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Chapter 4
Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development
through Principals’ Instructional Supervision and
Teachers’ Knowledge-Management Behaviors
Chien-Chin Chen
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77978
© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Chien-ChinChen
Additional information is available at the end of the chapter
Abstract
With the rise of global competition and the focus on teacher quality, teacher profes-
sional development is becoming increasingly crucial, and the stress and challenges for
principals are more severe than ever. Teachers can improve their professional abilities
through principals’ instructional supervision and their own knowledge-management
principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional develop-
facilitate the professional development of teachers. The author also believes the readers
can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development can
be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.
Keywords: instructional supervision, knowledge-management behaviors, professional
development
1. Introduction
The decreasing number of students and increasing accountability to the public challenge
students and maintain their brand. For sustainable development, leaders are expected to
build collaborative relationships with external parties to manage change [1].
© 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
implementation [2
-
indirectly improve teachers’ professional development [3].
The relationship between a principal’s instructional supervision and a teacher’s professional
development is of interest to the study of teachers’ professional development. Research indi-
cates that principals not only play administrative roles but also instruct teachers. In particular,
principals inspire teachers to overcome challenges and changes in education. Principals who
-
ity, principals must engage teachers in ways that support improved practice and seek to
empower teachers as creative and innovative [4].
In the knowledge-society era, knowledge management (KM) has become a primary strategy
for improving a school’s competitiveness and a reference for teachers’ professional knowledge
[4, 5]. If teachers can get useful feedback from principals’ supervision of their instruction, they
storage, sharing, and leveraging of knowledge can propel teachers to become more adaptive,
innovative, and intelligent. Research has shown that the sharing of knowledge among teach-
ers can predict teachers’ professional development. Principal instructional supervision can
can share their knowledge with other teachers, they can improve their professional develop-
ment through the process. If teachers properly apply KM and the principal’s opinions to their
teaching, they can improve their self-understanding and professional abilities [6].
This chapter discusses the principal’s use of instructional supervision to improve teachers’
professional development. In the process, the author questions whether teachers’ KM behav-
the connections among these variables. Next, the conceptual framework for studying the
principal to improve teachers’ professional development were concluded. The author believes
the readers can know the relationships among them, and teachers’ professional development
can be improved through principal’s instructional supervision and teachers’ KM behaviors.
2. Literature review
2.1. Instructional supervision
Instructional supervision is a type of educational supervision. In Taiwan, we recently piloted
the principal’s classroom walkthrough (CWT) and classroom lesson observation to test the
possibilities of the principal’s instructional supervision. CWT and classroom observation are
Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development52
important for curriculum development and instructional supervision. CWT and classroom
lesson observation enable quick and systematic collection of information to demonstrate the
-
vation are: (1) administrators become more familiar with the school’s curriculum and teachers’
-
sphere develops as teachers and administrators examine instruction and student motivation
both administrators and teachers value and observe instruction and learning [6].
director enters the classroom unannounced to observe teachers’ instruction. Each observa-
tion is aimed at monitoring a teacher’s classroom management and does not exceed 10 min.
Although some have argued that CWT is just brief, but frequent, classroom visits, CWT is
-
sages from many teachers in a short period [7].
their actions and promoting school improvement through professional development [8].
administrators, teachers, and inspectors) in schools to provide supervision, support, and con-
tinuity assessment for teachers’ professional development and improvement of the teaching
process. Instructional supervision enhances teachers’ professional knowledge and promotes
9]. The aims of instructional supervision are as follows:
10].
This chapter discusses Glickman, Gordon, and Ross-Gordon’s (2001) framework of instruc-
assistance, group development, professional development, curriculum development, and
action research. They viewed instructional supervision as enabling teachers to improve
integrate teachers’ needs and school goals [11].
Direct assistance is the provision of personal, ongoing contact with an individual teacher to
observe and assist in classroom instruction [12]. It is designed to help teachers improve instruc-
shown to be crucial to the development of both teachers and schools [4, 6]. Through formal
6].
Group development is the gathering of teachers to make decisions on mutual instructional
Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision…
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53
supervision, they must enable the teachers to have a positive outlook on instructional super-
vision. The principal should create teaching groups, and let teachers learn together [4, 12].
