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Using current systems to inform rearing facility design in the insect-as-food industry

August 2018
Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 4(3):167-170

DOI:10.3920/jiff2017.0076

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CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Authors:

Åsa Berggren

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Sweden

Anna Jansson

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

Matthew Low

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

As wild harvesting of insects gives way to mass rearing, there is an urgent need to develop expertise and methods in insect animal husbandry and facility design. In order to advance the science of animal husbandry and production in this field, comparisons and contrasts of different insect rearing facilities currently in production are likely to be beneficial. Here we initiate this discussion by suggesting a focus on insect rearing facilities at the two ends of the production scale spectrum (small-scale rearing and mass rearing) that have different end products (insects-as- food and insects for other purposes). We suggest that organisations with a philosophy of information sharing (e.g. universities) need to play an active role in this developing production system, by bridging gaps between academia, industry and traditional knowledge to ensure a rapid and societally acceptable development of wide-scale entomophagy.

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Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 2018; 4(3): 167-170 Wageningen Academic

Publishers

SPECIAL ISSUE: Insects in European feed and food chains

ISSN 2352-4588 online, DOI 10.3920/JIFF2017.0076 167

1. Introduction

Compared with other food production systems based

on traditional domestic animals, the developing insects-

as-food industry suffers from a clear lack of verifiable

knowledge of vital components of the food production

chain (Cortes Ortiz et al., 2016; Dobermann, 2017; Van

Huis, 2017). Thus, it is recognised that there is an urgent

need to develop expertise on insect animal husbandry and

facility design, as wild harvesting gives way to mass rearing

in the entomophagy market (Miech et al., 2016; Van Huis,

2013). To this end, the knowledge base on rearing facility

design for insects produced for human consumption is

increasing (discussed in e.g. Durst and Hanboonsong, 2015;

Oonincx and De Boer, 2012; Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013;

Van Huis, 2013; and examined in Dossey et al., 2016a; Van

Huis and Tomberlin, 2017). To maximise the potential for

information growth during this early development phase,

it is important to consider where knowledge and expertise

may already exist and could be adapted to mass insect

rearing facility design and management.

Insect housing and rearing techniques have been developed

for the pet market and for producing sterile insects as

pest control and in medical industries (Dossey et al.,

2016b). Thus there is great potential for adapting expertise

from these production systems. However, these facilities

and techniques are geared towards those fields’ specific

production goals (e.g. Fanson et al., 2014; Scott et al., 2017)

and will need to be closely examined to find what aspects

are transferable to insects-as-food mass rearing. The other

key repository of knowledge about insect rearing is the

established small-scale enterprises whose current focus

is producing insects for human consumption (at a local

scale). Thus we see real potential for advancing the science

of insect husbandry and production, by comparing and

contrasting the different scales of insect rearing facilities

currently in production. This can be used as a foundation

to explore which elements and methodologies are based on

scientific or expert knowledge and which aspects require

further critical evaluation and development. Here we

initiate this discussion by focussing on rearing facilities at

the different scales of production in order to understand

the common aspects that likely underlie different levels of

production (and can be scaled up from current practices)

and where key differences should occur as the scale of

production increases.

Using current systems to inform rearing facility design in the insect-as-food industry

Å. Berggren1*, A. Jansson2 and M. Low1

1Department of Ecology, P.O. Box 7044, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 75007 Uppsala, Sweden;

2Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), P.O. Box 7011,

75007 Uppsala, Sweden; asa.berggren@slu.se

Received: 9 November 2017 / Accepted: 22 May 2018

OPINION ARTICLE

Abstract

As wild harvesting of insects gives way to mass rearing, there is an urgent need to develop expertise and methods

in insect animal husbandry and facility design. In order to advance the science of animal husbandry and production

in this field, comparisons and contrasts of different insect rearing facilities currently in production are likely to be

beneficial. Here we initiate this discussion by suggesting a focus on insect rearing facilities at the two ends of the

production scale spectrum (small-scale rearing and mass rearing) that have different end products (insects-as-

food and insects for other purposes). We suggest that organisations with a philosophy of information sharing (e.g.

universities) need to play an active role in this developing production system, by bridging gaps between academia,

industry and traditional knowledge to ensure a rapid and societally acceptable development of wide-scale entomophagy.

Keywords: entomophagy, food system, sustainable, mass rearing, animal husbandry

OPEN ACCESS

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Å. Berggren et al.

168 Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 4(3)

2. Current types and scale of the insect rearing

industry

Rearing of insects for human consumption are mostly based

around smaller-scale enterprises, mainly in developing

countries. New initiatives are found in south-east Asia

as well as in central and southern Africa (Durst and

Hanboonsong, 2015; Gahukar, 2016; Kelemu et al., 2015).

