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Trends in Food Science & Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs
Review
Therapeutic potentials and compositional changes of valuable compounds
from banana- A review
Sadia Qamar
a,∗
, Azizuddin Shaikh
b
a
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
b
Department of Chemistry, Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science & Technology, Gulshan-e-Iqbal, Karachi 75300, Pakistan
ARTICLE INFO
Keywords:
Banana
Historical background
Uses
Biological activities
Chemical constituents
Compositional changes
ABSTRACT
Banana is considered as a potential source of valuable nutraceutical bioactive compounds. In addition, It is not
only considered as a fruit crop but also serve as high energy containing food in various parts of the world. The
aim of this review is to evaluate the historical record, uses, biological activities, chemical composition and
compositional changes during ripening behavior in both edible and non-edible part of banana. Recent studies
have shown that banana as raw materials riches in valuable bioactive compounds including as vitamins, phy-
tosterols, biogenic amines, phenolics, carotenoids, volatile compounds, minerals, starch and carbohydrates
which are highly required in the diet as they play important role in the maintenance of human health and well-
being. This paper also covers the potential biological activities of banana such as antidiarrheal, antiulcerative,
antimicrobial, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, wound healing, antilithiatic and anticancer activity. It also provide an
outline of chemical constituents of banana named vitamins, polyphenols, steroids, triterpenes and amines,
carotenoids, starch and carbohydrates, volatile compounds and mineral contents. Furthermore, with the de-
velopment of fruit these beneficial bioactive compounds vary rapidly because of adopting atmospheric and
standardized post and pre-harvested conditions. The mainstream sectors responsible for these changes are
highlighted.
1. Introduction
1.1. Taxonomic classification of banana
Banana is the common name for a fruit bearing herbaceous plant.
Banana belongs to the kingdom “Plantae”, division “Magnoliophyta”,
class “Liliopsida”, order “Zingiberales”, family “Musaceae”, genus
“Musa”and species “acuminata”.
1.2. The family Musaceae
Musaceae is a small family comprises on six genera (Strelitzia,
Ravenala,Musa,Orchidantha,Ensete and Heliconia) and 130 species
whereas some phanerogamists recognize Musaceae comprises only on
two genera Musa and Ensete. Plants belong to Musaceae family having
berry fruits, inferior ovary, inflorescence spadix covered by a spathe,
zygomorphic flowers, forming crown at the apex of stout unbranched
stem, large leaves and perennial giant herbs appearing like trees
(Sharma, 2011). Banana is the most common plant of this family.
1.3. The genus Musa
Musa derived from Arabic word “Mouz”(Simmonds, 1959). The
generic name Musa is selected to this plant in the honour of a Roman
physician, “Antonia Musa”of first century (Valmayor, et al., 1991). The
genus Musa belongs to the family Musaceae. According to number of
chromosomes, the genus Musa can be classify into four sub-divisions
named as Rhodochlamys,Eumusa,Callimusa and Australimusa, which
includes all edible cultivars. Therefore, the characteristics of Eumusa
and Rhodoclamys are found in those having eleven chromosomes
(2n = 22). In addition, the characteristics of Callimusa and Australimusa
are identified when they have ten chromosomes (2n = 20). Most of the
cultivars are derived from Musa acuminata Colla and Musa balbisiana
Colla belong to the largest and geologically wide spread section, which
is called Eumusa (Stover & Simmonds, 1987). The term “banana”is also
used as the common name for the plant Musa acuminata Colla and Musa
balbisiana Colla, which produce the fruits. Cavendish and Plantain are
the subgroups of Musa acuminata, dominant in international banana
market even though several varieties of banana exist including Grande
naine, Williams Lacatan, Poyo and Petite naine. Intensive farming
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.06.016
Received 19 June 2017; Received in revised form 13 April 2018; Accepted 27 June 2018
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: s.qamar@uq.edu.au (S. Qamar).
Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
Available online 30 June 2018
0924-2244/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T
methods are used for Cavendish cultivation. In local food market,
Plantain is firmer, less valued, large in size, more angular and highly
starchy cooking cultivar in banana subgroups.
1.4. Origin and world distribution of banana
It is matter of the fact that the all over the tropical and subtropical
regions of the world, the cheapest and popular foods is banana. The
harvested area of banana plants is approximately 10 million hectares
(FAOSTAT, 2011). It is also cultivated in more than 130 countries
throughout tropical and subtropical regions all around the world. It is
believed that more than 300 varieties of banana are developed in dif-
ferent countries. Furthermore, most of species have been growing up in
Indo-Malaysian, Asian, Caribbean, Latin American, African and Aus-
tralian tropics. India is the major contributor in banana production
about 29 million tons (FAOSTAT, 2011). Approximately 145 million
tons is the annual world total production of banana. About 50% of the
global production of banana is from India, Ecuador, Brazil and China
(Radha & Mathew, 2007). It is also considered that banana is the
world’s oldest cultivated crop because it cultivated in India about 600
BCE. In 200–300 BCE, banana spread to West Coast of Africa and Is-
lands of the Pacific(Rahman & Kabir, 2003); later on it is cultivated all
around the world in tropical areas.
