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Emerging challenges to shark-diving tourism
... Shark diving tourism is a thriving international industry with more than 20 countries [9] offering the chance to experience sharks up close in their own natural environments [5,6]. In Australia, wildlife tourists can snorkel amongst whale sharks and scuba dive with reef sharks and grey nurse sharks at dedicated sites in the western and eastern coastal waters of the country, respectively [10]. ...
... White shark cage-diving occurs at the Neptune Islands off the coast of South Australia and has been offered as a tourism experience since the 1970s [5]. Australia was the first to engage people in this particular kind of shark-dive activity [1], where divers are housed inside a 'surface cage', which white sharks approach mostly due to the bait used to lure them [9]. Cage-diving is a popular activity because it provides a thrilling up-close encounter, enhancing participants' excitement and sense of awe of the apex predators [3,11]. ...
... However, there are a range of concerns about the impacts of cage-diving practices on marine life and shark-human relations. Some examples in the Neptune Islands include: an increase in large numbers of schooling fish due to regular use of bait [9]; a change in habitat use and residency of smooth stingrays [13]; the encouragement of white sharks to remain at the surface of the ocean to follow baited lines, whereas they typically stalk their prey from below [11]; and the possibility of white sharks being distracted from normal foraging behaviours in favour of perceived opportunities to obtain bait [9]. This wildlife tourism activity also raises safety concerns for humans due to fears that white sharks are essentially becoming 'trained' to approach boats and people, which may increase the likelihood of contact with others beyond the tourism experience [11]. ...
Simple Summary
Wildlife tourism is commonly argued to positively contribute to nature conservation by providing humans with educational and meaningful first-hand experiences with animals. However, concern for the sustainability of nature due to the negative impacts of wildlife tourism on animals and the environment invites alternative virtual opportunities for close encounters. Participant Observation framed by an Animal Studies perspective is employed to interpret two contemporary Australian family entertainments, Shark Dive and Hologram Zoo, centred on providing people with wild animal interactions but without real animals present. Shark Dive is a theatrical puppetry production replicating a real shark dive, and Hologram Zoo is an augmented reality experience that displays a variety of animals in 3D. The content of both is examined to understand how the animals are imagined, experienced, and given significance, to determine whether they offer viable alternatives, or complementary additions to in situ wildlife tourism. Findings reveal both hold potential for virtual wildlife tourism. Shark Dive provides a positive representation of marine life, generating awareness about conservation and encouraging self-reflection. Hologram Zoo’s depiction of wild animals is impressive, but to more closely align with contemporary wildlife tourism ideals, the experience could enhance its conservation messaging and positive human–animal interactions.
Abstract
Wildlife tourism is commonly argued to positively contribute to nature conservation by providing humans with educational and meaningful first-hand experiences with animals. However, concern for the sustainability of nature due to the negative impacts of wildlife tourism on animals and the environment invites alternative virtual opportunities for close encounters. Participant Observation framed by an Animal Studies perspective is employed to interpret two contemporary Australian family entertainments, Shark Dive and Hologram Zoo, centred on providing people with wild animal interactions but without real animals present. Shark Dive is a theatrical puppetry production replicating a real shark dive, and Hologram Zoo is an augmented reality experience that displays a variety of animals in 3D. The content of both is examined to understand how the animals are imagined, experienced, and given significance to determine whether they offer viable alternatives or complementary additions to in situ wildlife tourism. Findings reveal both hold potential for virtual wildlife tourism. Shark Dive provides a positive representation of marine life, generating awareness about conservation and encouraging self-reflection. Hologram Zoo’s depiction of wild animals is impressive, but to more closely align with contemporary wildlife tourism ideals, the experience could enhance its conservation messaging and positive human–animal interactions.
... Management assessments and impact mitigation traditionally focus on target species, while calls within the literature detail the need to include nontarget species (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Higginbottom et al., 2003;Rizzari, Semmens, Fox, & Huveneers, 2017;Meyer et al., 2020;Trave et al., 2017). To facilitate their inclusion, we have extended the same framework factors developed for target species to nontarget species (Table 1). ...
... Cage-diving with white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) is a globally popular tourism industry with many associated challenges for industry, managers, and policy makers (DEWNR, 2016;Meza-Arce et al., 2020). White shark cagediving in South Australia has been the focus of numerous studies on the socioeconomic benefits of the industry (Apps, Dimmock, Lloyd, & Huveneers, 2017Huveneers et al., 2017) and its ecological impacts on target white sharks (Bruce & Bradford, 2013;Huveneers et al., 2013;Meyer et al., 2019) and nontarget species, including trevally (Pseudocaranx spp.), yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi), ray spp., and other teleosts (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Meyer et al., 2020;Rizzari, Semmens, Fox, & Huveneers, 2017) is an ideal case study to demonstrate the use of the assessment framework (Table 1, Figure 1). ...
... for nontarget species (Table 1, Figure 1a), as this is a small (three operators), highly-regulated industry with area camera surveillance and mandatory daily-activity logs, leading to a history of compliance with temporal closures and restrictions on attractant type, quantity, and use (DEWNR, 2012;DEWNR, 2016). The polarized local and global public view of white shark cage-diving remains an ongoing challenge (Apps, Dimmock, Lloyd, & Huveneers, 2016;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018), which limits tractability, socioeconomic values, and potentially the extent of conservation outcomes (Figure 1). Similar to tractability, the socioeconomic values from the target white shark is very high (+0.80), ...
Wildlife tourism is growing in popularity, diversity of target species, and type of tours. This presents difficulties for management policy that must balance the complex trade‐offs between conservation, animal welfare, and pragmatic concerns for tourist satisfaction and economic value. Here, we provide a widely applicable, multidisciplinary framework to assess the impacts of wildlife tourism focusing on industry tractability, socioeconomic values, and their effects on conservation, animal welfare, and ecosystem impacts. The framework accommodates and quantifies the complexity of factors influencing wildlife tourism management, including direct and indirect effects on target and nontarget species, and identifies priorities for future biological, socioeconomic, and cultural heritage research. When applied to white shark cage‐diving as a case study, the output demonstrates the utility of the framework for researchers, managers, and policy makers, and highlights the benefits of undertaking the assessment as an inclusive workshop to facilitate a more multidisciplinary assessment of wildlife tourism industries. The use of a universally applicable assessment framework will enable the identification of relevant factors to account for when managing wildlife tourism, provide an inventory of current knowledge, identify research needs, and semiquantitatively compare categories and target and nontarget species, leading to improved conservation outcomes for species and ecosystems.