The purpose of group development, as a dimension of instructional supervision, is to support
teachers working cooperatively, rather than alone or competitively [13]. Among other things,
group work is designed to develop communication, decision-making, and problem-solving
toward professional community [12].
Professional development includes the learning opportunities for faculty provided or sup-
ported by school members. Professional development is the continuous education of educa-
tors to improve the quality of education in a school. Professional development concerns these
issues: (1) controversies associated with preservice preparation and the political dynamics of
-
tive mentoring and peer coaching in the context of shifting power relationships between princi-
11, 12].
of classroom instruction. Curriculum development is the collective selection by educators
needs. It is supportive of teachers’ choices, which improves commitment to curriculum
implementation [11]. Principals in Taiwan assist teachers through workshops with curricula
to develop instructional competence [4].
Action research is the systematic study of classroom and school activity with the aim of
improving teachers’ learning. Action research is school/class or individual level instructional
improvement whereby educators conduct studies of the results of their activities [11].
Instructional supervision, as a teaching and learning improvement strategy, should be a con-
tinuous assessment tool that allows teachers to continually expand their capacity to learn and
-
tive to the needs of students [11]. As stakeholders in curriculum implementation, teachers
should be at the forefront in the instructional-supervision planning process from the outset.
If teachers view supervision as something done to them and for them but not with them, its
teachers to play an active role in instructional supervision. When teachers perceive purpose,
control, and personal responsibility, they function more as originators rather than as execu-
tors [8]. Instructional supervision should allow competent teachers to explore new methods
of improving their professional development and the apprehension of their classes [14].
Supervisors are not the sole contributors to the improvement of education. The principal, for
example, is not more expert in teaching methodologies than teachers who know the abilities
and inabilities of their own classes and students. Teachers should not be required simply to
defer to the supervisor regarding the instructional-supervision process [6].
Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development54
The instructional-supervision process should include preobservation and postobservation
discussions between the supervisor and the supervisee. These can promote teamwork and
-
tionship can provide a relaxed and supportive environment where teachers have freedom of
expression to psychologically prepare their students for the presence of a third party (super-
visor) in their class.
The key factor to instructional supervision is principal’s role. First of all, the author should let
teachers understand what is instructional supervision and its relevant meanings. Secondly,
principal should establish a friendly working environment and let teachers hold positive
purpose of professional development of teachers, even through peer supervision, teachers
can be given the responsibility to reduce their stress so as to enable teachers to conduct profes-
2.2. Knowledge management
KM is a predominant knowledge-based approach in Taiwanese education and considers sci-
-
-
ment of the knowledge economy. It refers to a multidisciplinary approach of achieving a
value of KM in education [5].
The Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education (ISKME) was founded
-
use of information technology and in otherwise identifying, distilling, and harnessing infor-
development of strategic initiatives, policies, and practices (ISKME-Knowledge Management
5].
is often embedded in repositories, documents, routines, operational processes, practices,
and norms. The practices of KM are particularly promising and appropriate for elementary
level to contribute, participate, interact, grow, and learn while mastering higher-order skill
sets. KM can help benchmark progress and constantly improve educational quality. Therefore,
Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision…
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55
-
ing concepts: KM as a strategy focused on corporate objectives, such as continuous improved
performance [5
knowledge based on the knowledge life cycle [15, 16].
Knowledge retrieval is the collection of knowledge for planning, decision-making, and prob-
and acquiring needed knowledge and information. For teachers, it is the process of accessing
knowledge from an external environment [16].
Knowledge sharing is the extent to which people share their knowledge and experience.
4]. All implicit or explicit
-
edge, explicit knowledge stored in the database and tacit knowledge in the minds of the
depositors can be shared [5].
16].
Knowledge storage is the preservation of knowledge within the school system and those
information retrieval and knowledge creation. Acquired and stored knowledge can spread to
become common knowledge for school members. KM also solves this problem.
Knowledge generation is the discovery of new knowledge through lessons, creative think-
ing, research, experimentation, and innovative development. It means that school members
problem-solving.
KM increases problem-solving capabilities and the ability to make improvements [5]. The KM
approach in schools enables teachers to develop practices to collect and share information to
improve teaching and learning outcomes [16].