1.5. Harvesting conditions and ripening behavior of banana
The planting for banana trees and harvesting bunches take the time
about 8–13 months. Normally, bunches of banana at their harvesting
time produce fruit in range of 100–400. The optimum harvest date and
flowering-harvest interval vary according to the climate zone and
variety. The banana bunches can be harvested when the fruit is mature-
green in color. Furthermore, mature-green fruits are ripened artificially
in a controlled atmosphere chamber or on natural conditions at ambient
temperature. The ripening process is the conversion of banana bunches
from green or mature-green to bright yellow colored skin having
characteristics of fruit such as flavors, consistency of pulp and starch-
sugar transition.
Based on skin color index, the banana ripening process can be di-
vided into eight different stages (Aurore, Parfait, & Fahrasmane, 2009).
Stage-I Banana fruit is entirely green, and is not usually eaten like
fruit at this stage because it is green, very hard, astringent
and rich in starch.
Stage-II Banana is more green at this stage and similar as at stage-I.
Stage-III The fruit is more green than yellow at this stage but still
uneatable.
Stage-IV The color of banana changes from green to yellow and
yellow color is more dominant than green at this stage.
Stage-V Fruit appearance is further changed with green neck and
yellow from the middle.
Stage-VI It becomes completely yellow at this stage.
Stage-VII It appears complete yellow with brown spots.
Stage-VIII Banana fruit is considered as over ripe and muddy at this
stage.
2. Uses of banana
Almost all parts of banana are used for numerous kinds of purposes
including food (fermented sugars and beverages), religious uses, cere-
monial, smoking material, shelter, clothing, medicines, silage, rope,
flavoring, fragrance, garlands and cordage. It is assumed that banana
family is preferred for nutrients purposes instead for medical remedy
but banana plant has some traditional medicinal value.
2.1. Nutritional uses
Banana plant is considered as the biggest herb in the world, and it is
cultivated in several developing countries. Banana is considered as the
most important source of energy. 100 g of edible portion of banana
provides about 1.1 g protein, 89.0 Kcal of energy, 1.0 mg sodium,
8.0 mg calcium, 385.0 mg potassium, 121.8 g carbohydrates, 0.40 mg
iron, 30.0 mg magnesium, 0.11 mg copper, 11.7 mg vitamin C, 610 μg
niacin (vitamin PP), 40 μg thiamine (vitamin B1) and 23.0 μg folic acid
(Aurore, et al., 2009).
Banana fruit is consumed as basic foodstuffeither fresh or cooked.
Banana producing countries represent significant part of basic ali-
mentation for substantial population groups. Green unpeeled banana is
used as a feed for animals. Banana is also considered as source of energy
for athletes. Food analysts have found its potential benefits for sports
applications. Therefore it is used for manufacturing of different en-
ergizing drinks and dried banana bars for athletes. In addition it pre-
vents the athletes from muscular contractions as it contains vitamins
and minerals (Potassium and magnesium) (Roubert, 2005).
2.2. Industrial and commercial uses
All around the world, the importance of banana plant increases with
its different industrial and commercial applications. It is useful in
pharmaceutical, food and packaging industries. Energy is also gener-
ated through decomposition of plant material. The raw material (whole,
dried and peeled banana) of banana is consumed in manufacturing of
different products such as wines; beers; fritters and jams; cooked ba-
nanas in the form of crisps, boiled, puree and fried; for artisanal and
domestic flour; green banana starch and alcohol; nectar; vinegar;
chunks and as ingredients in culinary preparations such as desserts,
sorbets, ice-creams, pastries and cream products.
2.3. Traditional uses
The different parts of banana plant such as roots, pseudostems,
stems, leaves and flowers have been widely used in traditional and local
medicines. They are used as folk medicines in Pakistan, India and some
other southeast countries (Pari & Maheswari, 1999). In United States,
banana is also consumed as medicinal plant (O'Hara, Kiefer, Farrell, &
Kemper, 1998). Traditionally banana is used for the treatment of car-
diac diseases, diabetes, intestinal lesions in ulcerative colitis, diarrhoea,
dysentery, nephritis, gout, hypertension, in sprue, uremia, inflamma-
tion, pain and snakebite (Coe & Anderson, 1999;Ghani, 2003;Khare,
2007). The root is used in venereal diseases, blood disorders (Ghani,
2003) and as anthelmintic (Khare, 2007). Ash of banana leaves is used
in eczema (Okoli, Aigbe, Ohaju-Obodo, & Mensah, 2007) and as cool
dressing for burns and blister (Ghani, 2003). Stem juice is used for
treatment of cholera, haemoptysis, otalgia, dysentery and diarrhoea.
Flower is used in menorrhagia, diabetes and dysentery (Ghani, 2003).
3. Biological activities of banana
Traditional plants are frequently used to cure different diseases all
around the world. Banana is highly nutritious fruit but beyond its nu-
tritious value, it has various medicinal properties. Banana is also used
as antidiarrheal, antimicrobial, wound healing, anticancer anti-
ulcerogenic, antilithic, hypoglycemic and antioxidant.
3.1. Antidiarrheal activity
In children of third world countries, diarrhea is one of main cause of
high mortality and morbidity. Due to presence of pectin content in
banana, it shows resistance against the intestinal diseases. In early
1930s, the antidiarrheal property of banana was observed in rats.
