that the presence of 3D animated agents can also decrease the ad-skipping rate while the 2D ads are playing. This study provides empirical support for the use of animated agents as an effective tactic in a VR context. How these findings link to previous research and their practical implications are discussed as future directions.
... Games have long been recognized as "a medium that demands our attention" (Bowman, 2018). Numerous models of game engagement, involvement, or immersion equate the former with attention being absorbed by gameplay (see, Calleja (2011), for a review). ...
... The recent "Demand Perspective" can be read as a partial response to this oversight of interactivity: spearheaded by Bowman (2018), this line of research proposes that the process of interactive media use (like gameplay) uniquely puts various cognitive, emotional, physical, and social demands on users. These demands are seen to mediate many effects and experiences characteristic for interactive media. ...
... Broadly speaking, pursuing game tasks puts various demands on users, including the cognitive demands of performing cognitive skills and making decisions (Bowman, 2018). This construct of "cognitive demands" mirrors the "cognitive load" construct in LC4MP, which refers to the cognitive resources required to process a media message (Lang, 2000). ...
Why do learning games fail or succeed? Recent evidence suggests that attention forms an important moderator of learning from games. While existing media effects and learning theories acknowledge the role of attentional limits, they fail to account for the specific ways that games as interactive media steer attention. In response, we here develop the Task-Attention Theory of Game Learning. Drawing on current psychological and games research, task-attention theory argues that games as interactive media demand and structure the pursuit of tasks, which ties into distinct attentional mechanisms, namely learned attentional sets which focus attentional selection onto task-relevant features, as well as active sampling: users navigate and manipulate the game to elicit task-relevant information. This active sampling and selection precedes and moderates what information can be learned. We identify task-related game features (mechanics, goals, rewards and uncertainty) and demands (cognitive and perceptual load, pressure) that affect active sampling and attentional selection. We articulate implications and future work for game-based learning research and design, as well as wider media effects, learning, and HCI research.
... Four such demands of video games have been identifed [4,5,8,28]. Cognitive demands refer to the requirement for players to rationalize the on-screen challenges and puzzles, in terms of learning the systems involved [18] and having the requisite cognitive skills to understand play [19,20]. ...
... Notably, although these demands are conceptually distinct from one another, they can and do complement each other. For example, moderate correlations have been reported between recollections of cognitive demand and increased emotional and exertional demands [5,8,28]. For the former, emotional demands are often associated with narrative involvement that also requires cognitive engagement to make sense of in-game decisions [9,42]; for the latter, in-game decision making is usually manifested by one's physical manipulation of the game controller [39]. ...
... Perceived demands of the video game were measured using a 26item, seven-point, Likert-style scale [8]. ...
... The Video Game Demand Scale-English (VGDS-E) was developed as a self-report measure of cognitive, emotional, physical (both controller and exertional), and social demands of video games [12]. In their survey of N = 660 English-speaking, self-identifed video gamers, they used 80 candidate items before extracting a robust and valid scale containing 26 items (made available online by those authors: https://osf.io/x5jch/.. ...
... For the current study, our goal was to establish measurement validity of the VGDS-C scale using a Taiwanese sample of self-identifed video game players. Moreover, the study is best understood as an exact replication of prior work, in which we strictly follow established sampling protocols and existing predictions, measures, and analyses [12,35] with a primary goal of demonstrating the veracity of prior fndings when extended to novel contexts [34,40]. ...
... Comprehensive logics driving all validity tests are presented in original research [12,35], but the most critical point is that we expect VGDS scores to be diferentially related to our measured constructs. For example, with respect to convergent validity, we expect cognitive and exertional demand scores to be positively correlated with overall task load given the centrality of physical and mental load to the task load construct [11,27]. ...
... Video games go beyond being a simple hobby linked to young people and adolescents; instead, they have become a new form of adult leisure activity commonplace in contemporary society [1]. They comprise an independent industry within the cultural sector, generating ever-greater revenues and yielding a sophisticated product at the philosophical, sociological, aesthetic, cultural, or narrative level [2,3]. Their remarkable evolution over time has seen them go from being simple games primarily played alone to becoming products that allow millions of users to socialize and share experiences online [4,5]. ...
... The thematic cluster analysis was verified by examining the objectives and the results of each of the documents included in the sample. Streaming media (45,109,19), Media usage (36,90,9); Social media (38,79,9); Uses and gratifications (35,71,9); User behavior (21,28,4); Facebook (20, 26, 3); Internet (16,19,3); Social live streaming services (11,18,3); China (11,11,2); Information behavior (13, 14, 2); Intention (16, 23, 2), measurement (8,8,2); Popularity (9, 9, 2) ...
... The thematic cluster analysis was verified by examining the objectives and the results of each of the documents included in the sample. Streaming media (45,109,19), Media usage (36,90,9); Social media (38,79,9); Uses and gratifications (35,71,9); User behavior (21,28,4); Facebook (20, 26, 3); Internet (16,19,3); Social live streaming services (11,18,3); China (11,11,2); Information behavior (13, 14, 2); Intention (16, 23, 2), measurement (8,8,2); Popularity (9, 9, 2) ...
In recent years, interest in video game live streaming services has increased as a new communication instrument, social network, source of leisure, and entertainment platform for millions of users. The rise in this type of service has been accompanied by an increase in research on these platforms. As an emerging domain of research focused on this novel phenomenon takes shape, it is necessary to delve into its nature and antecedents. The main objective of this research is to provide a comprehensive reference that allows future analyses to be addressed with greater rigor and theoretical depth. In this work, we developed a meta-review of the literature supported by a bibliometric performance and network analysis (BPNA). We used the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) protocol to obtain a representative sample of 111 published documents since 2012 and indexed in the Web of Science. Additionally, we exposed the main research topics developed to date, which allowed us to detect future research challenges and trends. The findings revealed four specializations or subdomains: studies focused on the transmitter or streamer; the receiver or the audience; the channel or platform; and the transmission process. These four specializations add to the accumulated knowledge through the development of six core themes that emerge: motivations, behaviors, monetization of activities, quality of experience, use of social networks and media, and gender issues.
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). ...
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). Related to this is the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP; Lang, 2000), which states that media users (here, digital game players) have limited cognitive resources to process the complex and interactive process of playing digital games. ...
... Following Elson, Breuer, Ivory, et al., (2014), game mechanics that are too complex or demanding might inhibit reflective processes present in eudaimonic experiences, as cognitive resources of players are limited (following the LC4MP model; Lang, 2000). The same observation can be made regarding controls: although players immediately start forming mental schemata of connections between controller functions and specific ingame actions, players who are either less experienced in playing games in general or struggle with learning specific controller systems will have physically and cognitively demanding experiences (Bowman, 2018). This, in turn, might hinder eudaimonic game experiences as players need to assert cognitive resources in learning the physical input system before being able to become emotionally involved with the game narrative and characters. ...
Emerging research has suggested that digital games can generate entertainment experiences beyond hedonic enjoyment towards eudaimonic experiences: Being emotionally moved, stimulated to reflect on one’s self or a sense of elevation. Studies in this area have mainly focused on individual game characteristics that elicit singular and static eudaimonic game moments. However, such a focus neglects the interplay of multiple game aspects as well as the dynamic nature of eudaimonic experiences. The current study takes a novel approach to eudaimonic game research by conducting a qualitative game analysis of three games (Assassin’s Creed Odyssey, Detroit: Become Human, and God of War) and taking systematic notes on game experiences shortly after playing. Results reveal that emotionally moving, reflective, and elevating eudaimonic experiences were elicited when gameplay notes suggested a strong involvement with the game’s narrative and characters (i.e., narrative engagement) and, in some cases, narrative-impacting choices. These key aspects, in turn, are enhanced by clean player interfaces, graphically realistic characters, close camera perspectives, tone-appropriate soundtrack scores, and both narrative-enhancing (e.g., God of War’s health mechanic) and choice-enhancing mechanics (e.g., Detroit: Become Human’s flowchart). Eudaimonic experiences were also found to evolve throughout the game, with more powerful experiences occurring near the end of the game and some narrative themes fueling the eudaimonic flow of experiences throughout the overall game narrative. This study adds to academic research studying digital games by suggesting an innovative methodological approach that provides a detailed, integrative, and dynamic perspective on eudaimonic game experiences.
... These audience effects even hold true when social others are not visibly present, especially if some sort of evaluation or social judgement can be anticipated (Aiello & Douthitt, 2001;Cohen, 1979) that creates an attentional conflict with the primary task (Baron, Moore, & Sanders, 1978;Feinberg & Aiello, 2006). In order for players to experience the social aspects of game broadcasting and streaming, they must balance the social demands associated with the digital audience against the cognitive and physical demands associated with progressing through the game itself (Bowman, 2018). This also means that the presence and anticipation of a digital audience might not matter if players are unable to attend to the fact that they are being (or will be) watched. ...
