Evaluation of the Structural Behaviour of Beam-beam Connection Systems using Compressed Wood Dowels and Plates

Abstract

To support the transition to a bio-based society, it is preferable to substitute metallic fasteners and adhesives in timber construction with an eco-friendly alternative. Recent studies have identified compressed wood dowels and plates as a possible substitute for metallic fasteners in contemporary and mainstream applications. In this study, a spliced beam-beam connection system using compressed wood dowels and slotted-in compressed wood plates was examined under four-point bending. The study has considered specimens with compressed wood dowels of 10 mm diameter and compressed wood plates of 10 mm thickness. The load carrying capacity of connections using compressed wood dowels and plates were compared to connections utilising steel dowels and plates of equivalent capacity. Typical failure modes, moment resistance and rotational stiffness of both connection systems are evaluated on the basis of the experimental results. Tests have demonstrated similar failure modes when comparing steel-timber and compressed wood-timber connection systems. The mean failure load for the compressed wood-timber connection system is only 20.3% less than that achieved for the steel-timber connection system. The mean rotational stiffness of the compressed wood-timber connection system is 18.55% less than that achieved for the steel-timber connection system. These preliminary results demonstrate the potential for the use of compressed wood elements in the manufacture of timber connections.

Full text

EVALUATION OF THE STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF BEAM-BEAM
CONNECTION SYSTEMS USING COMPRESSED WOOD DOWELS AND
PLATES
Sameer Mehra1, Conan O’Ceallaigh1, Fatemeh Hamid - Lakzaeian1, Zhongwei Guan2,
Adeayo Sotayo2, Annette M. Harte1
ABSTRACT: To support the transition to a bio-based society, it is preferable to substitute metallic fasteners and
adhesives in timber construction with an eco-friendly alternative. Recent studies have identified compressed wood dowels
and plates as a possible substitute for metallic fasteners in contemporary and mainstream applications. In this study, a
spliced beam-beam connection system using compressed wood dowels and slotted-in compressed wood plates was
examined under four-point bending. The study has considered specimens with compressed wood dowels of 10 mm
diameter and compressed wood plates of 10 mm thickness. The load carrying capacity of connections using compressed
wood dowels and plates were compared to connections utilising steel dowels and plates of equivalent capacity. Typical
failure modes, moment resistance and rotational stiffness of both connection systems are evaluated on the basis of the
experimental results. Tests have demonstrated similar failure modes when comparing steel-timber and compressed wood-
timber connection systems. The mean failure load for the compressed wood-timber connection system is only 20.3% less
than that achieved for the steel-timber connection system. The mean rotational stiffness of the compressed wood-timber
connection system is 18.55% less than that achieved for the steel-timber connection system. These preliminary results
demonstrate the potential for the use of compressed wood elements in the manufacture of timber connections.
KEYWORDS: Connections, compressed wood dowels, compressed wood plates, four-point bending
1 INTRODUCTION
123
The widespread use of metallic fasteners and adhesives in
modern timber construction has negative implications for
the end-of-life disposal or re-use of the structural timber
components. Emission of volatile organic compounds
during manufacture of synthetic adhesives may have
human health impacts in addition to the environmental
impact. To cope with the upcoming transition to a bio-
based society, it is preferable to substitute metallic
fasteners and adhesives with an eco-friendly alternative
such as wood-based connectors.
The use of wood-based connectors is not new. In some of
the early Egyptian and Polynesian boats, wooden pegs
and treenails were used to fasten together the various
pieces of the hull [1]. Treenails or trunnels have also been
used as connectors in timber frame and covered bridge
constructions [2]. Dense hardwood has traditionally been
used for connectors in timber structures. However, the use
of hardwood fasteners is limited by resource availability
and the fact that hardwood connectors undergo stress
relaxation, which causes loosening of the joint over time
necessitating regular tightening [3-4].
The mechanical and physical properties of underutilised
softwood species can be easily modified by chemical and
1
Sameer Mehra, National University of Ireland Galway,
Ireland, s.mehra1@nuigalway.ie
1Conan O’Ceallaigh, National University of Ireland Galway,
Ireland, conan.oceallaigh@nuigalway.ie
1Fatemeh Hamid-Lakzaeian, National University of Ireland
Galway, Ireland, fatemeh.hamid@nuigalway.ie
thermal treatments. In recent years, densification of wood
by compression, thermal and chemical treatments has
been the subject of several research programmes.
Examples include viscoelastic thermal compression
wood, thermo-hydro-mechanical densified wood, oil-
heated treatment and acetylated wood.
Compression of wood results in increased density,
decreased porosity and improved material strength,
stiffness, hardness and dimensional stability [5].
Compressed Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) has shown
increased Young’s modulus with increasing compression
ratio in bending [6]. Compressed wood (CW) of Japanese
cedar was used as a substitute for high density hardwood
for making shear dowels [7]. When compressed radially,
Japanese cedar has been shown to have good properties as
a dowel material in terms of its enhanced strength and
ductility [7].
CW friction joints were found to have a satisfactory high
initial stiffness, load carrying capacity and ductility,
where compressed wooden wedges were used together
with a conventional bolt-and-bearing-plate joint [8]. Jung
et al. [9] demonstrated that large moment resistance and
ductility can be achieved in column-beam joints utilising
CW plates and dowels. The high embedding performance
2 Zhongwei Guan, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom,
zhongwei.guan@liverpool.ac.uk
2Adeayo Sotayo, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom,
a.sotayo@liverpool.ac.uk
1Annette M. Harte, National University of Ireland Galway,
Ireland, annette.harte@nuigalway.ie