Banana flakes has also been found effective against the seriously ill
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
2
patients who receiving enteral feedings (Emery, et al., 1997). It is re-
ported that green banana produces antidiarrheal activity in children
(Rabbani, Albert, Rahman, & Chowdhury, 1999).
3.2. Antiulcerative activity
Different medicines have been prepared from banana for the treat-
ment of peptic ulcer disease. Antiulcerative effect varies in different
varieties of banana. Mucous-phospholipid layer that protects the gastric
mucosa is strengthened by phosphatidylcholine and pectin from green
banana (Dunji, et al., 1993). Gastric mucosa from erosions can be
protected by using natural flavonoid leucocyanidin from the unripe
banana pulp (Lewis, Fields, & Shaw, 1999). Lewis and Shaw (2001) also
reported that the gastric mucosa in aspirin-induced erosions in rat can
be protected by increasing gastric mucus thickness using leucocyanidin
and the synthetic analogues of leucocyanidin.
3.3. Antimicrobial activity
The antimicrobial activity against Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus
species in dehydrogenase assay is observed in the aqueous extract of
unripe banana peel (IC
50
= 143.5 and 183.1 μg/mL) and leaves
(IC
50
= 401.2 and 594.6 μg/mL) of banana plant (Musa paradisiaca var.
sapientum) (Alisi, Nwanyanwu, Akujobi, & Ibegbulem, 2008). This re-
search study highlights that leaf extract showed significant activity
against both the bacteria than the peel extract whereas peel extract was
more active against Staphylococcus species (Gram-positive) than Pseu-
domonas species (Gram-negative). Aqueous and ethanolic extract of
unripe banana fruit showed considerable activity against Staphylococcus
aureus,Escherichia coli,Shigella flexneri,Salmonella paratyphi,Klebsiella
pneumoniae,Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis (Ahmad & Beg,
2001;Falguera, Quintero, Jiménez, Muñoz, & Ibarz, 2011) (see
Table 1).
3.4. Antioxidant activity
Several studies showed that both banana peel and pulp contains
antioxidant activity but it varies in different varieties. A single meal of
banana can substantially reduce plasma oxidative stress in a healthy
human due to the presence of ascorbic acid, dopamine and other an-
tioxidant compounds in banana (Gómez-Estaca, López-de-Dicastillo,
Hernández-Muñoz, Catalá, & Gavara, 2014;Yin, Quan, & Kanazawa,
2008). Several assays such as 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
free radical scavenging, thiocyanate, β-carotene bleaching, ferric re-
duction power and ABTS radical scavenging are used to evaluate the
antioxidant capacity of banana. It has been investigated that banana
peel indicates more significant activity as compare to pulp and seed.
While yellow banana peel is less significant than the green banana peel.
In addition, antioxidant activity is expressively depending on medium
of solvent and method used for extraction (Jain, et al., 2011;Mokbel &
Hashinaga, 2005).
3.5. Hypoglycemic activity
The hypoglycemic effect is observed in green banana fruit due to
glucose utilization and stimulation of insulin production (Ojewole &
Adewunmi, 2003). Furthermore, glycemic effect has been correlated
with high potassium (K) and sodium (Na) contents (Rai, et al., 2009).
Research studies showed that lowered fasting blood glucose and gly-
cogenesis in the liver can be increased due to presence of fibers in
banana fruit (Usha, Vijayammal, & Kurup, 1989). Hydromethanolic
extract of roots of banana plant have significant antihyperglycemic
effect (Mallick, Chatterjee, GuhaBiswas, & Ghosh, 2007;Mallick, Maiti,
& Ghosh, 2006). The antihyperglycemic effect is observed in hy-
perglycemic rabbit after utilizing of banana (Alarcon-Aguilara, et al.,
1998). The oral administration of chloroform extract of banana flowers
in rats showed increase in total haemoglobin while blood glucose and
glycosylated haemoglobin reduction (Pari & Maheswari, 1999).
3.6. Wound healing activity
Studies indicated that methanolic and aqueous extracts of Plantain
banana show wound healing activity in rats (Agarwal, et al., 2009).
Both extracts (methanolic and aqueous) decrease glutathione level, scar
area, wound area and lipid peroxidation, and also found to raise su-
peroxide dismutase, hexuronic acid, hexosamine, hydroxyproline as
well as the strength of wound breaking.
3.7. Antilithiatic activity
The banana stem juice has antilithiatic activity (Prasad, Bharathi, &
Srinivasan, 1993). The stones are formed mostly of magnesium am-
monium phosphate with traces of calcium oxalate in body. Banana stem
juice administered orally in rat, the results showed that banana stem
juice is helpful in reducing the formation and also breaking the pre-
formed stones of magnesium ammonium phosphate with traces of cal-
cium oxalate in the urinary bladder of albino rat.
3.8. Anticancer activity
Fruits and vegetables, especially utilization of banana may be used
to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer (Deneo-Pellegrini, De Stefani, &
Ronco, 1996) as well as leukemia in children, breast cancer in women
(Zhang, et al., 2009) and renal cell carcinoma (Rashidkhani, Lindblad,
& Wolk, 2005). Banana peel extract is also helpful in the treatment of
benign prostate hyperplasia and also suppress 5α-reductase.
4. Chemical constituents of banana
Banana pulp and peel have several nutritional constituents such as
carbohydrates, lignins, pectin sugars, volatile components, poly-
phenols, carotenoids, vitamins and minerals.