... Based on prior research, the different types of demands which may be in competition for players' limited information processing capacity can be categorized into cognitive, physical, emotional, and most importantly for this research, social demand. Social demand is broadly understood as the extent to which a video game environment triggers an implicit or explicit response in the player to the presence of other social actors (Bowman, 2018). This is most easily seen in the context of massive multiplayer online games, in which players are required to take advantage of the unique strengths of each player and constantly coordinate with one another. ...
... This is most easily seen in the context of massive multiplayer online games, in which players are required to take advantage of the unique strengths of each player and constantly coordinate with one another. However, social demand can manifest in other ways, such as through the social responses players can exhibit towards other players and avatars due to their mere presence, independent of social interactions (Bowman, 2018). ...
Game streaming is emerging as an increasingly popular form of social gaming even among non-professionals. As such, players have to adapt to the presence of a digital gaming audience consisting of people who are either synchronously or asynchronously participating in their performance and engaging with them remotely via digital media. While individuals’ experiences with physically collocated (non-digital) audiences is well-studied, it is still unclear whether digital audiences trigger similar socio-cognitive mechanisms or whether individuals process such audiences differently. The current research examined the potential impact of both synchronous and asynchronous digital gaming audiences on players’ feelings of closeness, as well as the social demand these audiences elicit, across both US and German players in two separate studies. The second study was designed as an exact replication of the first, as a robustness check. Results indicate that while players could recall details of the conversations, synchronous streaming had no impact on feelings of propinquity with, or social demand from, the audiences.
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). ...
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). Related to this is the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP; Lang, 2000), which states that media users (here, digital game players) have limited cognitive resources to process the complex and interactive process of playing digital games. ...
... Following Elson, Breuer, Ivory, et al., (2014), game mechanics that are too complex or demanding might inhibit reflective processes present in eudaimonic experiences, as cognitive resources of players are limited (following the LC4MP model; Lang, 2000). The same observation can be made regarding controls: although players immediately start forming mental schemata of connections between controller functions and specific ingame actions, players who are either less experienced in playing games in general or struggle with learning specific controller systems will have physically and cognitively demanding experiences (Bowman, 2018). This, in turn, might hinder eudaimonic game experiences as players need to assert cognitive resources in learning the physical input system before being able to become emotionally involved with the game narrative and characters. ...
The eudaimonic experience of elevation consists of heartwarming and uplifting feelings when witnessing acts of kindness, altruism, sacrifice, or other human virtues. While entertainment research primarily focuses on traditional media such as movies and general eudaimonic experiences, limited research has been conducted regarding digital games and elevation. Previous studies on eudaimonic game experiences have mainly relied on players’ recollections across several games, gathered via in-depth interviews or surveys. The current study takes a different approach: by playing three specific games and taking systematic notes on game experiences shortly after playing, we explore how elevation is generated during gameplay and what game aspects contribute to this. The three studied games were God of War, Assassin’s Creed Odyssey, and Detroit: Become Human. Preliminary results indicate that being involved with the game’s story and characters (i.e., narrative engagement), enhanced by user interface mechanics unique to digital games (e.g., Kratos’ son Atreus calling out in distress when the player’s health is low) are the most important aspects to elicit elevation experiences.
... These sounds also represent the very real demanding labor of voice actors, whose burnout and vocal strain have recently come to the fore in terms of the games industries' labor standards (Cazden, 2017). Battle cries as media artefacts involve technological demand, interactional demand, physical demand, and emotional demand: concepts defined by Bowman (2018) in articulating games as demanding technologies. One question that we can then ask is do male and female action leads sound the same? ...
... By focusing on this specific vocalization this project offers a model for doing media analysis of sonic representation akin to studies done in visual representation of gender, race, and sexuality in screen-based media. Specifically, analyzing the battle cry as a demanding artifact of technology at the same time as exploring its implications for the player means that we can refresh the conversation about gendered media tropes and their role in facilitating or burdening the "player-program dialogue" (Bowman, 2018). To that end, this article reports on a notable trend: As games self-purportedly and in the eyes of the wider community improve the visual representation of female playable leads, important aspects of the vocal representation of women has not only lagged behind but become more exaggeratedly gendered with higher-fidelity bigger-budget game productions. ...
... But are they? A body of literature on the emotive and psy-chological aspects of gaming suggests that para-ludic elements of game design such as sound, aesthetics, narrative, and representation (among others) are highly constitutive of the affective and emotional states of gameplay within the player-program dialogue (Bowman, 2018). ...
Video games are demanding work indeed. So demanding that our screen heroes and heroines are constantly making sounds of strife, struggle, or victory while conducting surrogate labor for us running, fighting, saving worlds. These sounds also represent the very real demanding labor of voice actors, whose burnout and vocal strain have recently come to the fore in terms of the games industries’ labor standards (Cazden, 2017). But do heroes and she-roes sound the same? What are the demands—virtual, physical, and emotional—of maintaining sexist sonic tropes in popular media; demands that are required of the industry, the game program, and the player alike? Based on participatory observations of gameplay (i.e., the research team engaging with the material by playing the games we study), close reading of gendered sonic presence, and a historical content analysis of three iconic arcade fighting games, this article reports on a notable trend: As games self-purportedly and in the eyes of the wider community improve the visual representation of female playable leads important aspects of the vocal representation of women has not only lagged behind but become more exaggeratedly gendered with higher-fidelity bigger-budget game productions. In essence, femininity continues to be a disempowering design pattern in ways far more nuanced than sexualization alone. This media ecology implicates not only the history of best practices for the games industry itself, but also the culture of professional voice acting, and the role of games as trendsetters for industry conventions of media representation. Listening to battle cries is discussed here as a politics of embodiment and a form of emotionally demanding game labor that simultaneously affects the flow and immersion of playing, and carries over toxic attitudes about femininity outside the game context.
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). ...
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). Related to this is the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP; Lang, 2000), which states that media users (here, digital game players) have limited cognitive resources to process the complex and interactive process of playing digital games. ...
... Following Elson, Breuer, Ivory, et al., (2014), game mechanics that are too complex or demanding might inhibit reflective processes present in eudaimonic experiences, as cognitive resources of players are limited (following the LC4MP model; Lang, 2000). The same observation can be made regarding controls: although players immediately start forming mental schemata of connections between controller functions and specific ingame actions, players who are either less experienced in playing games in general or struggle with learning specific controller systems will have physically and cognitively demanding experiences (Bowman, 2018). This, in turn, might hinder eudaimonic game experiences as players need to assert cognitive resources in learning the physical input system before being able to become emotionally involved with the game narrative and characters. ...
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). ...
... Taking a dynamic approach towards players' interactions with games and their mechanics, we observe that interactivity in games-which grants players some control to create their own unique experiences-can also be seen as demands that potentially hinder overall game experiences (Bowman, 2018). At least four types of game demands can be distinguished: cognitive (associated with making sense of the game), emotional (associated with making affective investments into the game's narrative), physical (associated with mastering the game's input mechanics), and social demands (associated with social relations with both in-game characters and other players; Bowman, 2018). Related to this is the limited capacity model of motivated mediated message processing (LC4MP; Lang, 2000), which states that media users (here, digital game players) have limited cognitive resources to process the complex and interactive process of playing digital games. ...
... Following Elson, Breuer, Ivory, et al., (2014), game mechanics that are too complex or demanding might inhibit reflective processes present in eudaimonic experiences, as cognitive resources of players are limited (following the LC4MP model; Lang, 2000). The same observation can be made regarding controls: although players immediately start forming mental schemata of connections between controller functions and specific ingame actions, players who are either less experienced in playing games in general or struggle with learning specific controller systems will have physically and cognitively demanding experiences (Bowman, 2018). This, in turn, might hinder eudaimonic game experiences as players need to assert cognitive resources in learning the physical input system before being able to become emotionally involved with the game narrative and characters. ...
... Highly aligned with these arguments are emerging models of gameplay that define the activity as inherently demanding. For example, the interactivity-as-demand model (Bowman, 2018(Bowman, , 2021 argues that video games are ongoing human-machine interactions in which the player is an active coauthor of the experience (see Juul, 2005;Wellenreiter, 2015). This interactivity (even if only an illusion, Stang, 2019) is thought to be a core driver of the appeal of video games (Grodal, 2000), as gamers place intrinsic value in the effort expenditure (Inzlicht et al., 2018). ...
Historically, there has been a great deal of interest in using basic measures of individual difference factors to predict future success in traditional sports. For instance, the National Football League (NFL) holds a scouting combine each year prior to the NFL draft during which a host of attributes about players are measured, from basic height and weight, to sprint speed, to jumping capacity, to strength. Even among an already highly selected group of individuals (i.e., individuals skilled enough to even be considered for the NFL), such measures have been seen to have some degree of utility in predicting future performance. The rise of esports has resulted in interest in the potential for batteries of measures that could be similarly predictive of future esports success. Early research suggests that this might indeed be possible. Indeed, work in this sphere has already demonstrated associations between a range of basic abilities and esports aptitude. Perhaps not surprisingly, given the differential nature of esports compared to traditional sports, the most predictive abilities are largely those related to basic perceptual, cognitive, and motor performance (e.g., speed of processing, multitasking ability, working memory). In this commentary, we discuss this burgeoning literature and highlight major challenges on the route to creating an “esports combine.”