of the CW plates contributed to the rotational stiffness,
and the high shearing performance of the CW dowels to
the axial stiffness.
Current deign codes do not adequately address the design
of timber connections using wood-based connectors. The
objective of this study is to investigate feasibility of CW
dowels and CW plates as eco-friendly substitutes of
metallic fasteners in moment-resisting connections. The
study comprises experimental evaluation of CW and steel
beam-beam moment connections to the determine typical
failure modes, load carrying capacity and moment
resistance.
2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This study investigates the use of CW dowels and plates
in beam-beam moment connections and compares them to
similarly loaded moment connections utilising steel
dowels and plates. The beam-beam moment connection
between two glued laminated beams is illustrated in
Figure 1. The beams are spliced together using a total of
two plates and twenty dowels.
Figure 1: Beam-beam moment connection
2.2 MATERIALS
A total of four test specimens were produced comprising
two replications of a steel fastened connection system and
two of a compressed wood fastened connection system.
The dimension lumber used in this study was Irish-grown
Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). There were eight
glulam beams manufactured. In order to minimise the
variability among the glulam beams, timber laminates
were selected based upon their density. The mean density
of the laminates was 477.74 kg/m3 with a standard
deviation of 4.74. Each beam consisted three laminates of
1575 mm long and 52.5 mm thick. The cross-section area
of each beam was 115 mm x 157.5 mm. The laminates
were glued together using a one-component PU adhesive
and were clamped in a rig to a minimum pressure of 0.6
MPa in accordance with EN 14080 [10]. All the beams
were conditioned at a temperature of 20 ± 2˚C temperature
and 65 ± 5 % relative humidity prior to testing.
The CW plates were manufactured using Scots Pine
(Pinus sylvestris) wood compressed in the radial direction
with a compression ratio of approximately 54% at the
University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. The CW
dowels were similarly compressed in the radial direction.
A schematic of manufacturing process and the finished
dowels are presented in Figure 2a and Figure 2b,
respectively. The final density of the compressed wood
dowels ranged from 1100-1500 kg/m3 with the diameter
of 10 + 0.5 mm.
Each glulam beam in the test programme was routed at
one end to accommodate two compressed wood or steel
plates of 10 mm thickness. The routed slot was 11 mm in
width. The grade of steel used in this study for plates and
dowels was S275. The steel plates dimensions were 480 x
152 mm2 and the compressed wood plates dimensions
were 480 x 157.5 mm2.
Figure 2: Compressed wood fasteners, (a) Schematic of
manufacturing of compressed wood plates and dowels, (b)
finished compressed wood plates and dowels
2.3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF CONNECTION
SYSTEM
To assess the performance of CW fastened connections,
beam-beam connections using equivalent capacity steel
dowels and steel plates were produced as control
specimens.
The Eurocode 5 does not adequately address the
guidelines for designing of moment resisting dowel type
connections. Thus, the recommendation for the minimum
spacing criteria for both timber to steel and timber to
timber moment resisting connection were followed as per
the guidelines by Porteous and Kermani [11]. The
possible failure modes under consideration for the steel-
timber connection are illustrated in Figure 3 as defined in
Eurocode 5 [12].
(1) (2) (3)
Figure 3: Failure modes for steel-timber connection (Porteous
and Kermani [11])
The corresponding characteristic load carrying capacity
per steel dowel per shear plane for each steel-timber
connection failure mode is calculated using Equations (1)-
(3).
 