... The deliberate feeding of large predators is suspected to lead to detrimental effects on the target animals, their environments, and humans (Dobson 2006;Newsome and Rodger 2008;Hammerschlag et al. 2012). These effects can range from decreased physiological condition to behavioural alterations that could cause cascading effects throughout the marine ecosystem, or increase the risk for humans, resulting in injuries due the learnt association between humans and food (Orams 2002;Huveneers et al. 2013;Gallagher and Huveneers 2018). ...
... With the increasing popularity of shark-diving tourism, we are in need of management strategies that will ensure the sustainability of the industry (Gallagher and Huveneers 2018). The use of bait to attract sharks is a popular method to ensure reliable encounters with these elusive predators (Clua and Séret 2010). ...
... Shark feeding operations may also cause an increased level of aggression toward conspecifics, other species of sharks, and humans (Burgess 1998;Gallagher and Huveneers 2018). An example can be found off Bimini, Bahamas where great hammerhead sharks (Sphyrna mokarran) have been provisioned since 2013. ...
The development of adaptive responses to novel situations via learning has been demonstrated in a wide variety of animal taxa. However, knowledge on the learning abilities of one of the oldest extant vertebrate groups, Chondrichthyes, remains limited. With the increasing interest in global wildlife tourism and shark feeding operations, it is important to understand the capacities of these animals to form associations between human activities and food. We used an operant conditioning regime with a simple spatial cognitive task to investigate the effects of reinforcement frequency and reward magnitude on the learning performance and memory retention of Port Jackson sharks (Heterodontus portusjacksoni). Twenty-four Port Jackson sharks were assigned one of four treatments differing in reward magnitude and reinforcement frequency (large magnitude–high frequency; large magnitude–low frequency; small magnitude–high frequency; small magnitude–low frequency). The sharks were trained over a 21-day period to compare the number of days that it took to learn to pass an assigned door to feed. Sharks trained at a high reinforcement frequency demonstrated faster learning rates and a higher number of passes through the correct door at the end of the trials, while reward magnitude had limited effects on learning rate. This suggests that a reduction in reinforcement frequency during tourism-related feeding operations is likely to be more effective in reducing the risk of sharks making associations with food than limiting the amount of food provided.
... Shark diving needs to be studied and monitored in order to ensure its sustainability; for the benefit of sharks, which are already highly vulnerable to a series of human impacts; and to guarantee the continuing delivery of ecosystem services that sharks provide through tourism (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Gallagher et al., 2015). Studies have been attentive to understanding and managing forms of shark diving that do not simply rely on the casual sighting of sharks but use attractants, including food and bait or chum (fish oil, fish blood, and various parts of fish carcasses) (Bentz, Dearden, Ritter, & Calado, 2014;Brena, Mourier, Planes, & Clua, 2015;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Hammerschlag, Gallagher, Wester, Luo, & Ault, 2012;Maljković & Côté, 2011). ...
... Shark diving needs to be studied and monitored in order to ensure its sustainability; for the benefit of sharks, which are already highly vulnerable to a series of human impacts; and to guarantee the continuing delivery of ecosystem services that sharks provide through tourism (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Gallagher et al., 2015). Studies have been attentive to understanding and managing forms of shark diving that do not simply rely on the casual sighting of sharks but use attractants, including food and bait or chum (fish oil, fish blood, and various parts of fish carcasses) (Bentz, Dearden, Ritter, & Calado, 2014;Brena, Mourier, Planes, & Clua, 2015;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Hammerschlag, Gallagher, Wester, Luo, & Ault, 2012;Maljković & Côté, 2011). The focus of these Delivered by Ingenta IP: 102.252.65.54 ...
... In this study, divemasters' and operators' noncompliance was reported by a large proportion of the scuba divers (up to 62%), with contact behavior, inappropriate use of chum, and feeding characterizing the main breaches. This result is not new (Bentz et al., 2014;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Gallagher et al., 2015;Richards et al., 2015). Importantly, this study shows that either scuba diving experience or working in the diving industry can be significantly correlated with exceeding certification limits and breaking the rules in shark diving. ...
Shark diving tourism is an activity that can contribute significantly to coastal economies, while also offering tremendous help to shark conservation efforts. Nevertheless, like any form of wildlife-based tourism, shark diving poses management challenges revolving around ethical and safety considerations. Safety in shark diving normally focuses on operational self-efficacy and adherence to shark diving codes of conduct to prevent incidents such as shark bites and to minimize ecological harm. However, safety issues in shark diving can arise from personal choices to exceed standard certification limits. Any detrimental results are capable of casting doubts on the sustainability of shark diving, thus jeopardizing its future as well as shark conservation. This study addressed compliance with shark diving codes of conduct and standard diving safety by examining the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of people who engage in free scuba diving with predatory sharks. The research made use of mixed methods of data collection, including interviews with shark divers at two popular shark diving destinations in Southeast Africa (n = 86) and an online questionnaire survey among shark divers (n = 89). The results showed that divers had positive attitudes towards sharks and shark diving. However, a notable proportion declared that they had exceeded certification limits and broken codes of conduct during shark diving. In particular, diving experience and being a professional diver were correlated significantly with poor safety attitudes and behavior. The results highlight the need to create an understanding among scuba divers of the connection between shark diving safety and conservation, including the negative implications of safety breaches, whether big or small, for the future of shark diving tourism and of sharks.
... Similar impacts to those observed in focal species have also been observed in non-focal species , Vignon et al., 2010, providing some of the only evidence of non-focal impacts. Due to the lack of studies examining non-focal impacts the need for further research has been highlighted in several studies and reviews (Gallagher et al., 2015, Trave et al., 2017, Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018, Patroni et al., 2018, Meyer et al., 2021. ...