... Probably the most fundamental characteristic of video games considered in many explanations of the formation of eudaimonic experiences is interactivity . This seems little surprising given that interactivity is widely regarded as the central "hallmark of the medium" (Weber et al., 2014, p. 79), distinguishing video games from other entertainment fare such as books or movies (Bowman, 2018;Grodal, 2000;Juul, 2005; see also . While interactivity is often regarded to be an "elusive concept" (Bucy, 2004, p. 373) that is difficult to define (Yang & Shen, 2019), a useful working definition by Weber et al. (2014) describes video game interactivity as "the possibility for players to manipulate the content and form of a video game and/or the possibility of a continuous information exchange between the user and the game system" (p. ...
Research on meaningful or eudaimonic gaming experiences explores players’ profound responses to video games. It rests on the observation that video games have ‘grown up’ in the 2000s and 2010s. While the medium traditionally aimed at providing fun, modern games increasingly afford meaningful experiences, for example by addressing serious topics (e.g., loss). Drawing on philosophical and psychological well-being research, these meaningful experiences are often termed “eudaimonic.” Beyond this shared categorization, however, no consensual definition of eudaimonic/meaningful gaming experiences has yet been developed. Instead, various competing and partially overlapping conceptualizations exist in the literature, including (a) appreciation, (b) the covariation of meaningfulness, being emotionally moved or challenged, and self-reflection, (c) deep social connectedness, and (d) specific emotional responses (e.g., nostalgia, awe). The formation of eudaimonic/meaningful gaming experiences has mostly been attributed to game characteristics, including (1) game mechanics that allow rare performances or promote reflection by disrupting players’ gameplay expectations; (2) narratives that address emotionally challenging topics, feature moral dilemmas, or facilitate deep social bonds with game characters; (3) multiplayer features that enable cooperative interactions with close co-players; and (4) game aesthetics that facilitate awe or aesthetic contemplation. In contrast, little is known about how player characteristics affect the formation of eudaimonic/meaningful gaming experiences. Similarly, research on the effects of these experiences is sparse. However, initial studies suggest that eudaimonic/meaningful experiences may benefit players beyond gaming by increasing their well-being or promoting pro-social behavior. Additionally, eudaimonic/meaningful gaming experiences appear to have a motivational appeal , as preliminary studies suggest that seeking such experiences can motivate playing games in general and specific titles in particular. Overall, this burgeoning line of research is still in its infancy but has already provided valuable insights into the quality and formation of eudaimonic/meaningful experiences in interactive media and the attraction and positive effects of video games.
... Motivating environments have also been studied extensively. Game environments have repeatedly proven to increase engagement (Bowman, 2018), and there has been extensive work done on collaborative environments, from indexing collaborative writing approaches (Lowry et al, 2004), to arguments that reveal collaboration hindering creativity as much as encouraging it (Zhang, 2022); however, environments without judgment are the determining factor in successful motivation, as has been shown extensively in studies by Amabile (1982Amabile ( , 2018 and supported by other researchers (Baer and Kaufman, 2012) (Beghetto, 2007). ...
This paper reports on a survey and teaching intervention done with Norwegian students in their first (VG1), second (VG2), and third year (VG3) of high school English (16-19 years old). The goals of the project: 1. To examine Norwegian student/teacher attitudes toward creativity; 2. To design, play-test, and asses creative reading games. The study found students surprisingly open to creativity and games in education, however, there was a general wariness of assessment. As the students progressed through high school, they increasingly saw writing as something one is forced to do, and resisted sharing their writing. Almost all students saw themselves as outside the community of writers. While the novel nature of the games made for initial difficulties, this was also a motivator. The key to effectiveness was pairing theory with practice to give students a clear sense of the pedagogical goal: to develop and experience the use of creativity (divergent thinking). The use of multimodality in games (drawing) was immensely effective for student engagement and collaboration; however, it was less effective in terms of maintaining clear pedagogical goals in the time given. Finally, the most effective approach in terms of engagement was to involve students as game designers. This paper will focus on a presentation of student views on creativity followed by an assessment of the game results in light of these views.
... Likewise, not all video games are designed to be played together, but even single-player video games can still be played in tandem-one person holding the controller and others contributing as spectators [22]. In other words, different types of video games allow for various types of social experiences, which could influence the motivations that align with social states. ...
... Genel olarak hepsinin video oyunlarını temel psikolojik ihtiyaçlar temelinde değerlendirdiği söylenebilir. Video oyunlarında temel amaç, kullanıcılara keyifli bir oyun deneyimi yaşatmak adına belirli oyun mekaniklerini kullanarak örtük bir şekilde insanların temel psikolojik ihtiyaçlarını doyurabilmektir (Bowman 2018) Video oyunları aracılığıyla temel psikolojik ihtiyaçların doyumuna ilişkin ilk araştırma Ryan, ve arkadaşları (2006) tarafından yapılmıştır. Üniversite öğrencilerinin katılımıyla farklı video oyunları dahil edilerek yapılan çalışmada, oyunun içeriğine bağlı olarak farklı temel psikolojik ihtiyaçların doyurulduğu görülmüştür. ...
The current study aims to evaluate the existing literature on the characteristics and the usage of video games within the framework of Self-Determination Theory (SDT). In the first part of the article, the essential characteristics of SDT and video games were presented. In the second part, video games were examined based on basic psychological needs and motivational processes. Research shows that the content and mechanics of video games play a significant role in the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Moreover, video games affect psychological well-being, quality of life, and intrinsic motivation via the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. The options and feedback provided in a game promote autonomy; success achieved in the face of difficulties promotes competence; and playing video games with other people in pairs or groups satisfies the need for relatedness. This satisfaction increases motivation and psychological well-being. On the contrary, the frustration of psychological needs in video games can harm these areas. IIt is emphasized that video games can be used within various intervention programs, and they are successful in acquiring and changing behavior and can support treatment process, especially in the fields of health and education.
... Game controllers have great potential to serve as stimulants for video game nostalgia as they engage a particularly salient aspect of video games. Bowman (2018) argued that the physical demands of games, experienced through their controllers, are one of four critical aspects of the gaming experience. Handheld controllers are generally more comfortable, precise, and enjoyable (Bowman et al., 2017;Rogers et al., 2015), and as a result, players are likely to encode and recall the feel of the controller as an integral part of the gaming experience itself. ...
As gamers age, the classic and retro video game market grows in lockstep. Previous work has shown that myriad aspects of games, such as playing familiar franchises, seeing game consoles and trailers, or even thinking about past gameplay, can induce nostalgia. Using a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches, the current study looks to one off-screen element of video games inextricable from gaming experiences that might further contribute to (or hinder) nostalgia: video game controllers. Participants played Super Mario Bros. with either an original Nintendo Entertainment System controller, one of two different modern Nintendo controllers, or watched streamed gameplay. Controller type was mostly unrelated to nostalgia in quantitative analysis, with nominal variation in qualitative analysis. However, we did find that perceived in-game success predicted both personal and historical nostalgia, overall gaming experience predicted personal nostalgia, and younger gamers without Super Mario Bros. experience felt increased historical nostalgia. Research questions, study design, and data analyses were preregistered prior to data collection.
... The Video Game Demands Scale (Bowman, Wasserman, & Banks, 2018 Each game was also classified by the first author 2 as permadeath or faux-permadeath based on the respective consequences players would experience for the death of their characters 3 . ...
This paper explores the relationships between two types of permadeath (permadeath and faux-permadeath), player-avatar relationships/interactions, and video game demands.
... Conversely, users must also devote considerable, varied, and limited resources to content to fully process and understand it (Fisher et al., 2018). Depending on the technology, these demands can be felt at the cognitive, emotional, physical, and social level (Bowman, 2018), and at times, those demands can conflict with each other. ...
From a media psychology perspective, an important feature of digital media are the “bottom-up” and “top-down” affective experiences that digital media trigger in their users. Emotions play a critical role in motivating our selection of digital media, guiding our processing of the content of digital media, and describing and determining the effects of digital media. The current chapter reviews literature and current findings on emotions and digital media, with specific focus on emotion regulation in interactive media systems (such as virtual and augmented reality), on-demand entertainment media, and social media applications. As digital technologies evolve, our emotional connections with them, their content, and their users become equally complex, which is the focus of our chapter. Three features of digital media with specific relevance to emotional regulation are explored: interactivity, on-demand accessibility, and their networked nature.
... Regarding the second, video games and their environments are known to engender a range of emotions in players (see Hemenover & Bowman, 2018), from feelings of awe upon encountering grand or otherworldly spaces (Possler et al., 2018) to senses of great loss when environments undergo dramatic changes brought about by game expansions (Banks & Martey, 2018). Affective experiences are also understood to be both key motivators for engaging games (e.g., gratifications associated with relief from everyday life, affections for coplayers, empowerment from achievement; see Yee, 2006) and key demands of gameplay activities, drawing emotional resources from the player perhaps at the expense of being able to dedicate even physical or cognitive resources (Bowman, 2018). ...