4.1. Vitamins
Banana has moderately rich vitamin content pyridoxine (vitamin
B6) (Leklem, 1999) whereas vitamins A (carotene), B (niacin, thiamine,
riboflavin and B6) and C (ascorbic acid) are relatively in high con-
centrations in mature banana (Kanazawa & Sakakibara, 2000).
4.2. Polyphenols
Polyphenols are enormously diverse group of secondary metabo-
lites, having aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl groups. They
have large ranges of structures and functions. They can be classified as
subgroups of flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, stilbenes and cou-
marins. They play vital role in the metabolism, reproduction and
growth of plants. They act as defense against pathological parasites,
predators, fungal infections and viruses. They are antioxidants and play
role in inhibition of oxidative stress and other chronic diseases, that’s
why their demand has been increasing day by day (Brennan, Brennan,
Derbyshire, & Tiwari, 2011;Liu, 2013).
Banana is enriched with phenolic compounds. Banana pulp has
around 30–60 mg/100 g fresh matter phenolic compounds (Méndez,
Forster, Rodríguez-Delgado, Rodríguez-Rodríguez, & Romero, 2003)
while banana peel contains about 0.90–3.0 g/100 g dry weight phenolic
compounds (Nguyen, Ketsa, & van Doorn, 2003;Someya, Yoshiki, &
Okubo, 2002) as well as 160 mg/100 g dry weight concentration of
gallocatechin is identified as phenolic compound (Someya, et al.,
2002). β-Carotene and lutein are also available in ripe banana peel (Van
den Berg, et al., 2000). Similarly, it is also reported that ripe banana
peel contains a high concentration of catecholamine, gallocatechin
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
3
Table 1
Effectiveness of different extracts of banana parts against various microorganisms.
Banana sample/extract Extract type Inhibited microorganisms Action/effect Reference
silver nanoparticles from
banana peel extract
Distilled water extract Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia
coli.
The inhibition zone was 12–20 mm. The minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) were 6.8, 5.1, 1.70 and
3.4 mg/ml. While the minimum bactericidal concentration
(MBC) of silver nanoparticles were found to be 10.2, 10.2,
5.1 and 5.1 mg/ml.
(Ibrahim, 2015)
Banana peel Hot water extract Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio. alginolyticus, Photobacteria damsala and
Lactococcus garvieae
Hot water extract of banana peel was used at different
concentration from 2000 to 31.25 μg disc
−1
and the
inhibition zone were 5.82 to 1.04 mm, 4.18 to 1.12mm,
4.78 to 0.63 mm and 4.57 to 0.16 mm.
(Rattanavichai & Cheng, 2014)
Alcoholic extract Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans The inhibition zone were 15 mm and 12 mm. (Kapadia, Pudakalkatti, &
Shivanaikar, 2015)
Ethanolic and aqueous
extracts
Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus leutus, Klebsiella Pneumoniae,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhi
MIC values ranging from 16 mg/ml to 512.5 mg/ml (Ehiowemwenguan, Emoghene,
& Inetianbor, 2014)
Hexane, ethyl acetate and
ethanol
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea,
Salmonella paratyphi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella boydii and Vibrio mimicus
The inhibition zone were 9.0 mm–21.5 mm. (Jain, Bhuiyan, Hossain, &
Bachar, 2011)
Banana pulp Hexane, ethyl acetate and
ethanol
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus, Sarcina lutea,
Salmonella paratyphi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella boydii and Vibrio mimicus
The inhibition zone were 9.5 mm–24.0 mm. (Jain, et al., 2011)
Unripe banana Ethanolic and distilled
water extracts
Salmonella paratyphi, Shigella flexnerii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella
pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis
The inhibition zone were 8 mm–31 mm. (Fagbemi, Ugoji, Adenipekun, &
Adelowotan, 2009)
Banana seed Hexane, ethyl acetate and
ethanol
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium, Staphylococcus aureus and Sarcina lutea)
and four Gram-negative bacteria (Salmonella paratyphi, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Shigella boydii and Vibrio mimicus
The inhibition zone were 8.5 mm–10.0 mm. (Jain, et al., 2011)
leaf materials of banana Hexane, ethyl acetate and
methanolic extracts
Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Enterobacter aerogenes,Klebsiella
pneumoneae,Proteus mirabilis,Shigella flexneri,Citrobacter sp., Staphylococcus
aureus and Enterococcus faecalis
All the extracts were showed less than 250.00 μg/mL
minimum inhibitory concentration whereas, ethyl acetate
extract showed maximum activity (15.63 μg/mL) for E. coli.
(Karuppiah & Mustaffa, 2013)
Flowers of Musa
paradisiaca
Ethanolic and
Ethanolic:water (1:1)
extracts
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus
mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylococcus
aureus, Salmonella typhimurium and Candida albicans.
Minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 5.62 to
25.81 and 7.60–31.50 μg/mL
(Jawla, Kumar, & Khan, 2012)
Banana flour from green
peel banana
Banana flour (1, 2, 3 and
4% w/w) in water
Staphylococcus aureus The level of S. aureus reduced to 5.1, 3.0, 4.7 and 4.0 log
CFU/g (colony forming unit/gram).
(Pitak & Rakshit, 2011)
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
4
Table 2
Effectiveness of different ripening method on banana quality.