... Best practice for mitigating the impacts of provisioning is proactive management, performing detailed assessments of all species and environmental components prior to commencing the activity, preventing impacts from occurring from the onset. However, as many wildlife tourism industries are already well established and practices are often grandfathered in, in conjunction with impacts on non-focal species only recently gaining interest (Gallagher et al., 2015, Trave et al., 2017, Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018, Patroni et al., 2018, Meyer et al., 2021, many species are likely already impacted or exposed to pressures from different forms of provisioning. With species potentially already dependent on provisioning as a food source (Marsac et al., 2000, Dagorn et al., 2010, reactive management practices can no longer simply remove the source of impact. ...
Wildlife tourism often uses food-based attractants to aggregate focal species, unintentionally attracting and feeding non-focal species, the impact of which is poorly understood. In South Australia's Neptune Islands Group Marine Park, bait and berley (southern bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii) is used to entice white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) to cage-diving vessels, inadvertently attracting silver trevally (Pseudocaranx georgianus). These silver trevally form large aggregations around cage-diving vessels as they consume the bait and berley, often impeding tourists' views of the focal white sharks. The impacts of the white shark tourism industry on the spatiotemporal distribution and behaviour of silver trevally, and potential flow-on effects on their physiological processes (i.e., growth, reproduction, healing) is unknown. This study aimed to comprehensively assess how the aggregatory behaviour and feeding of bait and berley may affect silver trevally movements, abundance, growth, and physiological condition.
Due to impacts on the spatiotemporal distribution and activity of similar non-focal species, I first monitored the movements, distribution, and activity of 25 silver trevally in response to cage-diving operators using a fine-scale acoustic telemetry array (Chapter 2). The number of days silver trevally were present per week and the number of hours per day at the Neptune Islands increased by 32% and 20%, respectively, when operators were present. However, a seasonal exodus by 76% of individuals triggered by low water temperature suggested that silver trevally are not permanent residents of the Neptune Islands, and still undergo natural movements away from this near-continuous source of food. Cage-diving tourism also reduced the core space use of silver trevally, aggregating them at the surface (< 5 m depth), close to food-based operators. Despite changes in space use and residency, overall activity did not substantially increase when operators were present, despite frequently observed bursts of acceleration. The near-continuous feeding on bait and berley, large amount of time spent at the Neptune Islands, and the lack of increased activity might result in an energy surplus in silver trevally and affect growth, reproduction, and physiology.
With an understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution and activity of the silver trevally (Chapter 2), the size of the affected population remained unknown. Therefore, I developed and tested novel mark-resight methods (Chapter 3), using the most precise method to quantify and assess trends in the population size of silver trevally occupying the Neptune Islands (Chapter 4). I tagged 700 silver trevally with conventional identification tags, undertook monthly surveys over two years, and used the acoustically tagged silver trevally from Chapter 2 to estimate resighting probability to improve the precision of modelled population size. I estimated up to ~4000 silver trevally at the Neptune Islands, with the population size decreasing with temperature, aligning with the seasonal exodus observed in Chapter 2. However, the number of silver trevally was not affected by the intensity of cage-diving operations.
I then tested the physiological effects of silver trevally exposure to bait and berley using age-at-length, bioelectrical impedance, and fatty acid analysis (Chapter 5). The silver trevally at North Neptune Islands that are frequently exposed to bait and berley were larger than silver trevally of the same age from locations with similar habitats, but without supplemental feeding from cage-diving operations. This was supported by the higher levels of Eicosapentaenoic and Oleic acid in silver trevally from North Neptune Islands. Eicosapentaenoic and Oleic acid, which are known to be high in the bait and berley used, are also known to be important for multiple physiological functions and to increase the overall growth performance, welfare, and condition of teleosts. However, mortality rate and body condition were similar across locations, indicating that while silver trevally may grow faster, consumption of bait and berley may not lead to negative effects on the health or fitness of silver trevally.
This is the first study to assess the ecology of silver trevally in temperate southern Australia, and how it is influenced by wildlife tourism, providing a baseline for impacts of supplemental feeding on a non-focal species. I found effects on the movement, behaviours, and growth of silver trevally, but broader impacts on their health and physiology were undetected. Importantly, despite the effects described here, exodus from the Neptune Islands during cold periods, and the effect of temperature on population size, indicates that silver trevally are still undergoing natural movements and behaviours triggered by thermal cues. Overall, my study comprehensively assesses the ecology of silver trevally through a multidisciplinary approach, showing that small and non-focal species can be affected by provisioning, despite under representation in management frameworks and investigative studies.
... Given its emblematic nature and reputation as being responsible for the most shark bites on humans , the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, is an iconic species globally targeted by tourists (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). Cage diving with white sharks is a popular activity, with operations reported in the United States, Canada, Mexico, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia . ...
... Cage diving is a valuable tourism activity, both economically (e.g. the South Australian white shark cage-diving industry is worth $15 million annually; Huveneers et al., 2017) and socially (engaging hundreds of thousands of people each year; Apps et al., 2018), that can dispel negative myths around white sharks and raise public awareness towards conservation of this vulnerable species Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Rigby et al., 2019). A previous expansion of the cage-diving industry at the Neptune Islands after 2007 was responsible for increased white shark residency time from a mean of~10 days in 2001e2002 to~23 days in 2009e2011 and altered white shark distribution around the Neptune Islands (Bruce & Bradford, 2013;Huveneers et al., 2013). ...