... There is a long history of interest in the cognitive, emotional, physical, and/or social demands that are inherent in complex real-world experiences. As one possible window into this issue, many disparate sub-domains within psychology have explored the extent to which individuals' performance on highly multifaceted tasks can be predicted, at least partially, by a set of more primitive abilities or traits (Bowman, 2018;Brown, Zatorre, & Penhune, 2015;Titz & Karbach, 2014;Voss, Kramer, Basak, Prakash, & Roberts, 2010). Here, one general line of reasoning has been that if individuals who are top performers on a given complex task show advantages in a set of more primitive abilities, one possible reason for that relation is that the complex task places demand on those more primitive abilities. ...
Over the past 30 years, a large body of research has accrued demonstrating that video games are capable of placing substantial demands on the human cognitive, emotional, physical, and social processing systems. Within the cognitive realm, playing games belonging to one particular genre, known as the action video game genre, has been consistently linked with demands on a host of cognitive abilities including perception, top-down attention, multitasking, and spatial cognition. More recently, a number of new game genres have emerged that, while different in many ways from “traditional” action games, nonetheless seem likely to load upon similar cognitive processes. One such example is the multiplayer online battle arena genre (MOBA), which involves a mix of action and real-time strategy characteristics. Here, a sample of over 500 players of the MOBA game League of Legends completed a large battery of cognitive tasks. Positive associations were observed between League of Legends performance (quantified by participants’ in-game match-making rating) and a number of cognitive abilities consistent with those observed in the existing action video game literature, including speed of processing and attentional abilities. Together, our results document a rich pattern of cognitive abilities associated with high levels of League of Legends performance and suggest similarities between MOBAs and action video games in terms of their cognitive demands.
... The detailed account that we have of the event comes from a Rolling Stone article-"Spacewar: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums", written by the prolific Stewart Brand (1972), founder of the Whole Earth Catalog, its digital counterpart the Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link, and more recently co-founder of the Long Now Foundation. Though well-known for a variety of reasons, this chronicle of the SpaceWar Olympics serves for our purposes to highlight Bowman's (2018) four dimensions of demand-cognitive, emotional, physical, and social-as they are visible in small-scale communal video game play. ...
With the advent of organized eSports, game streaming, and always-online video games, there exist new and more pronounced demands on players, developers, publishers, spectators, and other video game actors. By identifying and exploring elements of infrastructure in multiplayer games, this paper augments Bowman’s (2018) conceptualization of demands in video games by introducing a new category of ‘infrastructure demand’ of games. This article describes how the infrastructure increasingly built around video games creates demands upon those interacting with these games, either as players, spectators, or facilitators of multiplayer video game play. We follow the method described by Susan Leigh Star (1999), who writes that infrastructure is as mundane as it is a critical part of society and as such is particularly deserving of academic study. When infrastructure works properly it fades from view, but in doing so loses none of its importance to human endeavor. This work therefore helps to make visible the invisible elements of infrastructure present in and around multiplayer video games and explicates the demands these elements create on people interacting with those games.
... Games and interactive media, he 39 argues, put cognitive and physical, but also emotional and social demands on users, which mediate their various experiential 40 effects, not just attentive binding. This 'demand perspective' is currently drawing academic attention, evident in a topical edited 41 book (Bowman, 2018b) and the present special issue. It strongly overlaps with recent attempts to re-conceptualize challenge in 42 games and media. ...
Video gaming actively demands players’ attention, affording positive experiences like flow. Recent research has suggested to extend analysis from cognitive and physical to the social and emotional demands of gameplay. This paper argues that Erving Goffman’s concept of interaction tension offers a promising theoretical model for social demands. We report a re-analysis of qualitative interview data on the social norms of video gaming corroborating the model. As suggested by Goffman, video gaming features rich social norms regarding involvement. When spontaneously experienced and normatively demanded involvement misalign, players experience self-conscious disinvolvement and engage in unenjoyable, effortful self-control of their experienced and displayed involvement.
... Video games are a common aspect of the modern media landscape, and thus, much research focuses on the cognitive, affective, and social dimensions involved with playing video games (Bowman, 2018). For example, players apply cognitive resources to understand and navigate a game, and in doing so, their cognitive skills are affected by learning how to play fast-paced action video games (Green, 2018). ...
This study replicated an experiment examining video game character perspective-taking effects on socio-political opinions with a sample of Spanish participants. Random assignment to play a game as an immigration inspector decreased intention and attitudes toward helping immigrants relative to baseline scores. These effects were observed while controlling for social dominance orientation or preference for inequality among social groups. The intention and attitudes of participants randomly assigned to play a control group game featuring the role of a newspaper editor remained unchanged. Overall, this study expanded perspective-taking research by replicating theoretical predictions with a different sample. We discuss future directions and findings that deviated from the original study.
... The keyness of this gratification sought may suggest that as franchises move fans' attentions from one medium to another, it may be productive to attend to the contributions of para-medium factors to experiences of the franchise overall. Indeed, as the interactivity of games is removed in film, attentional resources may be reallocated to other dimensions of the experience (Bowman, 2018). Additionally, the Personal Development gratification of fan skill enactment and the Connection gratification of novel familiarity both rely not only on familiarity with storyworld characters, events, and spaces but also on experiencing them anew as adaptations or translations to a new medium. ...
Popular culture is rich with transmedia storytelling—the adaptation of narrative universes from one medium to another—and although much work has attended to audience uses and gratifications of discrete media, little is known about audience motivations for shifting from one medium to another. This study takes a step toward bridging that gap through thematic analysis of videogame fans’ gratifications sought in viewing the inaugural films of two established videogame franchises: Assassin's Creed and Warcraft. Emergent themes—entertainment, expanded experience, personal fan development, community/franchise legitimization, and personal connection to the film—were largely consistent across both franchises (with variations explained by each franchise's maturity and fan norms). Although some gratifications are consistent with those of discrete media, discovered themes also reveal a) a more extrinsic and communal orientation toward franchises receiving the “big screen treatment” as a mark for the health, welfare, and cultural legitimacy of the franchise and fan community, and b) considerations of the target medium as both the source and referent of gratification such that the medium is a gratifying thing-in-itself.
... Playing video games demands players' attention and mental resources (Bowman, 2018), and this process may influence the effectiveness of in-game persuasive health messages. For example, structural features including ad placement (e.g., focal or peripheral placement in player visual field) influences in-game persuasive messages (Lee & Faber, 2007). ...
This study examined whether persuasive health messages embedded in shooter games have broad or targeted effects on players’ willingness to engage in risk behaviors (N = 145). Participants presented with in-game health messages discouraging alcohol-impaired driving of motor vehicles showed reduced willingness to drink alcohol and to operate both motor and nonmotor vehicles, compared to those in a no-message gaming control condition. There were no spillover effects on willingness to smoke cigarettes or marijuana, thus implying targeted persuasive effects. In addition, players experiencing high instead of low cognitive load showed decreased postexperiment willingness to drink and operate nonmotor vehicles, thus suggesting that playing a game under high cognitive load can influence players’ attitudes. The findings replicate previous research and further expand on knowledge-activation and thought-disruption mechanisms underlying the persuasiveness of health messages.
... This result was unexpected. A possible interpretation of this trend could be that the combination of demands in Sonic Adventure 2 overloaded the spatial processing system, limiting the capacity of the system to store spatial information (see Bowman, 2018). ...
We collected behavioral evidence to support the hypothesis that video game conditions have varying influences on hippocampus-dependent memory. Results indicate that participants who played in the video game conditions with clear reward mechanisms performed better on a declarative memory task than those who played in the video game conditions without reward mechanisms. Those who reported spending more time gaming weekly also performed the task better than those who reported spending less time gaming weekly, suggesting that gaming might have short-term and long-term effects on the hippocampus.
Mysteries are an engaging form of fiction, capturing audiences with curiosity, uncertainty, and ambiguity. However, mysteries in games have presented a challenge for research since the word mystery may be understood as 1) detective mysteries with clear-cut answers or 2) as mysteries which are unsolvable and incomprehensible. This paper focuses on the latter kind of mysteries. To investigate what constitutes a mystery player experience, in what ways mystery games provide answers to players and how to design these games, we inspected five mystery games through a formalist game analysis by a player-researcher. We discovered (1) how the mystery player experience was characterised by enjoyment of irresolution, state of not receiving clear-cut answers to a mystery, (2) how a mystery condition, a state of wonder and fascination, promoted openness, and (3) how interpretation management represented the doing in the mystery player experience. To our surprise, although the player was driven to find answers to mysteries, the eventual irresolution was an enjoyable experience to the player. We conclude that all mysteries need not be answered during the game, and the experience can be enjoyable because of this.