(1)
(a)
(b)

where:
Fv,Rk = Characteristic load carrying capacity of per steel
dowel per shear plane
t1 = Timber board thickness
fh,1,k = Embedment strength
My,Rk= Yield moment of fastener
Fax,Rk = Withdrawal capacity of fastener.
The load carrying capacity of the CW-timber connection
is calculated based on failure modes illustrated in Figure
4. The timber-timber connection has one more failure
modes compared to the timber-steel connection.
(4) (5) (6) (7)
Figure 4: Failure modes for the timber-timber connection [11]
The corresponding characteristic load carrying capacity
per CW dowel per shear plane for each failure mode is
calculated using Equation (4)-(7).
where,
fh,2,k = Embedment strength of central timber element
t2 = timber board thickness of the central timber element
β = The ratio between the embedment strength of
connected members
and the rest are as described previously.
The yield moment of the steel dowel was calculated as per
Eurocode 5 [12]. The characteristic yield moment (My,RK)
of the steel dowel was 27,412 N-mm. Whereas the
characteristic yield moment of the compressed wood
dowel was calculated from experimental three point
bending tests in accordance with ASTM 1575 [13]. The
characteristic yield moment (My,Rk) of the compressed
wood dowels was 13.151 N-mm.
The assumed characteristic embedment strength of the
compressed wood plate was 125.80 (N/mm2) as reported
by Jung et al. [7]. Whereas the embedment strength of the
glulam was calculated as per Eurocode 5 [12]. Since the
embedment strength is the function of the diameter and
characteristic density of the material. Therefore, the
embedment strength of glulam beam for a steel dowel of
8 mm diameter is 31 N/mm2 and for a compressed wood
dowel of 10 mm is 31.68 N/mm2.
The failure mode is that associated with the minimum
value from each set of equations, which is the
characteristic load carrying capacity per fastener per shear
plane. The connection parameters and calculated
theoretical moment resistance of both connection systems
are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 1: Theoretical moment resistance of both steel-timber
beam and compressed wood-timber beam connection systems
2.4 FABRICATION OF CONNECTION SYSTEM
The fabrication of the beam-beam spliced connection
system can be seen in Figure 5. In Figure 5a, the beams
are fixed in position using clamps while the CW plates are
positioned prior to dowel insertion. Once aligned, the
dowels were driven into rectangular pattern to form the
connection.
Figure 5: Spliced connection system, (a) fabrication process, (b)
plan view of steel and compressed wood connection system.
In Figure 5b, the completed timber-steel connection and
the timber-timber connection systems can be seen. The
designed spacing edge and end distances are summarised
in Table 2.
  


(2)
 

(3)
 
(4)
 
(5)

 
 

(6)
 


(7)
Design Parameter
Steel-timber
connection
Compressed
wood-timber
connection
Dowel diameter
8
10
No. of dowels
10
10
No. of plates
2
2
Design moment
capacity of glulam
5.48 kN-m
5.48 kN-m
Design Moment
capacity of the
connection
3.03 kN-m
2.90 kN-m
(a)
b)
(b)

Table 2: Spacing, edge and end distances for designed
connection system
Spacing, edge and end distances
Spacing (mm)
Spacing
Parallel to grain
36
Spacing
Perpendicular to grain
36
End
Loaded end
63.5
End
Unloaded end
63.5
Edge
Loaded edge
42.5
Edge
Unloaded
42.5
2.5 STRUCTURAL TESTING
The structural tests were conducted at the laboratory of
Timber Engineering Research Group (TERG) at the
National University of Ireland Galway. The beam
specimens were tested in flexure over a simply supported
span in four-point bending in accordance with EN 408
[14]. Figure 6 illustrates the beam-beam connection test
set-up with the spliced connection at mid-span. As
recommended by Wang et al. [15], a gap of 10 mm was
used to avoid friction between the beams. Simple lateral
supports were placed at the end of the beams to avoid
lateral movement. This ensures that the connection was
subject to a pure bending load. The testing set up is
illustrated in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Four-point bending test set up
The continuous load was applied at the rate of 0.15
mm/second using a Dartec 500 kN Servo hydraulic testing
machine. The vertical displacement at the mid-span of the
connection was measured by a micro-epsilon
optoNCDT1420 laser with an accuracy of 8µm. Two
linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), Δ1 and
Δ2 were placed at a fixed spacing of 300 mm on one side
of the connection as illustrated in Figure 6.
The respective movement of the LVDTs allowed the
rotation angle (θ) of the connection to be calculated by
(Δ1-Δ2)/300. Each connection system was initially
preloaded up to 40% of maximum load and unloaded in
accordance with EN 408 [14]. The vertical load was
continuously applied until significant failure took place.
Each specimen failed within 300 ± 120 seconds of
commencing the test in accordance with EN408 [14]. The
flexural stiffness, rotational stiffness, maximum failure
load and maximum bending moment of the connections
were determined.
3 TEST RESULTS
3.1 TYPICAL FAILURE MODES
Initially, when the vertical load is applied, the connection
at mid-span begins to rotate and the beams began to move
closer to each other at the top of the connected beams and
begin to move apart at the bottom of the connection. The
10 mm gap at the splice connection ensured no additional
friction or embedment effects occurred at this point.
Loading continued until tension splitting took place along
the bottom row of one of the connected ends. The tension
splitting initiated at dowel number 1 as illustrated Figure
8. With increasing load, splitting propagated along the
bottom row of the connection. The same failure mode was
also observed in the connection systems fabricated using
steel fasteners.
Figure 8: Typical failure modes (a) Connection system using
compressed wood fasteners (b) Connection system using steel
fasteners
(a)
(b)
Figure 6: Configuration of test set up for four-point bending as per EN408