While wildlife tourism may impact the animals it targets, it plays a critical role in public education and conservation awareness. Understanding changes in animal behaviour in response to tourism activities can inform the trade-offs between negative impacts and socioeconomic benefits. There are public claims that cage-diving activities may condition white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, to interact with boats, and may potentially increasing risk of shark bites. We tracked the fine-scale movements of 73 white sharks in relation to cage-diving boats using acoustic telemetry between 2018 and 2022 at Neptune Islands, Australia, to investigate associative behaviour and factors potentially influencing residency and time spent in proximity to the cage-diving boats. White sharks spent gradually less time near cage-diving boats throughout their residency at the tourism site. This behaviour was consistent across individuals, years, sexes and sizes. Sharks, however, resumed their natural behaviours (i.e. initial amount of time near the cage-diving boats) each time they returned to Neptune Islands, suggesting that the observed habituation (i.e. loss of response to the stimulus used to attract sharks) did not last for long periods. These trends support the lack of long-term learnt behaviour of white sharks increasingly interacting with boats. Our results indicate that current management strategies such as regulating the number of days the industry can operate at the site and the amount of food-based attractant used, and reducing the amount of bait consumed can limit associative behaviour between white sharks and boats, while enabling continued opportunities for white shark tourism. Understanding how wildlife associate with humans can help ensure that best practices are in place for both the targeted animals and the people involved, particularly in the case of threatened and potentially dangerous species.
... Shark diving industry has increased worldwide, including the highly popular free swimming with whale sharks (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). However, overcrowding of swimmers or boats around whale sharks has become a concern because of their potential impacts on the shark's behaviour and welfare (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). ...
... Shark diving industry has increased worldwide, including the highly popular free swimming with whale sharks (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). However, overcrowding of swimmers or boats around whale sharks has become a concern because of their potential impacts on the shark's behaviour and welfare (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). ...
Each year, whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) aggregate in the northern Gulf of California at Bahia de los Angeles, a small coastal village that recently developed whale shark swimming as economic activity during the summer and autumn. Since the number of animals using the bay fluctuates annually, we aimed to predict it 1 month before each whale shark season. We based our modelling approach on the hypothesis that interannual warming conditions would spatially restrict whale shark habitats, triggering larger aggregations in areas that remain productive.
We photo‐identified whale sharks while surface feeding in Bahia de los Angeles during a 13‐year period, which allowed us to estimate a local abundance index per year through mark–recapture techniques. Then, we fitted these abundances as a function of several competing model structures, based on means of sea surface temperature and chlorophyll‐a, as well as their interannual anomalies from the linear trend, during spring, within the best‐known range of the species in the northern Gulf of California.
The results of the ecological model showed that whale sharks visit Bahia de los Angeles in larger numbers during extreme warming conditions, with relatively high surface chlorophyll‐a concentrations, which was especially evident during the 2014–2016 northeast Pacific Marine Heatwave and El Niño. Presumably, the overall reduction in surface productivity associated with these events forced whale sharks to restrict their summer–autumn habitat to productivity hotspots, including Bahia de los Angeles.
Our model allowed us to predict the number of animals visiting the site before each season starts, which has crucial proactive management implications, such as allowing authorities to regulate the ecotourism effort dynamically to reduce the probability of ship strikes and/or excessive stress to the animals. We propose an abundance baseline from the prediction for neutral interannual conditions.
Synthesis and applications. We recommend local authorities apply the model described in this study during the late spring of each year to obtain predictions of the upcoming whale shark abundance and establish the maximum ecotourism effort allowed accordingly.
... While Marx [73] (2019) suggests that the perception of cute animals can be meaningful for human participants, animals frequently experience negative consequences (e.g., being touched, fed, and so on) due to this aesthetic appeal. This is why, increasingly, scholarly work as well as policy and practice generally steer clear of the acceptability of tourists handling wildlife [76]. ...
Tourists consistently demonstrate the need to touch wildlife, although policies often deny these experiences because of the psychological and physiological impacts on animals. However, philosophers contend that humans can learn to empathize with animals by feeling their way into the plight of animals through touch. Facing this dilemma, the paper asks if human touch can be ethically experienced in tourist interactions with animals by employing animal health warning labels. Using the case of “holding a panda” at the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan, China, the study investigates this dilemma through Johann Gottfried Herder’s philosophy on empathy and touch against the no-touch policies. A survey containing four scenarios shows that the use of payment can serve as a more effective tool than ethical appeal in reducing people’s decision to hold a panda through its inclusion of additional factors in the decision process. However, ethical touch building on animal health warning labels demands spaces for mutual respect, conservation awareness, and the recognition of health risks through a direct confrontation of the established emotional and sensual aesthetic appeal of cuteness between visitors and the panda. It is found that a combined use of payment and ethical appeal is necessary to restructure visitors’ willingness to hold a panda.
... Diving with sharks has a global footprint and has become the main activity for the sustainable use of this group of animals (Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018). In the Maldives, local businesses associated with tourists who visit the country for shark diving generate an annual revenue of over $113 million US dollars (Zimmerhackel et al., 2018(Zimmerhackel et al., , 2019. ...
The reproductive state of wild, free-swimming tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier), was assessed using underwater ultrasonography at a diving site in Fuvahmulah, a Maldivian atoll within the central Indian Ocean. The presence of embryos were observed in 93% of the adult sharks (26/28) and two distinct embryonic size groups were observed within the subset of scanned adult females. The results suggest that the observed dive site functions as a gestation ground and builds upon previous work that emphasizes the importance of dive sites for the collection of biological data for shark conservation and management.
... As mentioned, we did not define which activities constituted positive interactions and which were negative. For example, diving encounters have the potential to be both positive and negative (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Trave et al., 2017). Yet, by utilizing our method and incorporating data on humanwildlife interactions, measures can be taken to lower the chances of a negative encounter and increase the chances of positive encounters that promote conservation. ...
Growing human use of the marine environment increases the proximity of humans to marine wildlife and thus likely increases human–wildlife interactions. Such interactions influence perceptions of nature and promote or undermine conservation. Despite their importance, human–wildlife interactions are rarely considered in ecosystem‐based marine spatial planning (MSP). Ideally, these interactions should be identified and considered in ecosystem‐based management (EBM), which is often purported to be the basis for MSP. We used Marxan software and data from a citizen science project documenting location, species, age, sex, and activity type to identify regions along Israel's coast with a high probability of encounters between people and 2 species of guitarfish. We considered the geographic distribution of these encounters and the various activities undertaken by the reporting observers. We ran 4 scenarios in Marxan. Two had conservation goals of 30% and 50% guitarfish habitat protection. In the third and fourth scenarios, we added a 50% conservation goal of human leisure activities to each guitarfish conservation goal. We also conducted a gap analysis between our guitarfish conservation goals and the Israel Nature and Parks Authority's master plan for marine protected areas. We found the park authority was close to meeting the 30% goal but was far from meeting the conservation goal of 50% of guitarfish habitat conservation. Different human uses were more likely to interact with different life stages of guitarfish, and different recreational activities occurred in different areas. Identifying areas of specific human use showed which activities should be addressed in conservation management decisions. Our addition of certain recreational uses to the model of habitat conservation showed how enhancing human dimensions in conservation planning can lead to more holistic ecosystem‐based conservation necessary for effective marine planning.