This article investigates the role of games in cognitive training through multimethod deductions from user references to the phenomenon, a consideration absent in the current literature. The results of qualitative thematic and quantitative textual analyses on a corpus of commercial brain-training apps' reviews (N ¼ 30,000) paint a complicated picture of user perceptions of brain-training services, where recreation from gaming takes precedence over concerns of cognitive gains. While users remain uncertain about benefits in cognitive functions, positive perceptions suggest the affective utility of playing brain-training games and the self-regulatory benefits of using the apps. These findings suggest a link between brain-training and psychological variables associated with complex entertainment experiences from playing digital games. The critical role of entertainment from gameplay and associated psychological dimensions are discussed as they relate to our findings and emerging perspectives on the role of gaming in cognitive and affective functions.
Since the beginning of the digital age, there have been critical voices claiming that spending time with digital media might reduce time dedicated to school-related obligations, leading to detrimental effects on academic performance. However, findings on this topic are mixed and lack large-scale time-use data that allow the investigation of displacement effects from a long-term perspective. To address this research gap, we tested a Time-allocation Model of Media Use among 12- to 18-year-old students from three different media generations (Gen X, Gen Y, Gen Z). The analysis relies on high-quality daily diary data (i.e., all existing data sets of the German Time-Use Survey) collected between 1991 and 2013 (N1991/1992 = 1,310, N2001/2002 = 1,329, N2012/2013 = 1,274). The findings of the partial least squares structural equation modeling multigroup analysis demonstrate that free time availability is an important predictor of media choice. Moreover, although digital media use considerably increased over time, the effects on school-related obligation time remained largely stable and, most importantly, small. The study offers new insights into changes in media use and their effects on school-related obligation time across different generations from both a theoretical and empirical perspective. It is adaptable for future research, analyzing prospective media generations.
Erving Goffman's work on interaction in everyday life focuses on joint spatio-temporal and face-to-face situations and denies the constitution of social situations via mediatized interaction. In contrast, we argue that shared immersive media such as Social Virtual Reality enable intense, delocalized forms of co-present interactions that constitute closeness and intimacy. By discussing Goffman in the context of current works that open up his perspective for mediatization, we present an understanding of social situations that focuses on intensity and synchronized embodiment-physical, digital, and corporeal. On the Social VR platform VRChat, synchronized bodies allow for intimate cor-poreal practices, such as cuddling, dancing, or cybersex. Virtual Reality technology facilitates delocalized forms of affective-bodily interaction, thereby contributing to the social negotiation of mediatized closeness and intimacy-despite physical distance. Our findings are based on a digital ethnographic analysis of lifeworlds and practices of enthusiast VRChat-users, combined with qualitative semi-structured interviews.
Physical inactivity is a global problem, and active video games (AVGs) have been demonstrated as effective at motivating players to be more physically active. Virtual-reality AVGs (VRAVGs) further encourage engagement with exerting gameplay by challenging players to move in a full 360-degree range of motion. As a unique feature of VRAVGs, we examined the influence of using multiple playable angles in Beat Saber on players’ physical activity and psychological outcomes. A between-subjects experiment randomly assigned participants (N = 240) to one of the three playable angles (single fixed angle, 90-degree, and 360-degree modes). Informed by the interactivity-as-demand model, a moderated mediation model of playable angles on enjoyment was supported. Players perceive higher cognitive and exertional demands in both multi-angle modes than those in single-angle mode, which leads to greater perceived difficulty and further enhances the enjoyment for players with a higher need for cognition, but negatively affects the enjoyment for players with a lower need for cognition. Multi-angle modes also led to greater motivation for future play and subjective vitality through greater cognitive demands, and more physical activity via higher exertional demands. We conclude that, in VR exercise, multiple playable angles are a unique feature that positively influences physical activity outcomes.
Studies have demonstrated the eudaimonic capacity of digital games, but less clear is whether gameplay is eudaimonically motivated. The present study examined potential eudaimonic motivations of gaming fans of five different upcoming games (N =
1163). Factor analysis reported ‘eudaimonic growth’ as a distinct gaming motivation
alongside ‘absorption’ and ‘social interaction.’ Eudaimonic motivations were positively
related with real-life eudaimonic orientations and game preferences, but negatively related to players’ intention to play.
Guided by biological and cultural perspectives, this work examines the formidability of male characters in video games released between 1974 and 2018 (n = 702). Formidability (e.g., size, strength) has served an essential function in the evolution of humans, especially for males. Alongside this evolution, cultural practices have long centralized formidability by celebrating it as a signal of masculinity. We review this biocultural phenomenon and connect it to patterns in human communication via a content analysis of depictions of playable male characters in video games. We identify two primary cultural influences on formidability portrayals in video games (i.e., technological advancement and the gendered culture of gaming) and contend that these factors interact to shape the occurrence of formidability in male character representations. Results indicate that formidable portrayals followed a quadratic trend increasing in early years before declining in recent years. Overall, average formidability was low, but observations aligned with hypotheses grounded in the biocultural framework we introduce. Formidability predicted physicality (i.e., vigorous bodily action), violent behavior, and use of weapons. It was highest in genres that emphasize physical enactment (e.g., fighting and sports games) and was less common in games rated for children. We interpret the findings with respect to the functional nature of formidability throughout human evolution and its role in contemporary society. We make suggestions for future refinement and application of the formidable masculinity framework.
This study represents one of the first empirical efforts to systematically examine gender differences in esports gameplay and viewing. Notable differences and similarities were found in how and why men and women consume esports. Men watched esports for fun, whereas women watched esports to escape from life’s problems. Motivations and preferences explained men’s, but not women’s, esports gameplay while use of chat was the strongest predictor of esports gameplay for women. In addition, availability and access largely explained esports gameplay for both men and women. Sports fandom, motivations, and uses of interactive features significantly predicted esports viewing across genders.
Digital games have evolved into a medium that moves beyond basic toys for distraction and pleasure towards platforms capable of and effective at instigating more serious, emotional, and intrapersonal experiences. Along with this evolution, games research has also started to consider more deeply affective and cognitive reactions that resemble the broad notion of eudaimonia, with work already being done in communication studies and media psychology as well as in human-computer interaction. These studies offer a large variety of concepts to describe such eudaimonic reactions—including eudaimonia, meaningfulness, appreciation, and self-transcendence—which are frequently used as synonyms as they represent aspects not captured by the traditional hedonic focus on enjoyment. However, these concepts are potentially confusing to work with as they might represent phenomenological distinct experiences. In this scoping review, we survey 82 publications to identify different concepts used in digital gaming research to represent eudaimonia and map out how these concepts relate to each other. The results of this scoping review revealed four broad conceptual patterns: (1) appreciation as an overarching (yet imprecise) eudaimonic outcome of playing digital games, (2) covariation among meaningful, emotionally moving/challenging, and self-reflective experiences, (3) the unique potential of digital games to afford eudaimonic social connectedness, and (4) other eudaimonia-related concepts (e.g., nostalgia, well-being, elevation). The paper provides a conceptual map of the current research landscape on eudaimonic game entertainment experiences, and outlines recommendations for future scholarship, including how a focus on digital games contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of eudaimonic media experiences.
Gamification—the use of video game elements in non-gaming environments—is an effective and lucrative method of compelling individuals to engage with behaviors normally found aversive or uninteresting. Gamified applications are found in myriad areas, from education and social justice to health and wellness. A preponderance of evidence suggests that gamified health applications can have a positive effect on mental and physical health, but these benefits are often not balanced against the unanticipated or unknown consequences to individuals that come with coercing or “governing” players towards activities that might not be for the players' benefit. The chapter describes and explains gamification, discusses various health and wellness gamification programs, and then highlights existing and speculates on potential exploitative interactions stemming from uncritical engagement with health and wellness gamification. This critique is offered through Foucault's lens of “governmentality.”
A purpose-made video game was used to measure response time and moral alignment of in-game moral decisions, which were made by 115 undergraduate students. Overall, moral decisions took between 4–6 seconds and were mostly pro-social. Previous gameplay, in-game, and post-game experiences predicted in-game moral alignment. Real-life moral salience was not related to in-game decision-making. The implications of these results are discussed in the context of the demands of video games and in-game moral decision-making models.
This study examined characteristics of players that self-identified as gamers. Participants (N=476) were asked to complete an online survey and provide information about their video game play. Analyses of the survey responses found support for gamers being younger, men, and playing more. We also found that some of the genres of play and technology used diverged from previous research. The two most surprising findings were that gamers preferred to play on consoles more than on computers, and massive-multiplayer online games were not the most played genre. This paper contributed to research in three ways: previous assumptions surrounding gamer identity and demographics were tested, the genre of games and method of play were examined to refine the definition of a gamer, and the implications of gamer identity were discussed.