Age, Cultivar Ripening agent (Concentration of the active ingredient) Effect on fruit quality (in comparison with control) Study location Reference
fruit at the 70–80% maturity Natural ripening. Two C2H2 zinc finger proteins, MaC2H2-1 and MaC2H2-2 enhanced
3100 fold at day 21 and 210 fold at day 30.
South eastern of China (Han, Fu, Kuang, Chen, &
& Lu, 2016)
Ethylene-induced ripening (100 μLL
−1
ethylene, 18 h). Two C2H2 zinc finger proteins, MaC2H2-1 and MaC2H2-2 induced
3300 fold at day 1 and 650 fold at day 3.
1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)-delayed ripening (0.5 μLL
-1
1-MCP,
18 h)
Two C2H2 zinc finger proteins, MaC2H2-1 and MaC2H2-2 increased
3000 and 210 fold at day 30
Cavendish and Plantain at the
mature green stage (100–110 d
after flowering)
Ethylene treatment (500 μLL
−1
) for 16 h. Resistant starch (RS), non-resistant starch (non-RS), total starch, and
amylose content decreased gradually during the fruit-ripening process
in both Cavendish and Plantain.
China (Gao, Huang, Dong, Yang,
& Yi, 2016)
Banana fruit at mature green stage Ripen naturally. Ethylene production and respiration rate reached higher level at stage
VI (day 14).
Full-length citrate synthase gene (MaGCS) changed little from stage Ito
IV, increased at stage V and reached peak at 155 during stage VI.
Chengmai, Hainan. (Liu, et al., 2013).
Ethylene treatment (for 12 h to 100 L L
−1
). Ethylene production and respiration rate projected upward at stage IV
(day 10) and V (day 12) but 5 fold higher then naturally ripened.
MaGCS expression intensely increased and peaked at 721 at stage III,
after that fall down to a lower level of 4–8 at stage IV to VII.
1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) treatment (1 L L
−1
) Barely detectable
Immersed in citric acid (CA) solution (5% and 1%) (w/v). Barely detectable
Oxaloacetic acid (OA) solution (100 mM and 40 mM). Ethylene production and respiration rate observed similarly as
ethylene treatment but 5 fold lower.
Pre-climacteric banana fruit at
75–80% maturity
Naturally ripped (control). 1-MCP treatment delayed fruit ripening but 1-MCP + ethephon
treatment postponed ripening with significant lower changes in color
and dropped in firmness than the control.
The respiration rate and ethylene production inhibited while, volatile
compounds formation delayed by both treatments.
Cell wall softening enzymes (cellulose, pectate lyase, pectin
methylesterase and polygalacturonase) and ACC oxidase activity in 1-
MCP + ethephon treatment increased significantly as compared to 1-
MCP treatment.
South East China (Zhu et al., 2015).
1-MCP treatment (400 nL L
−1
for 16 h).
1-MCP treatment (400 nL L
−1
for 16 h) + ethephon (50 μLL
−1
for
1 min).
Pre-climacteric banana fruit Ripening initiated by 0.05% ethephon and ripen at alternating and
continuous temperatures 20 or 30 °C for 5 days.
T1 (at 20 °C for 5 days), T2 (20°C for 2 days than 30 °C), T3 (20°C for 3
days than 30 °C), T4 (at 30 °C for 5 days), T5 (30 °C for 2 days than
20 °C), T6 (30 °C for 3 days than 20 °C). T7 (at 30 °C for 2nd and 3rd day
then 20 °C), T8 (at 20 °C for 2nd and 3rd day then 30 °C).
After 5 days T1, T3 and T5 completely turned yellow.
Chlorophyll degradation observed in all treated fruits in first 2 days.
T1, T3 and T5 retained only 5% chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll degradation related genes MaPaO,MaNYC and MaSGR
increased in T1, reduced in T2, T3 and T4, recovered in T5 and T6 on
day 3 and day 4. In T7 large reduction of MaPaO while in T8 large
reduction of MaNYC and MaSGR.
Respiration peak shown green ripening in T7 while T8 completely
turned yellow.
Southeastern China (Du, et al., 2014).
Mature green banana and plantain
fruits
To initiate the fruits ripening were exposed to 100 μL
−1
ethylene for
24 h at 20 °C and then stored into four different gas treatments (10, 20,
and 30% with CO
2
, and 21% O
2
as a control).
Fruits exposed with control and 10% CO
2
completely turned yellow.
Yellowing was not found in 30% CO
2
treated fruits while, 20% CO
2
treated fruits shown same decreasing level of chlorophyll as control.
20% CO
2
treated fruits shown similar decreasing pattern for firmness
and increasing for soluble sugar as control.
Chlorophyll degradation related genes PaO decreases whereas NYC and
SGR increased in both banana and plantain on 20% CO
2
storage.
Chlorophyll fluorescence values also decreases in both banana and
plantain.
Higher expression level of anaerobic respiration genes observed in
treated fruits as compared to control on 20% CO
2
storage.