... Additionally, the implementation of annual inspections with a "seal of good practices" can be considered. Such seals not only benefit the well-being of the animals and the satisfaction of tourists but also provide tourism companies with an attractive feature for promoting more sustainable activities in their marketing materials (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). ...
This report updates our understanding of whale shark occurrences in The Bahamas by drawing upon a variety of data sources. Our findings reveal previously unreported sighting locations, often associated with tourism activities, underscoring the pivotal role played by nontraditional data sources in addressing knowledge gaps. These revelations emphasize the ongoing necessity for monitoring efforts. Additionally, we have found cases that raise concerns related to unregulated human–shark interactions in the region, highlighting the pressing need for sustainable tourism practices within Bahamian waters.
... Behavioral changes in animals can result in pattern modification, such as responses in animals' behavioral, movement (Xu et al., 2020), or residency patterns (Hammerschlag et al., 2012). The term "pattern" is also used in contexts measuring collision rates related to road infrastructure (Cunneyworth & Duke, 2020) and human marine conservation patterns (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). Similarly, translocation discusses animals moving away from their natural habitat due to tourist pressure, increased stress, or traumatic experiences (Fabregas et al., 2020;Szott et al., 2020;Szott et al., 2019) as well as endangered endemic wildlife intentionally being translocated to fenced and protected reserves (Burke et al., 2008). ...
Animals are extensively used in the tourism industry to provide pleasurable tourist experiences, for instance in zoos, as working animals or in the wild. However, ample evidence shows that animals often suffer in these conditions, both physiologically and psychologically. Despite the growing popularity of animal-based tourism, some scholars caution that animal welfare receives insufficient attention from tourism research. Therefore, this study condenses knowledge on tourism and animal welfare from various research fields, e.g. social, veterinary, and environmental sciences, by conducting a bibliometric co-occurrence analysis on author keywords of 405 publications on articles (1994 to 2023). Findings indicate that animal welfare in the tourism scope is an interdisciplinary research topic, which has received limited attention from the tourism field. While research output has increased notably since 2020, discussions on tourism externalities impacting animal welfare are still led largely outside of tourism academia. Four main research streams are identified: (1) Wildlife conservation: benefits and challenges, (2) Anthropogenic impact and animal behavioral responses, (3) Visitor perspectives: Motivations, satisfaction, and human impacts, (4) Working animals: Fatalities and mortality. As the first systematic literature analysis on the subject, this study is cross-disciplinary and provides a valuable overview of the research object.
... targeted) and non-focal species at tourism sites. The use of food-based attractant is often required during these operations to aggregate focal species, which are often sparsely distributed in low densities, and undertake large-scale movements, which otherwise leads to challenges to ensure reliable and consistent interactions for tourists (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018 ). When provisioning occurs in lesser quantities and at unpredictable times and places, feeding from wildlife tourism can be an efficient technique for tourism operators to increase the frequency of up-close encounters for tourists (Meyer et al., 2021b ). ...
Wildlife tourism can have adverse effects on the behaviours and movements of animals, with implications for the health and fitness of individuals and populations. We used acoustic-tracking to show that food-based attractants used in shark-tourism increases activity (15%) and burst behaviours (60%) in yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi, n = 18). Increased activity was restricted to periods when kingfish were on the same side of the island group as berleying tourism vessels, but decreased after operators left the site. Despite the raised activity and frequency of burst swimming events, the physiological condition of kingfish (n = 39, 6 tagged, and 33 untagged) measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis remained consistent with kingfish from control sites not exposed to tourism. This suggests that kingfish were able to compensate raised energy expenditure by feeding on bait and berley used by operators or through natural foraging. We highlight that the effects of provisioning from wildlife tourism can extend beyond changes in behaviours and movements and can additionally influence the energetic condition of non-focal animals through increased activity. However, supplemental food-sources provided through wildlife tourism may be sufficient to compensate for the increased energy expenditure and lessen the effects of tourism on individual fitness and health.
... However, as changes in behaviour do not always equate to health or fitness impacts (Beale and Monaghan, 2004;Gill et al., 2001), it is unclear if these shortterm changes will have long-term effects on individual and population fitness. While tourism impacts on animal fitness have been identified for several species (Orams, 2002), similar research on sharks and rays is limited (Brena et al., 2015;Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018). ...
Wildlife tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry, where feeding animals is often applied to increase the probability of up-close encounters. However, directly feeding wildlife can cause behavioural, ecological, and physiological changes in the target species. In Oslob, Philippines, whale shark (Rhincodon typus) tourism involves feeding sharks a total of 150–400 kg sergestid shrimp daily throughout the interaction period from 06:00 to 10:00 from small outrigger boats while tourists observe whale sharks. We deployed tri-axial acceleration loggers on 16 whale sharks and recorded 270 h of acceleration, depth, and water temperature data (0.2 69.7 h). Comparing activity across tourism and non-tourism periods, whale sharks had a two-fold increase in vectorial dynamic-body acceleration, and altered tailbeat frequency and amplitude, during tourism operations. Using a bioenergetics model, we show that whale shark metabolic rates increased by 56.7–71.6 % while in the tourism area. A resampling approach found providing ~220 kg of sergestid shrimp daily would ensure ≥ 0.90 probability of meeting the increased energetic requirements. A global sensitivity analysis revealed that uncertainty in the assumed exponent of the standard metabolic rate was the only input that varied model predictions substantially. Due to unknown consequences of feeding whale sharks, we recommend managers aim to reduce the energy expenditure of whale sharks through operation changes instead of focussing on the quantity of food provided. Our research provides a novel method to contextualise the impacts of tourism beyond behavioural changes.