Recent studies have found that digital games can be used to improve the players’ mood, especially after emotionally unpleasant experiences. We introduce competence repair as an extension of previous work on mood repair. To investigate the effects of digital games on both mood and competence repair, we conducted 3 studies using quiz games. In the quasi-experimental Study 1 (N = 143), we manipulated the necessity for repair via a false feedback task (positive vs. negative), and looked at the impact of in-game success (victory vs. defeat). In the experimental Studies 2 (N = 91) and 3 (N = 109), we aimed at conceptually replicating and extending the findings on the impact of in-game success by varying participants’ success over a series of 4 matches (Study 2: close game outcomes, Study 3: clear victory/defeat). The results of these studies indicate that the efficacy of digital games for mood repair, as well as competence repair, depends on the necessity for repair, as well as success in the game. However, competence repair occurred even after participants were defeated repeatedly in a series of close matches. These results are discussed in light of the potential of digital games for fulfilling (previously thwarted) psychological needs.
Recent years have seen important advances in the study of video games, with many scholars examining how video games impact emotional experiences of players. While this research borrows heavily from traditional media effects paradigms, it has proceeded without effectively integrating developments in emotion and emotion regulation. Therefore, this paper first reviews the nature of emotion and emotion regulation, and then reviews the extant video game literature. We next draw on theoretical accounts of emotion to frame three broad research questions that may advance future work on video games and emotions: (1) What is the nature of video game-evoked emotional experiences? (2) What are the processes through which video games produce emotions? (3) How are video games used to regulate emotions?
"Ever since the creators of the animated television show South Park turned their lovingly sardonic gaze on the massively multiplayer online game World of Warcraft for an entire episode, WoW's status as an icon of digital culture has been secure. My Life as a Night Elf Priest digs deep beneath the surface of that icon to explore the rich particulars of the World of Warcraft player's experience." —Julian Dibbell, Wired "World of Warcraft is the best representative of a significant new technology, art form, and sector of society: the theme-oriented virtual world. Bonnie Nardi's pioneering transnational ethnography explores this game both sensitively and systematically using the methods of cultural anthropology and aesthetics with intensive personal experience as a guild member, media teacher, and magical quest Elf." —William Sims Bainbridge, author of The Warcraft Civilization and editor of Online Worlds “Nardi skillfully covers all of the hot button issues that come to mind when people think of video games like World of Warcraft such as game addiction, sexism, and violence. What gives this book its value are its unexpected gems of rare and beautifully detailed research on less sensationalized topics of interest such as the World of Warcraft player community in China, game modding, the increasingly blurred line between play and work, and the rich and fascinating lives of players and player cultures. Nardi brings World of Warcraft down to earth for non-players and ties it to social and cultural theory for scholars. . . . the best ethnography of a single virtual world produced so far.” —Lisa Nakamura, University of Illinois World of Warcraft rapidly became one of the most popular online world games on the planet, amassing 11.5 million subscribers—officially making it an online community of gamers that had more inhabitants than the state of Ohio and was almost twice as populous as Scotland. It's a massively multiplayer online game, or MMO in gamer jargon, where each person controls a single character inside a virtual world, interacting with other people's characters and computer-controlled monsters, quest-givers, and merchants. In My Life as a Night Elf Priest, Bonnie Nardi, a well-known ethnographer who has published extensively on how theories of what we do intersect with how we adopt and use technology, compiles more than three years of participatory research in Warcraft play and culture in the United States and China into this field study of player behavior and activity. She introduces us to her research strategy and the history, structure, and culture of Warcraft; argues for applying activity theory and theories of aesthetic experience to the study of gaming and play; and educates us on issues of gender, culture, and addiction as part of the play experience. Nardi paints a compelling portrait of what drives online gamers both in this country and in China, where she spent a month studying players in Internet cafes. Bonnie Nardi has given us a fresh look not only at World of Warcraft but at the field of game studies as a whole. One of the first in-depth studies of a game that has become an icon of digital culture, My Life as a Night Elf Priest will capture the interest of both the gamer and the ethnographer. Bonnie A. Nardi is an anthropologist by training and a professor in the Department of Informatics in the Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences at the University of California, Irvine. Her research focus is the social implications of digital technologies. She is the author of A Small Matter of Programming: Perspectives on End User Computing and the coauthor of Information Ecologies: Using Technology with Heart and Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design. Cover art by Jessica Damsky
Research on moral judgment has been dominated by rationalist models, in which moral judgment is thought to be caused by moral reasoning. The author gives 4 reasons for considering the hypothesis that moral reasoning does not cause moral judgment; rather, moral reasoning is usually a post hoc construction, generated after a judgment has been reached. The social intuitionist model is presented as an alternative to rationalist models. The model is a social model in that it deemphasizes the private reasoning done by individuals and emphasizes instead the importance of social and cultural influences. The model is an intuitionist model in that it states that moral judgment is generally the result of quick, automatic evaluations (intuitions). The model is more consistent than rationalist models with recent findings in social, cultural, evolutionary, and biological psychology, as well as in anthropology and primatology.
As immersive digital environments increasingly facilitate social, professional, and playful human interactions, avatars are central to facilitating communication among players; concurrently, evidence points to avatars’ distinct agencies. Synthesizing these perspectives, this article proposes and tests a relational matrix model of interactions in massively multiplayer online games (MMOs), characterizing interactions traditionally considered dyadic (between two players) instead as tetradic (among two players and their respective avatars). The results from a survey of gamers (N = 220) support the proposed model, demonstrating perceptions of social agency (via explicit and implicit anthropomorphism and electronic propinquity) that are significantly different among the four agents in the matrix. Findings are discussed with respect to further development and implementation of the model and the nature of human–avatar interactions.
The ubiquity of video games in today’s society has led to significant interest in their impact on the brain and behavior and in the possibility of harnessing games for good. The present meta-analyses focus on one specific game genre that has been of particular interest to the scientific community—action video games, and cover the period 2000–2015. To assess the long-lasting impact of action video game play on various domains of cognition, we first consider cross-sectional studies that inform us about the cognitive profile of habitual action video game players, and document a positive average effect of about half a standard deviation (g = 0.55). We then turn to long-term intervention studies that inform us about the possibility of causally inducing changes in cognition via playing action video games, and show a smaller average effect of a third of a standard deviation (g = 0.34). Because only intervention studies using other commercially available video game genres as controls were included, this latter result highlights the fact that not all games equally impact cognition. Moderator analyses indicated that action video game play robustly enhances the domains of top-down attention and spatial cognition, with encouraging signs for perception. Publication bias remains, however, a threat with average effects in the published literature estimated to be 30% larger than in the full literature. As a result, we encourage the field to conduct larger cohort studies and more intervention studies, especially those with more than 30 hours of training.
Videogames¹ have the potential to promote ethical reasoning and reflection in players, however, designing games with this goal poses unique challenges. One way developers have attempted to introduce ethical choices into their games is by creating game systems that evaluate the players' moral actions, often representing them through a linear scale such as a "karma meter." At the same time, these ethical systems often work contrary to the design goals of the game by taking player choices that are framed as ethical and reducing them to strategic decisions. The aim of this paper is to build off the work that has already been done in game design and ethics in order to evaluate effective and ineffective approaches to creating engaging ethical systems in games. In particular, this paper will look at the use of intentional ambiguity as a method of encouraging ethical decision making while deterring purely instrumental player choices.
As a concept, affordance is integral to scholarly analysis across multiple fields—including media studies, science and technology studies, communication studies, ecological psychology, and design studies among others. Critics, however, rightly point to the following shortcomings: definitional confusion, a false binary in which artifacts either afford or do not, and failure to account for diverse subject-artifact relations. Addressing these critiques, this article demarcates the mechanisms of affordance—as artifacts request, demand, allow, encourage, discourage, and refuse—which take shape through interrelated conditions: perception, dexterity, and cultural and institutional legitimacy. Together, the mechanisms and conditions constitute a dynamic and structurally situated model that addresses how artifacts afford, for whom and under what circumstances.
Significance
We examine brain dynamics during a common social experience—social exclusion—to determine whether cohesive networks in the brain support navigation of the social world and contribute to the shape of friendship networks. Specifically, exclusion is associated with increased cohesion within brain networks that support understanding what other people think and feel. Furthermore, using social network analysis, we find that variability in brain dynamics is associated with the shape of participants’ friendship networks. Bringing together findings related to brain network dynamics and social network dynamics illuminates ways that psychological processes may shape and be shaped by social environments.
This study explored how group identification, avatar similarity identification, and social presence mediated the effect of character type (avatars or agents) and social identity cues (presence or absence of avatars wearing participants’ school colors) on game enjoyment. Playing with teammate avatars increased enjoyment indirectly by enhancing group identification. In addition, the presence of social identity cues increased enjoyment indirectly by augmenting identification with one’s avatar. Unexpectedly, playing in multiplayer mode in the presence of social identity cues decreased enjoyment, whereas playing in multiplayer mode in the absence of social identity cues increased enjoyment. Social presence was not a reliable mediator. The findings supported media enjoyment and social identity theories, and highlighted how virtual character type and identification processes influence enjoyment.