These facilities are often small-scale businesses and run as

family companies or by farmer groups that generally rear

insects for local markets, with some facilities export to

neighbouring regions (Figure 1) (Durst and Hanboonsong,

2015; Gahukar, 2016; Van Huis, 2013). The insects used are

locally sourced and may be supplemented by additional

wild-caught individuals brought into the rearing facility

(Caparros Medigo et al., 2017; Miech et al., 2016). Rearing

facilities on an industrial scale have only appeared in the

last few years and are generally predicted as the future of

the global industry. They are emerging in western countries

like the Netherlands, as well as in Asia (e.g. China and

Thailand; Van Huis, 2013). These businesses have goals to

sell their products to regional and/or international markets

(Figure 1). These large-scale rearing facilities are more

likely to rely on their own core breeding stock to ensure a

predictable supply of insect biomass as output and to limit

the possibility of introducing diseases into the system.

Thus as the industry upscales its production intensity, it

is important to consider what aspects of facility design

and animal husbandry methods can be conserved and

which aspects will require modification. To determine how

these modifications should best occur will require research

into rearing methodologies and a deep understanding of

the ecology of the focal species in captivity (Kok, 2017).

Critically is also how these factors interact in producing

the insect protein as the marketable end product. This

is especially important if the industry’s environmental

credentials and the nutritional quality of the food will

be used to justify the emerging insect-as-food market

(Oonincx and De Boer, 2012).

3. Demands of the different types of rearing

facilities

Regardless of the scale of production, facilities share

particular purposes and demands in their function and

organisation. Notably, that rearing environments must be

suited to the focal insect species being reared including

health and welfare aspects (Gjerris et al., 2016). Facilities

must offer suitable feed and water sources, environmental

controls, maintenance of hygiene, disease control and the

ability to monitor and harvest the population (Belluco et

al., 2013; Eilenberg et al., 2015; Halloran et al., 2016; Stoops

et al., 2016), be a clean and safe working environment

(Pener, 2014). Here it will be instructive to compare how

these critical factors are delivered in small-scale insect-

as-food enterprises (using species for the food trade) and

the current mass rearing systems for medical and pest

control industries (using species not necessarily suited

for human consumption). This will provide key insights

into how facility design and husbandry can be conserved

when scaling up insect-as-food production and where it

likely needs to evolve. It is also important to consider how

Knowledge transfer

between scales

of production

Scale of

production

Market for

consumption

local

local and

regional

local,

regional and

international

Production

trait

sophistication

Knowledge to

production

ratio

• automation

• disease control

• stock control

• climate control

• feed security

• waste management

• processing

as mass

rearing

develops

once mass

rearing

developed

Figure 1. The scale of production relates to the intended market, the current knowledge base and the sophistication of production

traits that are required to ensure the success of the industry. Initially, the small-scale industry will provide key informational

aspects for mass rearing; however, as mass rearing develops its methods, advances in husbandry knowledge may feedback

into small-scale husbandry practices.

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Using current systems to inform rearing facility design

Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 4(3) 169

lessons learned from mass rearing husbandry could be used

to improve small-scale production enterprises (Figure 1);

this would ensure that research was not solely focussed on

taking hard-won lessons from developing countries without

giving something in return. By using a perspective that

compares system components in insect production systems

between different scales of production and with different

end products, research programmes can be informed by

both the current small-scale insect-as-food industry, and

the larger scale medical and pet industries, to be applied to

mass rearing situations for human consumption. Current

insect-as-food production is small scale; thus the methods

that have been developed for food insects will need to be

adapted to systems like those currently used in the medical/

pest industries:

Specifics for small-scale facilities (insects-as-food):

•

Manual work predominantly for feeding, cleaning, and

handling.

•

Visual inspection can be used to gather information on

insect health.

• Breeding and supplementary animals can be mixed as

part of the production stock.

• Pathogens have a limited number of insects to infect.

•

Restocking is for some species and regions possible

from the wild.

•

Outdoor facilities with open sections have limited ability

to control climate and pathogens.

•

Potential to be more flexible and variable in feed

resources.

Specifics for large-scale facilities (medical, pest control,

pet industry):

•

Automated work processes for feeding, cleaning, sorting,

packing.

• Large screening programs for pathogens likely needed

because of the relationship between epidemiological

patterns and population size/density.

• Greater need to separate breeding and rearing stock.

•

Spread of pathogens in populations have potential to

reach a high number of insect individuals.