-
teaching ideas and share educational resources but also stores the expertise of experienced
development of a knowledge community in schools, and fosters a culture of learning [5].
KM processes promote mutual understanding among teachers of school practices and the
power and accountability hierarchies. Therefore, it creates human, internal, and external
equipping them with required knowledge [17].
Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development56
2.3. Professional development
students [18, 19]. Research on teacher expertise underlines the importance of professional
development for mastery of tasks typical of the profession [4]. A frequently cited heuristic
to classify components of teachers’ professional development was provided by Desimone
[20
development.
Professional development is a key to reforms in teaching and learning. Recent research
agrees that the following characteristics of professional development are critical to improving
-
ing, (3) coherence, (4) duration, and (5) collective participation. Studies acknowledge these as
4, 20].
from the past 20 years links activities focused on content to student comprehension of that
content. With increases in teacher knowledge and skills come improvements in practice and
increases in student achievement. This evidence comes from case studies, national teacher
questionnaire analyses, experiments, longitudinal studies of teachers, and experimental
designs [4, 20].
professional development [4]. Active learning, as opposed to passive learning typically char-
18].
Coherence is the extent to which teacher learning is consistent with teachers’ knowledge and
beliefs. The consistency of school, district, and state policies with what is taught in profes-
20].
Research shows that intellectual change necessitates professional-development activities of
or one semester) and the number of hours spent performing the activity each time. Research
has not indicated ideal durations but has supported activities that spread over a semester [20].
Another component of development is collective participation. This can be accomplished
through cooperation of teachers from the same school, grade, or department. Such arrange-
ments promote interaction and discourse, which can be powerful forms of teacher learning [4].
teachers’ KM behaviors [17, 21, 22
update their own knowledge through personal and school KM behaviors, they also improve
professional quality and ability.
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3. Summary
The data from the literature review and teaching experiences in recent years are collected.
In summary, there are two central components to the conceptual framework for studying
principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM behaviors, and teachers’ professional
development [4, 6, 12, 16-
tional supervision, KM behaviors, and professional development. The second establishes an
-
sional development. A basic model, shown in Figure 1, is proposed and its use in all empirical
causal studies is recommended.
The model represents the relationships among principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’
KM behaviors, and teachers’ professional development. As shown in Figure 1, a theory of
action for principals’ instructional supervision, teachers’ KM behaviors, and teachers’ profes-
sional development would acknowledge these relationships:
1.
2.
3.
4.
In Figure 1, principals can use direct assistance, group development, professional develop-
-
iors. For example, if teachers want to share their knowledge with their coworkers, principals
principals should create teaching groups, and let teachers learn together through the interac-
tions. By doing so, teachers are tend to share their knowledge and believe that principals’
Figure 1.
teachers’ KM behaviors, and teachers’ professional development.
Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development58
-
ment. For example, if teachers lack the awareness of content focus, principals should use the
direct assistance and curriculum development to make teachers understand the curriculum
and strategies in teaching. Principals in Taiwan often assist teachers through workshops to
develop instructional competence.
-
ence, duration, and collective participation. For example, if teachers have the habits in share
acquire the knowledge and be an active learner. Teachers generate new knowledge through
lessons, creative thinking, research, experimentation, and innovative development. Teachers
-
4, 23].
This model allows for testing how teachers’ can change their own professional develop-
ment. The model operates with context as a mediator. Each relationship in our path model is
-
-
opment and student achievement. Although empirical studies including all these elements
are rare, the basic components are nearly universal in the theoretical trajectories of teacher
improved students’ learning [19].
4. Conclusion
-
ers’ KM behaviors.” Principals use direct assistance, group development, professional devel-
4, 5].
Data collection is the basis of instructional supervision. Principals should allow teachers to
understand that the classroom observation data and collection of relevant information are
crucial means of instructional supervision. These collections serve as a starting point for
the teacher’s teaching plans. These data can be considered as true, evident, and measurable
general judgments and collect relevant information for teachers’ reference and discussion.
instructional supervision.