Social skills probably emerge from the interaction between different neural processing levels. However, social neuroscience is fragmented into highly specialized, rarely cross-referenced topics. The present study attempts a systematic reconciliation by deriving a social brain definition from neural activity meta-analyses on social cognitive capacities. The social brain was characterized by meta-analytic connectivity modeling evaluating coactivation in task-focused brain states and physiological fluctuations evaluating correlations in task-free brain states. Network clustering proposed a functional segregation into i) lower sensory, ii) limbic, iii) intermediate, and iv) high associative neural circuits that together mediate various social phenomena. Functional profiling suggested that no brain region or network is exclusively devoted to social processes. Finally, nodes of the putative mirror-neuron system were coherently cross-connected during tasks and more tightly coupled to embodied simulation systems rather than abstract emulation systems. These first steps may help reintegrate the specialized research agendas in the social and affective sciences.
Research into the perceptual, attentional, and cognitive benefits of playing video games has exploded over the past several decades. However, the methodologies in use today are becoming outdated, as both video games and the gamers themselves are constantly evolving. The purpose of this commentary is to highlight some of the ongoing changes that are occurring in the video game industry, as well as to discuss how these changes may affect research into the effects of gaming on perception, attention, and cognition going forward. The commentary focuses on two main areas: (1) the ways in which video games themselves have changed since the early 2000s, including the rise of various “hybrid” genres, the emergence of distinct new genres, and the increasing push toward online/open-world games, and (2) how video game players have changed since the early 2000s, including shifts in demographics, the decreasing specialization of gamers, and the fact that gamers today now have a long gaming history. In all cases, we discuss possible changes in the methods used to study the impact of video games on cognitive performance that these shifts in the gaming landscape necessitate.
Expectancy violations theory predicts and explains the effects of nonverbal behavior violations on interpersonal communication outcomes such as attraction, credibility, persuasion, and smooth interactions. Human interactions are strongly governed by expectations which, if violated, are arousing and trigger an appraisal process that may be moderated by the rewardingness of the violator. Violation interpretations and evaluations determine whether they are positive or negative violations. Positive violations are predicted to produce more favorable outcomes, and negative violations less favorable outcomes, than positive and negative confirmations respectively. Many of the theory's propositions have been supported empirically. Some contrary findings have led to revision of the theory. The theory has also been expanded to several kinds of nonverbal violations, including personal space, eye contact, posture, touch, involvement, and immediacy violations. The theory also spawned the investigation of the meanings associated with violations and the kinds of arousal that violations provoke.
Keywords:
communication theory;
expectations;
interpersonal communication;
interpersonal theory;
interviewing;
nonverbal communication;
relational communication;
social norms;
violations
This study aims to clarify inconsistencies regarding the term affordances by examining how affordances terminology is used in empirical research on communication and technology. Through an analysis of 82 communication-oriented scholarly works on affordances, we identify 3 inconsistencies regarding the use of this term. First, much research describes a particular affordance without engaging other scholarship addressing that affordance. Second, several studies identify “lists” of affordances without conceptually developing individual affordances within those lists. Third, the affordances perspective is evoked in situations where the purported affordance does not meet commonly accepted definitions. We conclude with a set of criteria to aid scholars in evaluating their assumptions about affordances and to facilitate a more consistent approach to its conceptualization and application.
This article highlights the importance of establishing comprehensive taxonomies in the booming sector of serious games. Although various authors have proposed partial classification systems in this field, very little has so far been published on serious game taxonomies which serve to classify any type of serious game. This article proposes a comprehensive serious game taxonomy. The aim of this taxonomy is to gather the particular features of video game design and development, the platforms used to run the games, and operational aspects such as use, users, and distribution by highlighting the idiosyncrasies of the serious component. To this end, 16 criteria are discussed in this work. The taxonomy collects a large number of features that will be useful for those looking for a serious game (e.g., to teach a subject or train a skill). If they wish to use an existing game, the taxonomy helps to choose between the different options. If they need to develop a custom game, the taxonomy details the design alternatives to consider. The proposal has been applied on 22 serious games, and some interesting conclusions are drawn from this study. In addition, a web application has been built to support the proposal.
Theoretical conceptualizations of awe suggest this emotion can be more positive or negative depending on specific appraisal processes. However, the emergent scientific study of awe rarely emphasizes its negative side, classifying it instead as a positive emotion. In the present research we tested whether there is a more negative variant of awe that arises in response to vast, complex stimuli that are threatening (e.g., tornadoes, terrorist attack, wrathful god). We discovered people do experience this type of awe with regularity (Studies 1 & 4) and that it differs from other variants of awe in terms of its underlying appraisals, subjective experience, physiological correlates, and consequences for well-being. Specifically, threat-based awe experiences were appraised as lower in self-control and certainty and higher in situational control than other awe experiences, and were characterized by greater feelings of fear (Studies 2a & 2b). Threat-based awe was associated with physiological indicators of increased sympathetic autonomic arousal, whereas positive awe was associated with indicators of increased parasympathetic arousal (Study 3). Positive awe experiences in daily life (Study 4) and in the lab (Study 5) led to greater momentary well-being (compared with no awe experience), whereas threat-based awe experiences did not. This effect was partially mediated by increased feelings of powerlessness during threat-based awe experiences. Together, these findings highlight a darker side of awe.
Recent reviews of quantitative research suggest that some but not all digital games add value when used as pedagogical tools. A more sophisticated cognitive theory of learning is required to guide the advance of educational games through improvements in design, scaffolding, and assessments. This chapter extends and improves existing mental model-based hypotheses about learning in games, particularly in terms of science learning and seeks to conceptualize simulation and game-based learning within a more general two-system theory of human cognition.
The model of intuitive morality and exemplars (MIME) highlights the central influence of innate moral instincts (or intuitions) in media use. Recent experimental research on the MIME found that moral intuitions that are chronically accessible in video gamers are likely to influence players to uphold related moral principles in the game. This study replicated and extended this research to examine the influence of both chronic and temporary accessibility of moral intuitions. Discussion focuses on the prospect that while chronic accessibility should be a better predictor of behavior in most cases, there are proximal in-game instances where environmental cues temporarily increase the accessibility of other moral intuitions. This suggests that (a) players do not necessarily disengage their morals during gameplay, and that moral intuitions influence their in-game decisions, and that (b) this influence is not fixed, but can be continuously modulated by game design features.
A comprehensive and up-to-date investigation of what research shows about the educational value of computer games for learning.
Many strong claims are made for the educational value of computer games, but there is a need for systematic examination of the research evidence that might support such claims. This book fills that need by providing, a comprehensive and up-to-date investigation of what research shows about learning with computer games.
Computer Games for Learning describes three genres of game research: the value-added approach, which compares the learning outcomes of students who learn with a base version of a game to those of students who learn with the base version plus an additional feature; the cognitive consequences approach, which compares learning outcomes of students who play an off-the-shelf computer game for extended periods to those of students who do not; and the media comparative approach, which compares the learning outcomes of students who learn material by playing a game to those of students who learn the same material using conventional media.
After introductory chapters that describe the rationale and goals of learning game research as well as the relevance of cognitive science to learning with games, the book offers examples of research in all three genres conducted by the author and his colleagues at the University of California, Santa Barbara; meta-analyses of published research; and suggestions for future research in the field. The book is essential reading for researchers and students of educational games, instructional designers, learning-game developers, and anyone who wants to know what the research has to say about the educational effectiveness of computer games.
The Oxford Handbook of Media Psychology explores facets of human behavior, thoughts, and feelings experienced in the context of media use and creation. Divided into six sections, chapters in this volume trace the history of media psychology; address content areas for media research, including children's media use, media violence and desensitization, sexual content, video game violence, and portrayals of race and gender; and cover psychological and physical effects of media such as serious games, games for health, technology addictions, and video games and attention. A section on meta-issues in media psychology brings together transportation theory, media psychophysiology, social influence in virtual worlds, and learning through persuasion. Other topics include the politics of media psychology, a lively debate about the future of media psychology methods, and the challenges and opportunities present in this interdisciplinary field.
We examined the relation of action video game practice and the optimization of executive control skills that are needed to coordinate two different tasks. As action video games are similar to real life situations and complex in nature, and include numerous concurrent actions, they may generate an ideal environment for practicing these skills (Green & Bavelier, 2008). For two types of experimental paradigms, dual-task and task switching respectively; we obtained performance advantages for experienced video gamers compared to non-gamers in situations in which two different tasks were processed simultaneously or sequentially. This advantage was absent in single-task situations. These findings indicate optimized executive control skills in video gamers. Similar findings in non-gamers after 15 h of action video game practice when compared to non-gamers with practice on a puzzle game clarified the causal relation between video game practice and the optimization of executive control skills.
Social Media Marketing blends essential theory with practical application and covers core skills such as strategic planning for social media applications, incorporating these platforms into the brand’s marketing communications, and harnessing social media data to yield consumer insights. This textbook outlines the “four zones” of social media—community, publishing, entertainment, and commerce—which marketers can use as a part of the strategic planning processes to achieve their core objectives.