... However, if they are fished, the carbon cycle is disrupted, which can compromise the worldwide climate [12]. Chondrichthyes are also highly popular due to their appearance, relevance to the movie industry, and cultural roles in some communities [13], providing valuable resources for tourism and, consequently, economically [14,15]. Nevertheless, their impact on improving the well-being of humanity can be reduced due to their populations decline, mainly caused by overfishing [16]. ...
Chondrichthyes (including sharks, rays, and chimaeras) are a class of jawed cartilaginous fishes (with skeletons composed primarily of cartilage), with major relevance to the marine ecosystems and to humanity. However, cartilaginous fishes are facing various threatens, inflicting abrupt declines in their populations. Thus, critical assessment of available molecular genetic variation, particularly retrieved from Chondrichthyans' transcriptomic analyses, represents a major resource to foster genomics research in this ancient group of vertebrate species. Briefly, RNA-Seq involves the sequencing of RNA strands present on a target tissue, which can assist genome annotation and elucidate genetic features on species without a sequenced genome. The resulting information can unravel responses of an individual to environmental changes, evolutionary processes, and support the development of biomarkers. We scrutinized more than 800 RNA-Seq entries publicly available, and reviewed more than one decade of available transcriptomic knowledge in chondrichthyans. We conclude that chondrichthyans’ transcriptomics is a subject in early development, since not all the potential of this technology has been fully explored, namely their use to prospectively preserve these endangered species. Yet, the transcriptomic database provided findings on the vertebrates’ evolution, chondrichthyans’ physiology, morphology, and their biomedical potential, a trend likely to expand further in the future.
... A primary concern is that provisioning may teach sharks to associate humans with food and thereby increase the risk of shark bites 13,14 . However, to date no demonstrable increase in shark bites has been observed at or around provisioning sites many of which have shark feeding regulations that strictly limit the amount of food that can be consumed [15][16][17] . A further criticism is that artificial provisioning (i.e. ...
A perennial criticism of provisioning ecotourism is that it alters the natural behavior and ecology of the target species by providing an artifcial food source. Here we evaluate its impact on the long-term site fdelity patterns of tiger sharks in French Polynesia. We hypothesized that a signifcant impact of provisioning would lead to (1) increases in individual site fdelity over time, and (2) an increase in the number of resident individuals over time. Of 53 individuals photo-identifed and monitored during> 500 dives over five years, 10 individuals accounted for > 75% of all sightings, whereas 35 sharks were sighted very infrequently. Even the most frequently observed tiger sharks exhibited overall low fdelity at the site and showed no increase in site fdelity over time. Furthermore, the number of tiger sharks sighted during each dive did not increase. The observed patterns of tiger shark sightings were best explained by natural movements, including general roaming within home ranges along the coastline and seasonal migrations. Despite the apparent lack of impact of provisioning ecotourism on tiger shark ecology in Tahitian waters, it would be prudent to implement a strict code of conduct during any future provisioning activities to maximize the safety of participants and animals involved.
... Cage dive operators often attract sharks to the cage to enhance the experience of their customers. In many states and countries, it is illegal to attract sharks using food because of a fear of substantially altering the behaviour of the shark over the long term, and operators often use the smell of food as an alternative (Gallagher and Huveneers 2018). This raises the question as to what reinforcement regime would entice the shark enough to interact with cage divers, but not so much to cause dependency on the provisioned food. ...
450 million years of evolution have given chondrichthyans (sharks, rays and allies) ample time to adapt perfectly to their respective everyday life challenges and cognitive abilities have played an important part in that process. The diversity of niches that sharks and rays occupy corresponds to matching diversity in brains and behaviour, but we have only scratched the surface in terms of investigating cognition in this important group of animals. The handful of species that have been cognitively assessed in some detail over the last decade have provided enough data to safely conclude that sharks and rays are cognitively on par with most other vertebrates, including mammals and birds. Experiments in the lab as well as in the wild pose their own unique challenges, mainly due to the handling and maintenance of these animals as well as controlling environmental conditions and elimination of confounding factors. Nonetheless, significant advancements have been obtained in the fields of spatial and social cognition, discrimination learning, memory retention as well as several others. Most studies have focused on behaviour and the underlying neural substrates involved in cognitive information processing are still largely unknown. Our understanding of shark cognition has multiple practical benefits for welfare and conservation management but there are obvious gaps in our knowledge. Like most marine animals, sharks and rays face multiple threats. The effects of climate change, pollution and resulting ecosystem changes on the cognitive abilities of sharks and stingrays remain poorly investigated and we can only speculate what the likely impacts might be based on research on bony fishes. Lastly, sharks still suffer from their bad reputation as mindless killers and are heavily targeted by commercial fishing operations for their fins. This public relations issue clouds people's expectations of shark intelligence and is a serious impediment to their conservation. In the light of the fascinating results presented here, it seems obvious that the general perception of sharks and rays as well as their status as sentient, cognitive animals, needs to be urgently revisited.
... Shark diving industries play important economic roles for the regions where they occur [11,18] and can help improve the image of these animals by dispelling myths and raising public awareness about their importance to healthy marine ecosystems [1,12]. The increased popularity of shark diving among wildlife tourists over the last decades and the multiple impacts of tourism reported across species [13,39,44] has raised concerns about whether these activities have been appropriately managed [27,33]. ...