Guangzhou,
southeastern China
(Song, et al., 2015)
‘Prata’banana fruit on different
ripening stages (C1 to C7)
Brazil (Gomes, Vieira, de
Oliveira, & Leta, 2014)
(continued on next page)
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
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dopamine, norepinephrine and naringenin-7-O-neohesperidoside as
phenolic compounds with powerful antioxidant activity (Crozier, et al.,
2006). Flavonoid phenolics are also found in banana peel and pulp such
as catecholamines at various ripening stages (Kanazawa & Sakakibara,
2000). Banana peel also contains highly polymerized catechin, proan-
thocyanidins, monomeric flavan-3-ols, β-type procyanidin dimers and
flavonol glycosides. A research study also reported that different types
of xanthophyll contents are found in banana peel (Subagio, Morita, &
Sawada, 1996).
4.3. Steroids, triterpenes and amines
Banana peel also contains triterpenes and sterols such as stigmas-
terol, β-sitosterol, campesterol, 24-methylene cycloartenol, cycloeuca-
lenol and cycloartenol (Knapp & Nicholas, 1969). Both banana peel and
pulp contains variety of amines including serotonin, tyramine, dopa-
mine, norepinephrine and serotonin (Udenfriend, Lovenberg, &
Sjoerdsma, 1959).
4.4. Carotenoids
Carotenoids in plants play an important role in the functioning of
photoprotection and photosynthesis due to their quenching ability of
reactive oxygen species, which are formed after exposure of radiations
and light. The reactivity of carotenoids mainly depends on the char-
acteristic of ending functional group, length of chain and conjugated
double bonds. Some carotenoids have pro-vitamin A activity such as
lycopene, α- and β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin (Erdman, Bierer, &
Gugger, 1993)(Erdman et al., 1993). Foods are imparted with car-
otenoids, which are linked with yellow, orange or red in color
(Rodriguez-Amaya, 2001).
Banana having carotenoid contents, frequently used in Indonesia
(Setiawan, Sulaeman, Giraud, & Driskell, 2001). Banana contains ly-
copene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin contents, and their quantities
vary in different varieties. Carotenoids such as trans-α-carotene and
trans-β-carotene cover the 90% of the total pro-vitamin A in Musa pulps
while the rest of 10% contains lutein, cis-carotenoids and other un-
revealed compounds. Banana peel also contains carotenoid contents as
trans-α-carotene (164.87 ± 10.51 μg/g dry weight), trans-β-carotene
(174.87 ± 7.86 μg/g dry weight), cis-β-carotene (92.21 ± 5.37 μg/g
dry weight), β-cryptoxanthin (1.21 ± 0.37 μg/g dry weight), zeax-
anthin (7.21 ± 1.07 μg/g dry weight) and lutein (39.70 ± 9.06 μg/g
dry weight).
4.5. Starch and carbohydrates
100 g of fresh pulp of banana contains approximately 20 g of car-
bohydrates (Goswami & Borthakur, 1996). In addition, 2 g per 100 g
fresh weight is also used for intestinal transit regulation. In unripe
banana, mainly carbon storage is starch. The process of depolymerisa-
tion of the glucan chains; the starch changes into free sugars during the
maturation process with the help of amylase (Galanakis, 2012;Oliveira
do Nascimento et al., 2006).
4.6. Volatile compounds
Twelve compounds (three alcohols, four butyrates and five acetates)
describe the aroma of banana, which are recognized as volatile com-
pounds (Aurore, et al., 2009). Aromatic quality of dessert banana is
identified by using these compounds (Cosio & René, 1996). In green
banana fruits, terpenes and alcohols are found whereas in ripe banana
fruits, mainly terpenes, alcohols and ketones are found as major volatile
compounds. Ninety three volatile compounds have been identified in
banana cultivars depending on different biosynthetic pathways, ma-
turity, climate conditions, postharvest storage and cultivar (de
Vasconcelos Facundo, dos Santos Garruti, dos Santos Dias, Cordenunsi,
Table 2 (continued)
Age, Cultivar Ripening agent (Concentration of the active ingredient) Effect on fruit quality (in comparison with control) Study location Reference
Samples were illuminated by metallic steam (400 W) (F01), sodium
steam (F02), ellipsoidal metallic steam (F03), halogen lamp (F04)
(reference), metallic steam (150 W), compact fluorescent (F06),
Fluorescent Lumilux (F07), lighting fixture (F08) and fluorescent (32 W)
(F09) during ripening.
Chromaticity coordinate L* value (by nine different sources) is little
influenced from C1 to C3 while increases on C5 to C7 for lamps F02
and F03.
Chromaticity coordinate value of b* constant for each lamp from C1 to
C3 but more influenced as compared to L* on advance stages.
The value of a* chromaticity coordinate increases with ripening in all
subclasses (C1 to C7).
Mature green banana Ripen spontaneously in an incubator (at 20 °C and 90% humidity).
Analysis was performed on two groups pre-climacteric (unripe bananas)
and climacteric fruits.
In pre-climacteric samples endogenous ethylene and respiration rate
was low while high starch contents found. In climacteric samples
soluble sugars accumulated.
50 protein spots shown abundant changes during ripening.
Brazil (Toledo, et al., 2012)
Mature green banana Bananas were treated with 1-MCP microbubbles (1-MCP-MBs) and 1-
MCP
1-MCP-MBs inhibited respiration rate, ethylene production and
chlorophyll degradation in comparison with 1-MCP. Also delayed fruit
softening, maintained firmness and developed normal ripening
effectively.