The new edition has been extensively updated and expanded to include a new chapter on tactical planning and execution, and covers the latest research within social media marketing. It also incorporates new case studies and examples, including Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat; and discusses these in relation to globally recognized brands. This adaptation integrates India-specific examples, cases, and data to make the content suitable for the students of South Asia.
https://in.sagepub.com/en-in/sas/social-media-marketing/book274645
Werbung in Computerspielen gewinnt zusehends an Bedeutung. In der Branche herrscht großer Optimismus zu den Einsatzmöglichkeiten und auch den Wirkungspotenzialen von „In-Game-Advertising“ (IGA). Allerdings fehlen bislang systematische Untersuchungen zur Werbewirkung in Computerspielen. Ein Experiment mit 75 Spielern einer Fußballsimulation zeigt, dass die virtuelle Bandenwerbung am Spielfeldrand durchaus erinnert wird, jedoch die interaktive Nutzung von Computerspielen zu einer reduzierten Wahrnehmung der im Spiel beworbenen Marken (im Vergleich zu einer nicht-interaktiven Rezeptionsvariante) führt. Die Implikationen dieses Ergebnisses werden mit Blick auf die weitere Forschung und die praktische Anwendung von IGA diskutiert.
Fantasy sport has become big business. Recent estimates suggest that there as many as 33 million fantasy sport participants in the US alone, spending $3bn annually, with many millions more around the world. This is the first in-depth study of fantasy sport as a cultural and social phenomenon and a significant and growing component of the contemporary sports economy. This book presents an overview of the history of fantasy sport and its close connection to innovations in sports media. Drawing on extensive empirical research, it offers an analysis of the demographics of fantasy sport, the motivations of fantasy sport players and their significance as heavy consumers of sport media and as ultra-fans. It also draws cross-cultural comparisons between fantasy sport players in the US, UK, Europe and beyond. The Fantasy Sport Industry examines the key commercial and media stakeholders in the production and development of fantasy sport, and points to new directions for the fantasy sport industry within modern sport business. It is therefore, fascinating reading for any student, scholar or professional with an interest in sports media, sports business, fandom, the relationship between sport and society, or cultural studies.
Despite an increasing focus on the neural basis of human decision making in neuroscience, relatively little attention has been paid to decision making in social settings. Moreover, although human social decision making has been explored in a social psychology context, few neural explanations for the observed findings have been considered. To bridge this gap and improve models of human social decision making, we investigated whether acquiring a good reputation, which is an important incentive in human social behaviors, activates the same reward circuitry as monetary rewards. In total, 19 subjects participated in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments involving monetary and social rewards. The acquisition of one's good reputation robustly activated reward-related brain areas, notably the striatum, and these overlapped with the areas activated by monetary rewards. Our findings support the idea of a "common neural currency" for rewards and represent an important first step toward a neural explanation for complex human social behaviors.
Comparison of objects, events, and situations is integral to judgment; comparisons of the self with other people comprise one of the building blocks of human conduct and experience. After four decades of research, the topic of social comparison is more popular than ever. In this timely handbook a distinguished roster of researchers and theoreticians describe where the field has been since its development in the early 1950s and where it is likely to go next.
Games have long been used as a bonding activity; however, research on establishing and maintaining social closeness through games uses different terms, different mechanics and controls, and different contexts of use. As a result, designers have little guidance on which multiplayer game mechanics are most effective. We summarize literature on game design for social closeness into a framework with two collaborative mechanics: cooperation and interdependence. We then created four versions of an online game to independently test the effects of these game mechanics on relationship formation between paired online strangers, showing that cooperation and interdependence are two distinct factors that both can be used to improve play experience and increase social bonds. Additionally, we unpack the effect of interdependence, showing that the improved social closeness can be explained by the increase in conversational turns.
Within the gaming industry, live-streaming is becoming very popular as a form of online entertainment. Especially the so called social live streaming services (SLSSs) as a new type of social media have established in the last few years. Subsequently a new web topic-specific live streaming service solely for streaming video games has emerged. One of the most prominent and current examples is Twitch.tv which provides the opportunity for streamers to broadcast a game and react to viewers’ comments just-in-time. The viewers however watch the stream with the option to communicate either with the streamer or with other participants through a chat. The main goal of this study is to determine the motivation and behavior of Twitch users. Therefore, a research model including research questions has been developed. This model contains the dimensions ‘Information’, ‘Entertainment’ and ‘Socialization’ which were investigated in relation to the average time spent on Twitch as well as potential expenses. The data for the analysis originates from a developed questionnaire (n = 791) and provides interesting results. One of the key findings reveals a connection between the time and money users spend on Twitch. Of particular note is also the significance of the dimension ‘Socialization’.
In a recent report, Unsworth and his colleagues (2015)
suggested that no relation exists between playing video
games and cognitive skills. In this Commentary, we
briefly summarize the substantial issues with their study—
in particular, with the statistical approach and overall
research methodology—that together cast serious doubt
on their conclusions.
The increased popularity of social networking sites, such as Linkedln, Facebook, and Twitter, has opened opportunities for new business models for electronic commerce, often referred to as social commerce. Social commerce involves using Web 2.0 social media technologies and infrastructure to support online interactions and user contributions to assist in the acquisition of products and services. Social media technologies not only provide a new platform for entrepreneurs to innovate but also raise a variety of new issues for e-commerce researchers that require the development of new theories. This could become one of the most challenging research arenas in the coming decade. The purpose of this introduction is to present a framework that integrates several elements in social commerce research and to summarize the papers included in this special issue. The framework includes six key elements for classifying social commerce research: research theme, social media, commercial activities, underlying theories, outcomes, and research methods. The proposed framework is valuable in defining the scope and identifying potential research issues in social commerce. We also explain how the papers included in this special issue fit into the proposed research framework.
This study explores players’ fright reactions and coping strategies in an immersive virtual reality (VR) horror game. Based on Slater’s theory of virtual reality, two dimensions of fear elements in the VR game−the fear of place illusion (PI) and the plausibility illusion (PSI) −were identified by playing a virtual reality survival horror game with a sample of 145 students. Participants reported greater fear toward PSI elements than toward PI elements. Fear of PSI elements positively and strongly predicted disengagement coping strategies and overall fear. Among coping strategies, players mainly adopted approach strategies, followed by avoidance (disengagement and denial), and self-help strategies. A “self-talk” strategy, newly identified in this study, has been reported as an effective means to cope with mediated threat in VR games. Regarding individual differences, sensation seeking and neuroticism influenced participants’ coping strategies and fear. Additionally, males and females employed different coping strategies. Very few students experienced next-day fright, which consists mostly of cognitive reactions and VR-related reactions, such as the Tetris effect and the fear of being attacked from the back. Theoretical frameworks regarding fear elements and coping reactions are proposed to aid future research. Implications for academia, fear conditioning for training, and marketing campaigns are discussed.
Recent work shows that models based on functional connectivity in large-scale brain networks can predict individuals' attentional abilities. While being some of the first generalizable neuromarkers of cognitive function, these models also inform our basic understanding of attention, providing empirical evidence that: (i) attention is a network property of brain computation; (ii) the functional architecture that underlies attention can be measured while people are not engaged in any explicit task; and (iii) this architecture supports a general attentional ability that is common to several laboratory-based tasks and is impaired in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Looking ahead, connectivity-based predictive models of attention and other cognitive abilities and behaviors may potentially improve the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of clinical dysfunction.
Attachment bonds are a defining feature of mammals. A conceptual framework on human attachments is presented, integrating insights from animal research with neuroimaging studies. Four mammalian bonds are described, including parent-infant, pair-bonds, peers, and conspecifics, all built upon systems shaped by maternal provisions during sensitive periods, and evolution from rodents to humans is detailed. Bonding is underpinned by crosstalk of oxytocin and dopamine in striatum, combining motivation and vigor with social focus, and their time sensitivity/pulsatility enables reorganization of neural networks. Humans' representation-based attachments are characterized by biobehavioral synchrony and integrate subcortical with cortical networks implicated in reward/motivation, embodied simulation, and mentalization. The neurobiology of love may open perspectives on the 'situated' brain and initiate dialog between science and humanities, arts, and clinical wisdom.
This essay describes current research in player studies, focusing on how play is a social activity, and how sociality is mediated and performed in a variety of settings. It starts by explaining the concept of tandem play and then moves to an exploration of gameplay that is performed for differently sized audiences via the Twitch.tv platform. Our research finds that even single-player gameplay can very often be a social activity. Additionally, how we perform gameplay is contingent on multiple factors, including where we and others are physically located, whether play is professional or amateur, and how particular play platforms shape our expectations for play and spectatorship actions.
This study investigates why people choose to watch others play video games, on services such as Twitch. Through a questionnaire study (N = 1097), we examine five distinct types of motivations from the uses and gratifications perspective: cognitive, affective, personal integrative, social integrative and tension release. Information seeking is shown to be positively associated with the amount of hours that users chose to spend on the service, as well as the amount of individual streamers they choose to watch. Furthermore, we find that tension release, social integrative and affective motivations are positively associated with how many hours people watch streams. We also find that social integrative motivations are the primary predictor of subscription behaviour. This study lays the groundwork for understanding the motivations to consume this emerging form of new media in the context of online games and video streams.