Wildlife tourism can assist species conservation through community-involvement and education, while contributing to regional economies. In the last decade, shark diving has become increasingly popular among wildlife tourists worldwide, including cage-diving with white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). In Australia, birthplace of the white shark diving industry, an adaptive management framework has been developed to minimise potentially detrimental effects on white sharks. We monitored the residency of 135 white sharks using acoustic tracking over eight years (2013–2021) at the Neptune Islands Group Marine Park to assess the efficacy of management regulations put in place in 2012, which limited the number of operating boats to three and a maximum of five weekly days of activity. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to investigate possible differences in shark residency as a function of number of acoustic receivers used and their corresponding distances to long-term monitoring stations. Similar residency patterns were observed independently of the number of receivers used or their deployment locations, suggesting that the monitoring design was adequate to monitor shark residency. White shark yearly residency decreased following the implementation of new regulations in 2012 and returned to baseline levels by 2013–2014. Our results highlight that white shark residency can recover from tourism-related changes and showcase how adequately-developed and -implemented regulations can enable the successful management and long-term sustainability of one of the oldest shark tourism industries. This adaptative framework (problem identification, development and implementation of policies, efficacy monitoring and performance evaluation) is broadly applicable to management of other tourism industries.
... In combination, the ubiquity of social media users, presence of shark related social media content, and the demonstrated impact of social media on attitudes and perceptions suggest social media may be an underutilized avenue for reducing fear and misconceptions about sharks (Beall et al., 2022). Very few people have firsthand interaction with sharks in the wild, thus making shark related media content a primary source for shark related information for many (Gallagher and Hammerschlag, 2011;Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018). It is therefore critically important to understand the framing of this content and the impacts this content may be having on public perceptions. ...
Sharks, a critical component of marine ecosystems, represent one of the most threatened taxa globally. Shark conservation efforts are constrained by public fear and misperceptions. Positive social media-based outreach may provide one cost effective means to reduce fear of sharks and change misperceptions about shark bite intentionality. Using framing theory, which suggests that the ways in which information is presented influences how it is processed and the changes in perceptions that result from it, we experimentally evaluated impacts of positively and negatively framed YouTube videos on fear of sharks and perceptions of shark bite intentionality among participants from the coastal state of North Carolina (NC), USA in Spring 2020. Respondents took a pre-test, followed by a randomly assigned positive or negative video treatment consisting of ~15 min of shark week videos. Pre/post-test comparisons suggest positive YouTube content decreased fright by 24%, perceived danger by 27%, and perception of shark bite intentionality by 29%, whereas negatively framed media did the opposite. Positively framed media resulted in fewer respondents blaming shark bites on sharks, and resulted in more respondents blaming swimmers or no one. Positively framed media decreased support for lethal responses to shark bites, such as shark nets, hunting down sharks that bite people, and drum lines. The positive treatment increased support for responding with research, leaving the shark alone, and education. Negatively framed media decreased support for responding by leaving the shark alone or doing nothing and increased support for some lethal responses to shark bites (i.e., drum lines and hunting down sharks). When positive and negative treatments had different effect sizes, the positive treatments tended to be more impactful. Collectively these results suggest social media may be a valuable tool for leveraging the power of communication to promote shark conservation.
... Similarly, southern stingrays, Hypanus americanus, exposed to provisioning tourism at Grand Cayman exhibited several negative physiological consequences, including lower haematocrit and body condition, reduced antioxidant capacity and altered intake of essential nutrients (Semeniuk et al., 2007(Semeniuk et al., , 2009(Semeniuk et al., , 2010Hoopes et al., 2020). Given increasing discussions framing ecotourism activities as a conservation tool, it is important to understand the physiological and behavioural impacts that provisioning has on wildlife populations, especially for threatened species (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). ...
While a growing body of literature has shown that tourism provisioning can influence the behaviour of wildlife, how physiological state might be related to the nature and magnitude of these effects remains poorly understood. Physiological state, including reproductive and nutritional status, can have profound effects on an individual's behaviour and decision making. In the present study, we used multiple physiological markers related to reproductive (testosterone, 17β-oestradiol and progesterone), metabolic (corticosteroids) and nutritional ecology (stable isotopes and fatty acids), integrated with ultrasonography and passive acoustic telemetry to explore the possible relationship between physiological condition and space use of tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, exposed to dive tourism provisioning. Large, nongravid female tiger sharks, with higher plasma steroid levels (i.e. testosterone, 17β-oestradiol, relative corticosteroid), enriched δ¹⁵N and elevated nutritional status (in terms of fatty acids) spent proportionally more time at food provisioning sites compared to conspecifics. Testosterone levels also were positively correlated with the proportion of time spent at provisioning sites. Based on these results, we speculate that physiological condition plays a role in shaping the spatial behaviour of female tiger sharks within the context of food provisioning, whereby larger individuals, exhibiting higher testosterone levels and elevated nutritional status, show selective preferences for provisioning dive sites, where they outcompete conspecifics of relatively smaller size, lower testosterone levels and depressed nutritional state. While more studies are needed to explore whether sharks are making these decisions because of their physiological state or whether spending more time at provisioning sites results in altered physiological state, our findings highlight the importance of considering animal life stage, endocrine regulation, and nutritional condition when evaluating the biological impacts of provisioning tourism.
... e evaluation is made from the angle that is most beneficial to the decision-making unit, and the evaluation result is true and credible [6,7]. For each additional input or output item, the new input-output ratio will reduce the discrimination of DEA model [8,9]. e traditional DEA directional distance function model is used to analyze the ecological efficiency of China's tourism considering carbon emissions. ...
The rapid development of tourism in China has also caused a lot of energy consumption and serious environmental problems. In the context of sustainable development, low-carbon tourism has become the consensus of management departments, relevant industries, and academia. In environmental-related fields, DEA is considered as an excellent efficiency analysis tool because of its powerful optimization ability. The final variable of DEA method is weight. In order to avoid the influence of human factors with predetermined weights in tourism analysis, this paper studies the evaluation of tourism ecological efficiency based on DEA model. China’s overall tourism ecological efficiency showed a fluctuating upward trend, rising from 0.853 in 2018 to 0.906 in 2021. The national average efficiency over the past four years is 0.855, which is at a low level, indicating that the construction of tourism ecology is still in its infancy, and there is still much room for improvement in the future. As the tourism industry system involves many aspects, such as natural ecology, humanities, economy, and so on, it is an extremely complex system. The research on the ecological efficiency of tourism cannot simply rely on the knowledge system and thinking of a single discipline. Therefore, combined with the relevant theories and knowledge of tourism, management, industrial economics, regional economics, industrial ecology, and other disciplines, this paper makes a systematic study on the problems and countermeasures of Qiaozhai.