Thailand (Pongprasert & Srilaong,
2014)
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
6
& Lajolo, 2012).
4.7. Mineral contents
Banana is considered a good source in the diet for the intake of
potassium (K) and magnesium (Mg). It is remarkably used for muscular
contraction control. Different cultivars of banana can provide macro
and micro minerals in diet such as P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and
B(Wall, 2006). For the average adult requirement; 7% of the K re-
quirement would provide by 100 g of banana fruit. The average Mg and
K contents for Hawaii’s banana were 35.1 mg/100 g and 330.6 mg/
100 g, respectively. About 100 g of banana would supply 11% DRI
(dietary reference intake) of Mg for females and about 9% for males.
100 g of Brazilian banana would supply about 29–37% of the DRI for
Mn, 29% of the DRI for Cu and 4–10% of the DRI for Fe (Singh, Singh,
Kaur, & Singh, 2016).
5. Compositional changes in banana
5.1. Physical attributes
The textural quality of banana can be determined by the firmness,
which directly influences the consumer acceptance and shelf-life. Water
and chlorophyll contents in banana are also strongly correlated with
firmness. Significant changes in the firmness of banana are observed
during ripening; the firmness decreases with the increase in tempera-
ture during ripening or storage (Rajkumar, Wang, EImasry, Raghavan,
& Gariepy, 2012;Ummarat, Matsumoto, Wall, & Seraypheap, 2011).
The progressive decrease in firmness is found during storage after
immersing it in oxalic acid (Huang, et al., 2013). Bugaud, Daribo, and
Dubois (2007) examined the effect of climate (altitude, soil, bunch
growth period and temperature) on firmness of banana in West Indies,
and found almost all bananas comparatively ranged same firmness and
did not vary significantly.
5.2. Chemical composition
A direct relation is found between maturity of banana and moisture
contents. The moisture contents increase with the increase in tem-
perature and storage temperature due to osmotic movement of water
and respiratory break down of starch contents in free sugars. TSS
contents are also linearly correlated with maturity.
Wall (2006) observed different varieties of banana from Hawaii,
moisture contents vary between 68.5 and 73.8% by positive correlation
with TSS (17.9–20.5 °Brix). Tapre and Jain (2012) also observed that
moisture contents (73.87–74.92%) and TSS (19.20–23.07 °Brix) in-
crease with rapidly decrease in starch contents (7.05–1.56%) in banana
from India during ripening period. They also reported that total sugar
contents (13.38–18.48%) in banana pulp increase during ripening
process. Christophe Bugaud, Alter, Daribo, and Brillouet (2009), re-
ported that TSS (4.2–23.9 °Brix) and total soluble sugar (0.4–17.7 g/
100 g fresh weight) increase with the decrease in starch contents
(20.8–1.3 g/100 g fresh weight) in FLHORBAN 920 (cultivar of ba-
nana). Similarly, TSS (3.5–23.1 °Brix) and sugar contents (0.6–17.2 g/
100 g fresh weight) increase and starch contents (17.8–0.4 g/100 g
fresh weight) decrease in Grand naine (cultivar of banana). Ahmad,
Thompson, Hafiz, and Asi (2001) observed that sweetness and dis-
appearance of starch increase rapidly in banana from UK with the in-
crease in temperature and ethylene treatment.
Acidity of fruits increases throughout the storage period; generally
malic acid is considered as principal acid in fruits. Similarly, Tapre and
Jain (2012) observed that acidity of banana pulp from India increases
(0.37–0.48%) with respect to malic acid during ripening. Wyman and
Palmer (1964) also reported that concentration of acids including malic
(1.36–6.20 meq/100 g) and citric (0.68–2.17 meq/100 g) acids in ba-
nana from Central America increases rapidly while the concentration of
oxalic acid (2.33–1.32 meq/100 g) and other acids (0.19–0.16 meq/
100 g) decreases with maturity. According t
o Christophe Bugaud et al. (2009), pH decreases in both bananas
FLHORBAN 920 and Grand naine cultivars during ripening period.
5.3. Minerals
Banana is the best source of potassium (K). Wall (2006) observed
potassium (287.1–485.0 mg/100 g) in fresh weight of sample among
different cultivars of banana from Hawaii. According to Sulaiman et al.
(2011), banana peel contains comparably higher amount of potassium
(1062.1–1387.5 mg/100 g) as compared to pulp (295.7–463.6 mg/
100 g) in fresh weight of sample among different cultivars.