•

Restocking includes evaluating insect quality and safety

aspects.

•

Establishment of core breeding lines and little or no

input from wild-caught insects.

• Great need for advanced climate control systems.

•

Need for large mass of feed resources, secure in delivery

and quality.

•

Large mass of waste products produced that needs to

be managed.

• Large storage, processing and packaging facilities.

4. Key points for future development

•

General advances in facility design, animal welfare and

production are often driven by independent researchers

with the freedom to share information. Thus, if this

industry is to rapidly advance in ways that society deems

preferable (i.e. with key nutritional and sustainability

goals), universities and other organisations with a

philosophy of information sharing, environmental and

cultural sensitivity need to play an active role in its

development.

•

Knowledge from insect rearing in the pet industry may

be useful in terms of population responses related to

rearing conditions, but most of these are not easily

accessible because of the lack of published sources.

Researchers should look to establish networks and

working groups that include experts from within this

industry to facilitate knowledge dissemination.

•

The production of sterile insects for pest control and

the medical industry are usually done on a large scale.

Much of this information is available (e.g. individual

growth, health and survival in relation to environmental

factors; Fanson et al., 2014; Scott et al., 2017) and could

be adapted for the insect-as-food industry. In particular,

for understanding certain aspects of species’ behaviour,

interactions and habitat use for incorporation into both

small- and large-scale rearing.

•

Knowledge of species’ ecology including developmental

needs, animal health and welfare aspects, potential

feeds and space requirements gathered from small-

scale rearing are likely to be important for developing

methods in large-scale facilities.

• There is unlikely to be a generic insect-rearing facility

template, since different insects have their own specific

needs and life history requirements. Just as we do not

lump together the facility design of pigs, sheep and cattle,

we need to be careful in such discussions that different

insect species are recognised as similarly different in

their needs and rearing requirements.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the suggestions from the reviewers. We

thank the Faculties of Natural Resources and Agricultural

Sciences and Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science,

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences for support.

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Å. Berggren et al.

170 Journal of Insects as Food and Feed 4(3)

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Mar 2023

Bazı böcek türlerinin insanlar tarafından tüketilmesi yeni bir konu olmamakla birlikte, son yıllarda özellikle nüfusun ve hayvansal protein talebinin artışı ile birlikte yeniden ele alınan bir konudur. Yenilebilir böceklerin hâlihazırda en az 2 milyar insan tarafından tüketildiği tahmin edilmektedir. Diğer pek çok hayvansal kaynağa göre daha az yem ile daha fazla vücut ağırlığı kazanımı ve küresel ısınmada çok önemli rol oynayan sera gazı salınımındaki payının oransal olarak çok daha az olması, yenilebilir böceklerin gelecek senaryolarında hem insan gıdası hem de hayvan yemi olarak potansiyelinin değerlendirilmesini önemli kılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada yenilebilir böceklerin besin değeri, üretimi, işlenmesi, depolanması, ekonomisi, sağlık ve çevre üzerine etkileri, tüketici kabulü ve yasal düzenlemeler gibi başlıklar ele alınarak konu çok boyutlu bir yaklaşımla derlenmiştir.

Edible insects and research needs

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2017

Arnold Van Huis

The recent research interest is illustrated by the many refereed articles that appeared during the last years. Only in 2016, there were 47 articles listed in Web of Science (consulted 15 February 2017) when using ‘edible insects’ compared to only 25 during the entire five-year period 2006-2010. At the start of 2017 there are close to 200 start-up companies worldwide (http://tinyurl.com/zyotzcy). In 2016, a number of organisations made predictions about how the global edible insect market will grow. With an increased interest, what are the research challenges ahead of us? Where should we be focussing on? What are the bottlenecks to be solved to make it a viable sector?

Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications

Book

Full-text available

Jul 2016

Aaron T Dossey

https://cricketpowder.com/insects-as-sustainable-food-ingredients/ Elsevier, a world-leading provider of scientific, technical and medical information products and services, today announced the publication of Insects as Sustainable Food Ingredients: Production, Processing and Food Applications, edited by Aaron T. Dossey, Juan Morales-Ramos and M. Guadalupe Rojas. This book provides valuable guidance on how to build insect-based agriculture, food and biomaterials industries. A pioneer in the industry, Dr. Dossey has brought together a team of international experts who effectively summarize the current state of the art, providing helpful recommendations upon which readers can build companies, products and research programs. Researchers, entrepreneurs, farmers, policymakers and anyone interested in insect mass production and the industrial use of insects will benefit from the content in this comprehensive reference. Read the introductory chapter from the book. Dr. Dossey holds a Ph.D. in biochemistry and molecular biology, and an undergraduate degree in biochemistry and molecular biology cum laude with minors in mathematics and chemistry. He is a professional self-taught entomologist, founding president of All Things Bugs LLC, and inventor of Griopro® cricket powder (https://cricketpowder.com/). His research involves developing technologies derived from insects and other invertebrates, with award-winning research and publications in the fields of entomology and chemistry. Dr. Dossey has won more than $750,000 in major research grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation as well as the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) developing insect farming and processing technologies as well as Ready to Use Therapeutic Food (RUTF) for malnourished children. He has invented and patented technology for production of insect-based food ingredient products, and his company is already the world's largest in production and selling these products. "Insect mass production and use in human food, animal feed and numerous other applications is very promising," said Dr. Dossey. "Insect farms, processors and new entrepreneurs are beginning to capitalize on it and make it an important resource for the world. There is great need for a book with the focus, scope and content that ours contains, and we trust it will be a standard reference for this important emerging industry for decades to come." Dr. Morales-Ramos's main expertise is in mass production of arthropods, insect nutritional ecology and the development of rearing methods and mechanization of rearing processes for beneficial arthropods. He developed mass propagation technology for the boll weevil parasitoid Catolaccus grandis, leading to the USDA-ARS scientist of the year award in 2002. Dr. Morales-Ramos also created termite and ant baiting systems, which earned him the USDA-ARS technology transfer award and the Federal Laboratory Consortium regional excellence in technology transfer award in 2004. Since 2004, he has developed novel rearing methods for predatory mites and other beneficial arthropods. He has produced 104 publications and holds 12 patents. Dr. Morales-Ramos recently co-edited the book, Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms: Invertebrates and Entomopathogens, also published by Elsevier. Dr. Rojas is an expert in insect nutrition, nutritional ecology and the development of artificial diets for biological control agents and bait matrixes to control termites and ants. She developed an artificial diet for the boll weevil parasitoid Catolaccus grandis, and bait matrices for control of the Formosan subterranean termite and household ants, both of which were successfully commercialized by Ensystex and FMC, and still are sold worldwide. This work earned her the USDA-ARS technology transfer award and the Federal Laboratory Consortium regional excellence in technology transfer award in 2004. Since 2004, Dr. Rojas has developed artificial diets for predatory mites and other insect predators and improved susceptibility of Tenebrio molitor to entomopathogenic nematodes. She has produced 99 publications and holds 12 patents, and also co-edited, Mass Production of Beneficial Organisms.

Edible insects: Future prospects for food and feed security. Food and Agriculture Organiation of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2013

Growth and survival of reared Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) fed weeds, agricultural and food industry by-products

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2016

This study evaluated survival and growth of Cambodian field crickets (Teleogryllus testaceus) during captivity when fed a set of local weed species, agricultural and food industry by-products. Wild individuals were caught at two locations in Cambodia, kept in pens and fed commercial chicken feed until the second generation off-spring hatched. First larval stage nymphs from this generation were collected and used in a 70-day feeding trial with one control treatment (chicken feed) and 12 experimental treatments (rice bran, cassava plant tops, water spinach, spent grain, residue from mungbean sprout production, and Alternanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Commelina benghalensis, Cleome rutidosperma, Cleome viscosa, Boerhavia diffusa and Synedrela nodiflora). The crickets were kept in plastic cages and feed intake, weight and survival of crickets were recorded weekly. Overall survival did not differ between chicken feed and the experimental treatments with the exception of crickets fed B. diffusa, which had lower survival. From day 35 to day 49, survival on A. sessilis was also lower (P<0.05) than on chicken feed. There was no difference in weight between crickets fed chicken feed, cassava tops and C. rutidosperma. However, crickets fed A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa weighed less than those fed chicken feed already at day 21. The feed conversion rate ranged from 1.6 to 3.9 and was ≤1.9 in crickets fed chicken feed, cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma. Thus this study shows that it is possible, using simple means, to rear Cambodian field crickets. Cassava plant tops and C. rutidosperma both have great potential as cricket feed and the other weeds, with the exception of A. sessilis, A. spinosus and B. diffusa, agricultural and food industry by-products tested, also showed potential.