3.2 LOAD-DISPLACEMENT RESPONSE
In Figure 9, the load-displacement behaviour of the beam-
beam connections can be seen. The behaviour can be seen
to be linear elastic until failure when the splitting on the
timber beam occurs. Additional capacity can be seen after
the initial failure of dowel number 1 as presented in Figure
8.
Figure 9: Load v/s displacement curve for both the connection
systems: steel and compressed wood.
The steel-timber beam connections achieved a greater
overall load carrying capacity than that of the CW timber-
timber beam connection. The maximum load carrying
capacity of each connection is tabulated in Table 3.
Table 3: Maximum load carrying capacity of steel-timber beam
connection and the CW-beam connection
Connection ID
Maximum load
(kN)
Steel connection 1
9.8
Steel connection 2
11.8
CW connection 1
8.1
CW connection 2
9.2
As shown in Table 4, the mean failure load of 10.8 kN
was achieved for the steel-timber beam connections and
the mean failure load of 8.6 kN was achieved for the CW
timber-timber beam connections. The is an overall
percentage decrease of 20.3% for the CW dowel
connection.
Table 4: Mean failure load of the steel-timber beam connection
and the CW-timber beam connection.
Connection
type
Mean failure
load (kN)
Steel-timber
10.8
CW-timber
8.6
3.3 BENDING STIFFNESS
The mean bending stiffness results of the spliced beams,
calculated in accordance with EN 408 [14]. As observed
in Figure 9, both the CW timber-timber and steel-timber
connection systems behave in a linear elastic manner until
brittle failure. The bending stiffness results for spliced
beams are presented in Table 5 and the mean results are
presented graphically in Figure 10.
Table 5: Bending Stiffness of the spliced beams
Connection ID
Bending Stiffness
(Nmm2)
Steel connection 1
1.38x1011
Steel connection 2
1.08x1011
CW connection 1
0.68x1011
CW connection 2
0.83x1011
The bending stiffness of the beams is greater for the steel-
timber beam connections. The percentage decrease in
mean stiffness between the steel-timber beam connections
and the CW timber-timber beam connections is 38%. This
is a promising result for the CW system. Further planned
testing will examine this initial finding.
Figure 10: Mean bending stiffness results of steel-timber
connected beams and the CW-timber connected beams
3.4 MOMENT RESISTANCE
Usually, multiple-fastener connections often fail in
splitting mechanism due to non-uniform load distribution
and the concentration of stress around the fastener’s hole
[16]. Figure 9 validates the brittle failure of the designed
connection systems. The maximum moment of each
connection specimen was calculated based on the peak
point of the moment vs rotation curves. The maximum
moment capacity of the tested connection systems can be
seen in Table 6. The steel-timber connections achieved a
greater moment capacity when compared to the CW
timber-timber connections.
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 20 40 60 80 100
Load (N)
Displacment (mm)
Steel Connection 1
Steel Connection 2
CW connection 1
CW connection 2
0
2E+10
4E+10
6E+10
8E+10
1E+11
1.2E+11
1.4E+11
Steel-timber Connected Beams CW-timber Connected Beams
Bending stiffness (Nmm2)