5.4. Volatile compounds
Christophe Bugaud et al. (2009), studied volatile compounds during
ripening in the pulp of FLHORBAN 920 and Grand naine cultivars of
banana. The total volatile contents were 1.7–36.4 and 9.1–33.3 mg/kg
fresh weight in FLHORBAN 920 and Grand naine, respectively. The
various alcohols (2-methyl propanol, 2-pentanol, butanol, 3-methyl
butanol, 2-heptanol, hexanol, (e)-4-hexen-1-ol, 2,3-butanediol, (z)-3-
octen-1-ol, 2-[2-butoxy ethoxy] ethanol and 3,3-dimethyl-2-pentanol)
were 0.4–15.5 and 0.5–11.7 mg/kg fresh weight in FLHORBAN 920 and
Grand naine, respectively. The various esters (ethyl butanoate, butyl
acetate, 2-pentanol acetate, 2-methylpropyl 2-methylpropanoate, 3-
methylbutyl acetate, 2-methylpropyl butanoate, butyl butanoate, 3-
methylbutyl 2-methylpropanoate, hexyl acetate, 3-methylbutyl 3-me-
thylbutanoate, butyl hexanoate, hexyl butanoate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl
3-hydroxy hexanoate, butyl 3-hydroxy butanoate, hexyl hexanoate and
hexyl octanoate) were 0.1–10.5 and 0.2–13.4 mg/kg fresh weight in
FLHORBAN 920 and Grand naine, respectively. The various carboxylic
acids (acetic acid, 2-methylpropanoic acid, butanoic acid, 3-methyl-
butanoic acid, hexanoic acid, octanoic acid and decanoic acid) were
0.8–3.4 and 0.6–2.5 mg/kg fresh weight in FLHORBAN 920 and Grand
naine, respectively. The various carbonyls (hexanal, 2-heptanone, (e)-2-
hexenal, 3-hydroxy 2-butanone, 2-nonanone and (e)-2-nonenal) were
0.3–3.0 and 0.8–4.5 mg/kg fresh weight in FLHORBAN 920 and Grand
naine, respectively. The various phenolic ethers (eugenol, elemicin, 6-
methoxyeugenol, limonene and p-cymene) were 0.5–5.3 and
1.3–7.2 mg/kg fresh weight in FLHORBAN 920 and Grand naine, re-
spectively.
de Vasconcelos Facundo et al. (2012) investigated effect of cold
storage on volatile compounds of banana, and analyzed that the
abundance of all major esters are decreased.
5.5. Amines
Due to number of physiological process in banana during maturity
level of amines also varies significantly. Variety of amines including
serotonin, 2-phenylethylamine, tryptamine, dopamine, tyramine, his-
tamine, cadaverine, putrescine, agmatine, spermine and spermidine
contents during maturity were scrutinized in ‘Prata’banana from Brazil.
The total amount of amines content in unripe green banana was 3.52
mg/100 g approximately, with respect to maturity at 21 days (suitable
for consumption) and at 35 days of storage these contents decreased
and reached to 3.12 mg/100 and 1.99 mg/100 g (Adão & Glória, 2005).
5.6. Phenolic evaluation
Both banana peel and pulp are enriched with phenolic compounds.
Different studies showed that banana peel contains higher amount of
phenolic contents as compared to pulp. According to Someya et al.
(2002), banana peel from Philippines contains phenolic compounds
(0.90–3.0 g/100 g) as well as gallocatechin (160 mg/100 g) as a phe-
nolic compound found in banana. González-Montelongo, Lobo, and
S. Qamar, A. Shaikh Trends in Food Science & Technology 79 (2018) 1–9
7
González (2010) studied dopamine contents in different extracts of
banana peel from Spain, and observed that combination of high tem-
perature and methanol is the best solvent medium for the extraction of
dopamine. Sulaiman et al. (2011) analyzed total phenolic contents
(TPC) in both dry and fresh weights of peel and pulp of eight different
cultivars of banana from Malaysia by using different solvents, and ob-
served that dry weight contains strongest concentration of phenolic
contents as compared to fresh weight. Alothman, Bhat, and Karim
(2009) investigated recovery of phenols depends on the solvent system
used for extraction, and considered acetone (90%) as a most efficient
solvent for extraction of phenol from banana of Malaysia. It is also
observed that concentration of phenolics is three fold higher than fla-
vonoid in banana.
5.7. Antioxidant evaluation
Antioxidant capacity of banana is evaluated by using different as-
says. The study showed that banana peel is highly enriched with anti-
oxidant compounds as compared to pulp, and different cultivars show
different capability of antioxidant potential. Antioxidant capacity by
FRAP (Ferric reducing antioxidant potential) assay in different cultivars
of banana on fresh weight was ranges 0.05 to 13.93 and 0.04–17.43 mg
trolox equivalents/g fresh weight whereas by using dry weight, activity
was 2.85–21.63 and 1.12–22.57 mg trolox equivalents/g dry weight in
pulp and peel, respectively (Sulaiman, et al., 2011).
Ummarat et al. (2011) used hot water treated banana from Thailand
at 50 °C for 10 min then analyzed antioxidant compounds such as as-
corbic acid, reduced and oxidized glutathione, free phenolics and free
flavonoids during storage at 25 and 14 °C. They observed that hot water
treated banana has higher ascorbic acid, glutathione and free flavo-
noids whereas free phenolics are higher in untreated banana at 25 °C.
Furthermore, untreated banana has higher ascorbic acid, oxidized
glutathione and free flavonoids while hot water treated banana has
higher amount of free phenolics and reduced glutathione (see Table 2).
6. Conclusion
Banana belongs to the genus Musa, is largely consumed as raw food
and for medicinal purposes all over the world. It is the potential source
of bioactive secondary metabolites. Pharmacological and phytochem-
ical studies of banana have received much interest because of their
carotenoid, amine and phenolic constituents. While going through the
literature it is shown banana contains adequate amount of beneficial
bioactive compounds for the maintenance of health and well-being.
However there is need of utilization of these bioactive compounds from
different edible and non-edible part of banana as alternative to anti-
biotics with no adverse effects. It could be a possible a natural mode of
treatment for different diseases.
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