This step suggests that the principal should encourage teachers to retrieve documents related
real teaching situations to solve problems and teaching-related issues and provide profes-
sional teaching knowledge to coworkers through experience sharing. Currently, teachers
Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision…
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59
preserve knowledge within the school for retrieval, which demonstrates that teachers do not
knowledge for use, share it with colleagues upon request, and store it in a repository.
professional development.” As previously indicated, teachers want to be consulted before
CWTs and classroom lesson observations are undertaken. Most principals maintain that
instructional supervision is a professional activity that should be left to professional teach-
managers and not teachers [4, 6].
an assessment to improve performance [11, 14]. If principals are curriculum overseers who
ensure its proper implementation, then they advise teachers. This makes them instructional
-
cipal as a curriculum overseer or leader and as an instructional supervisor. In both roles, the
the purpose is less explicit than in instructional supervision.
-
-
fessional development.” For example, knowledge retrieval involves the process of capturing
existing knowledge from the Internet, school intranet, seminars, and meetings through its for-
school knowledge to everyone who needs it.
archiving, the Internet, and collaborative teaching. Knowledge is extracted and dissemi-
teaching methods and techniques and applying them to the teaching processes remains a
storage, and archiving of this knowledge are more thorough, teachers can apply the knowl-
-
sional development.
enhancing human capital. This promotes a mutual understanding among teachers of the school
practices and power and accountability in hierarchies. Moreover, it creates structural capital
and policy capital and enhances the communication among stakeholders, thus building exter-
nal capital. This suggests that the crucial aspect of KM is to encourage people to share knowl-
edge. Knowledge can be reconstructed through discussion and collaboration, which enhance
created when various types of knowledge are combined to generate new applications [4, 5].
Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development60
to improve the content of their instruction and students’ learning.” We know that principal’s
-
opment. Mediated by teachers’ KM behaviors, principal’s instructional supervision can also
School instructional supervision refers to the interaction between the supervisor and super-
teachers. Goals should be set through discussion among members.
A research view that instructional supervision should be made an integral part of the cur-
riculum to ensure continuous development supports teachers’ demand for a collegial
instructional-supervision system [24, 25]. Teachers’ views on instructional supervision may
be borne out of the fact that in Taiwan, instructional supervision is poorly structured, with
of Education in Taiwan issued guidelines for instructional supervision. First, these intended
to strengthen the function of three objectives: (1) implementation of education policies and
measures, (2) improvement of teaching quality, and (3) project visitation and assistance in
were explained to help guide teaching, curriculum planning, and teacher counseling. Third,
the guidelines intended to take account of the administrative and instructional supervision
and assist schools in developing their own characteristics. These guidelines intend to help
develop school-based curricula and teaching activities based on the characteristics of schools
and adopt appropriate teaching and learning methods to enhance school performance [26].
Principals have been designated as curriculum overseers, and they should undertake instruc-
tional supervision. Considering curriculum leadership or oversight to be intricately linked to
instructional supervision suggests that principals must also play a role in instructional super-
for the curriculum), supporting, and facilitating supervisory activities.
to be the KM processes that enhance teachers’ professional development and their teaching
-
sion, KM behaviors, and teachers’ professional development was constructed in this study.
This chapter contributes to the existing literature by providing an empirical model for the
implementation of instructional supervision to enhance KM and teachers’ professional
development. These improvements can sustain school development in the wave of quality-
School principals may consider implementing instructional supervision in the school to
-
nal resources for sustainable development. If principals only enact instructional supervision,
instructional supervision will be limited.
Facilitation of Teachers’ Professional Development through Principals’ Instructional Supervision…
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.77978
61
-
teacher-management concepts. Principals should also encourage a learning community and
-
aged to be a learning community.
Principals should also foster teachers’ concept of KM and the willingness to share knowledge.
They should encourage teachers to apply knowledge and innovate knowledge together.
These behaviors will help teachers to improve their planning and preparation, teaching
skills (techniques and strategies), teaching materials, learning-atmosphere management,
teaching achievements, and evaluation. With good KM, appropriate changes and innova-
the e-generation learning era.
Besides the abovementioned opinions, due to the research of principal’s instructional supervi-
sion, teachers’ KM, and teachers’ professional development is just on the beginning. In the
future, the author believes that more relevant mediated variables between principal’s instruc-
tional supervision and teachers’ professional development can be explored. These mediated
-
Author details
Chien-Chin Chen
Address all correspondence to: 96152508@nccu.edu.tw
National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan
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