Insect Mass Production Technologies

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2016

Insects provide a very promising alternative for the future production of animal protein. Their nutritional value in conjunction with their food conversion efficiency and low water requirements make them a more sustainable choice for the production of food of animal origin. However, to realize their potential as a viable source of food for a growing human population, it is necessary to create the infrastructure for their production, processing, storage, distribution, and marketing, and to develop legislation for their use as food. But none of these steps become relevant unless we have the ability to produce insects in sufficient quantities to supply the potential demands for animal protein. In this chapter we present and describe the current technologies and state-of-the-art of insect production (farming) for feed and food. Nutritional requirements of insects are discussed with methods for developing and producing insect feed formulations. An example of a modern insect farm is presented describing mechanized and automated steps on multiple insect species production. Current methods for producing the yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.), the super worm (Zophobas morio Fab.), the housefly (Musca domestica L.), the soldier fly [Hermetia illucens (L.)], the house cricket (Acheta domesticus L.), and the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella L.) are described in detail. And an extensive review of the equipment currently available for environmental rearing room control and process automation is presented and discussed.

Small-scale production of crickets and impact on rural livelihoods

Chapter

Aug 2017

Rudy Caparros Megido

Review of research advances in the screwworm eradication program over the past 25 years

Article

Aug 2017
ENTOMOL EXP APPL

New World screwworms, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) (Diptera: Calliphoridae: Chrysomyinae), are devastating pests of warm-blooded animals that cause significant economic damage to livestock. The successful campaign to eradicate screwworms from continental North America, led by the US Department of Agriculture and using the sterile insect technique, continues to receive research support that has resulted in improved technologies for all aspects of the program. The process and ingredients for mass-rearing screwworms is more efficient and sustainable, and there is now a standardized protocol for developing new strains used in mass rearing. Cryopreservation of screwworm embryos allows strains to be preserved and recovered if necessary and also reduces rearing requirements for backup and research strains. Sterile fly release procedures and equipment have been updated leading to optimized sterile fly release rates. Surveillance for screwworm infestations and outbreaks have incorporated new trap designs, habitat analysis, and molecular genetic techniques that enhance monitoring the progress of the program as well as early detection and response to outbreaks. Genetic analyses of screwworm populations across their current range have increased the understanding of genetic differentiation, which may aide in developing new strains and determining the geographic origin of screwworms causing outbreaks when they occur. The ability to release only sterile males, which has been a goal of the program for over 60 years, has recently been accomplished through the development of transgenic sexing strains. The strains carry a conditional female lethal gene and are comparable to the wild-type strain for several biological parameters that are important for mass production and performance in the field. The strains should improve efficiency of population suppression of the current and future eradication and prevention programs against screwworms. These research advances as well as future considerations are presented.

Article

Oct 2015

The present opinion has the format of a risk profile and presents potential biological and chemical hazards as well as allergenicity and environmental hazards associated with farmed insects used as food and feed taking into account of the entire chain, from farming to the final product. The opinion also addresses the occurrence of these hazards in non-processed insects, grown on different substrate categories, in comparison to the occurrence of these hazards in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. When currently allowed feed materials are used as substrate to feed insects, the possible occurrence of microbiological hazards is expected to be comparable to their occurrence in other non-processed sources of protein of animal origin. The possible occurrence of prions in non-processed insects will depend on whether the substrate includes protein of human or ruminant origin. Data on transfer of chemical contaminants from different substrates to the insects are very limited. Substrates like kitchen waste, human and animal manure are also considered and hazards from insects fed on these substrates need to be specifically assessed. It is concluded that for both biological and chemical hazards, the specific production methods, the substrate used, the stage of harvest, the insect species and developmental stage, as well as the methods for further processing will all have an impact on the occurrence and levels of biological and chemical contaminants in food and feed products derived from insects. Hazards related to the environment are expected to be comparable to other animal production systems. The opinion also identifies the uncertainties (lack of knowledge) related to possible hazards when insects are used as food and feed and notes that there are no systematically collected data on animal and human consumption of insects. Studies on the occurrence of microbial pathogens of vertebrates as well as published data on hazardous chemicals in reared insects are scarce. Further data generation on these issues are highly recommended.

Insects as food and feed: Can research and business work together?

Article

Mar 2017

Darja Dobermann

There is an apparent incongruence between businesses and researchers targeting insects for food and feed. With the Novel Foods Application looming, legislative hurdles to insects in animal feed and the uncertainty of Brexit, businesses and researchers find themselves questioning whether a collaborative partnership is worth pursuing. Discussion with experts on both sides highlighted the main tension points and possible paths to reconciliation. The key differences were established as views on end goals, access to resources, inherent personal risk and communication of findings. Ultimately, for the marriage of business and research to survive it must be recognised how similarities, however limited, work together rather than how differences divide.

Modern Insect-Based Food Industry: Current Status, Insect Processing Technology, and Recommendations Moving Forward

Chapter