Table 6: Moment resistance (kN.m) for both the connection
systems:
Connection ID
Maximum
Moment (kN.m)
Steel connection 1
9.28
Steel connection 2
11.17
CW connection 1
7.63
CW connection 2
8.67
The mean maximum moment for both the connection
systems were tabulated below in Table 7.
Table 7: Mean maximum moment capacity for both connection
systems
Connection
type
Maximum
Moment (kN.m)
Steel-timber
10.2
CW-timber
8.1
The mean maximum moment of the steel-timber
connection was 10.2 kN.m and the mean maximum
moment of the CW timber-timber connection was 8.1
Kn.m. This represents a percentage increase of 20.5%.
The mean values presented are greater than the design
values tabulated in Table 1.
3.5 MOMENT-ROTATIONAL ANGLE
The bending moment (M) and corresponding rotational
angles (θ) were calculated based on the load and
displacement measured from load cell and displacement
transducers, respectively. Figure 11 illustrates the M-θ
relationship for both the steel and compressed wood
connection systems until the first point of failure as seen
in Figure 9.
Figure 11: Moment v/s rotational angle curve for both the
connection systems: steel and compressed wood
The initial rotational stiffness for both the connection
systems, calculated based on 20% and 40% of the
maximum moment and corresponding rotational angle
[17]. The initial rotational stiffness of both the connection
systems were summarised in Table 8.
Table 8: Initial rotational stiffness (kN.m/rad) of steel-timber
beam connections and CW-timber beam connections
Connection ID
Initial rotational
stiffness (kN.m/rad)
Steel connection 1
548.5
Steel connection 2
966.3
CW connection 1
630.2
CW connection 2
603.6
Table 9: Mean initial rotational stiffness of both the steel-timber
and CW-timber connection
Connection
type
Initial rotational
stiffness (kN.m/rad)
Steel-timber
757.4
CW-timber
616.9
At the failure moment in Figure 11, the compressed wood-
timber connections have shown greater connection
rotation when compared to steel-timber connection. The
mean initial rotational stiffness of the steel timber is
18.55% higher than that of CW-timber connection. This
is as expected due to the lower stiffness of the CW-timber
connection.
Future tests will further examine the moment capacity and
rotational angle of such connections. The connections in
this test failed due to splitting of the timber along the
bottom row and there was no ductility observed in the
connection. In an attempt to increase the connection
ductility, future tests on spliced beams utilising a reduced
number of fasteners and greater fastener spacing will be
examined.
4 CONCLUSIONS
The bending test results delivered insights into the effects
of CW dowels and plate configurations on the load
carrying capacity, bending stiffness, maximum moment
capacity and rotational stiffness of the connection system.
The performance compared favourably with the
equivalent steel connections. The results obtained have
substantiated CW fasteners as potential green alternative
to adhesives and metallic fasteners.
Tests have demonstrated similar failure modes when
comparing steel-timber and CW timber-timber
connection systems. The mean performance of the CW-
timber connection is less than that of the steel-timber
connection system, when comparing ultimate failure load,
bending stiffness, moment carrying capacity and
rotational stiffness however this is to be expected due to
the mechanical properties of the CW elements compared
to that of steel. The mean failure load for CW-timber
connection is only 20.3% less than that achieved for the
steel-timber connections. The mean rotational stiffness of
CW-timber connection is 18.55% less than that achieved
for the steel-timber connections. These preliminary
results demonstrate the potential for the use of CW
elements in the manufacture of timber connections.
Both connection systems demonstrated brittle failure.
Further testing is proposed to induce ductile failure and to
understand the effect of connection geometry, dowel
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Rotation Angle (˚)
Moment Capcity (kN.m)
Steel Connection 1
Steel Connection 2
CW Connection 1
CW Connection 2

diameter, number of dowels, spacing of dowels, number
and spacing of CW plates.
5 FUTURE WORK
Eurocode 5 is the current harmonised design standard for
timber structures in Europe. Currently, there are no rules
governing the use of timber-timber connections and by
extension, timber-timber connections utilising CW
elements. The current equations for the lateral load
carrying capacity of fasteners in Eurocode 5 are known as
the Johansen equations. Such equations can be modified
to allow the use of hardwood and CW timber fasteners.
Additional equations must be considered to utilise CW
plate elements within such connection systems. As a
result, a series of material characterisation tests are
proposed to establish be properties of CW fasteners and
CW plates. To utilise CW fasteners, the bending moment
capacity, must the established. To utilise CW plates, the
embedment strength must be considered, and this must be
examined parallel and perpendicular to the grain for use
in moment resisting connections.
The tests performed on connections utilising CW
fasteners and plates may then be compared to design
values from Eurocode 5. The current Eurocode values for
CW connections, presented in Table 1, are based on a
small number of tests on CW dowels and assumed
properties of CW plates sourced within the literature.
While the mean experimental test results are in excess of
the calculated Eurocode design values, further testing is
required to allow for comparisons to characteristic values.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study had been conducted within the framework of
project “Towards Adhesive Free Timber Buildings -
AFTB” at the College of Engineering and Informatics,
National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland. The
AFTB project is funded by Interreg North West Europe
via the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
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