... Currently, social media represents an under-explored avenue for promoting public tolerance of sharks. While shark tourism is a growing field, relatively few individuals out of the global population engage in activities which directly expose them to sharks (Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018). Thus, social media may present a practical means of enhancing support for conservation efforts by engaging large audiences. ...
Sharks are often depicted in the media as violent killers that actively seek out opportunities to harm humans. This framing may impact human tolerance and support of shark conservation, underscoring the need to identify strategies that counteract these negative representations. Social media, given its widespread use, could be an effective platform for shaping public tolerance for sharks and other wildlife species. In this experimental study, we conducted an online pre‐post survey in Spring 2020 to determine how viewing shark‐related YouTube videos impacted tolerance for sharks among residents (n = 335) in the coastal state of North Carolina (NC), USA and neighboring states. The study employed framing theory, which suggests that the ways in which information is presented influence how it is processed and the actions that result from it. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two video treatments where sharks were framed positively or negatively. Each video treatment impacted tolerance for sharks in the direction of their framing: positive framing influenced positive changes in tolerance (70% more positive attitudes toward sharks, a 130% increase in acceptance of sharks and a 46% increase in intended shark conservation behaviors), and negative framing influenced negative changes (25% more negative attitudes toward sharks, a 18% decrease in acceptance of sharks and a 3% decrease in intended shark conservation behaviors). These findings suggest positive messages about sharks on social media promote tolerance of sharks and can be more impactful than negative messages. At least one form of social media, YouTube, appears to be a valuable tool for encouraging tolerance for sharks.
... Although shark and ray ecotourism is not without its challenges (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018), under the right circumstances it can have a net conservation and economic benefit (Gallagher et al., 2015) and may be appropriate for countries with low reconstructed catches and high CoR (e.g. Colombia). ...
Chondrichthyan fishes are among the most threatened vertebrates on the planet because many species have slow life histories that are outpaced by intense fishing. The Western Central Atlantic Ocean, which includes the Greater Caribbean, is a hotspot of chondrichthyan biodiversity and abundance, but has been characterized by extensive shark and ray fisheries and a lack of sufficient data for effective management and conservation. To inform future research and management decisions, we analysed patterns in chondrichthyan extinction risk, reconstructed catches and management engagement in this region. We summarized the extinction risk of 180 sharks, rays and chimaeras, including 66 endemic and 14 near‐endemic species, using contemporary IUCN Red List assessments. Over one‐third (35.6%) were assessed as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered, primarily due to overfishing. Reconstructed catches from 1950 to 2016 peaked in 1992, then declined by 40.2% thereafter. The United States, Venezuela and Mexico were responsible for most catches in the region and hosted the largest proportions of the regional distributions of threatened species, largely due to having extensive coastal habitats in their Exclusive Economic Zones. The quantity and taxonomic resolution of fisheries landings data were poor in much of the region, and national‐level regulations varied widely across jurisdictions. Deepwater fisheries represent an emerging threat, although many deepwater chondrichthyans currently have refuge beyond the depths of most fisheries. Regional collaboration as well as effective and enforceable management informed by more complete fisheries data, particularly from small‐scale fisheries, are required to protect and recover threatened species and ensure sustainable fisheries.
... As a regional leader in shark and ray ecotourism, it boasts the Ormond et al., 2016). Although shark and ray ecotourism is not without its challenges 953 (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018), under the right circumstances it can have a net conservation and 954 economic benefit (Gallagher et al., 2015) and may be appropriate for countries with low 955 reconstructed catches and high CoR (e.g., Colombia). ...
Chondrichthyan fishes are among the most threatened vertebrates on the planet because many species have slow life histories that are outpaced by intense fishing. The Western Central Atlantic Ocean, which includes the greater Caribbean, is a hotspot of chondrichthyan biodiversity and abundance, but is historically characterized by extensive shark and ray fisheries and a lack of sufficient data for effective management and conservation. To inform future research and management decisions, we analyzed patterns in chondrichthyan extinction risk, reconstructed catches, and regulations in this region. We summarized the extinction risk of 180 sharks, rays, and chimaeras using contemporary IUCN Red List assessments and found that over one-third (35.6%) were assessed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered largely due to fishing. Reconstructed catches from 1950 to 2016 reached their peak in 1992, then declined by 40.2% through the end of the series. The United States, Venezuela, and Mexico were responsible for most catches and hosted large proportions of the regional distributions of threatened species; these countries therefore held the greatest responsibility for chondrichthyan management. The abundance and resolution of fisheries landings data were poor in much of the region, and national-level regulations varied widely across jurisdictions. Deepwater fisheries represent an emerging threat, although many deepwater chondrichthyans currently find refuge beyond the depths of most fisheries. Regional collaboration as well as effective and enforceable management informed by more complete fisheries data, particularly from small-scale fisheries, are required to protect and recover threatened species and ensure sustainable fisheries.
... Despite the potential impacts on nonfocal species, most studies examining the effects of wildlife tourism have largely concentrated on focal species, with only 7% of studies examining non-focal or ecosystem-wide effects (Trave et al. 2017). The need for further research to assess impacts of provisioning from wildlife tourism on non-focal species has also been highlighted in recent reviews (Gallagher et al. 2015, Gallagher & Huveneers 2018) and management frameworks (Higginbottom et al. 2003, Meyer et al. 2021. ...
Marine wildlife tourism is increasing in popularity, with operations targeting a wide range of taxa globally. While previous studies have mostly focused on assessing the effects of provisioning from tourism on focal species, non-focal species that unintentionally feed on supplemental food sources have largely been overlooked. This study improves our understanding of the effects of shark-cage-diving tourism on the movements and behaviours of a non-focal pelagic fish. We used acoustic tracking to determine the effects of shark-cage-diving tourism on the residency and space use of 17 yellowtail kingfish Seriola lalandi at the Neptune Islands, South Australia. We revealed that while cage-diving did not affect the overall or weekly residency and space use of kingfish, daily time spent at the islands and location of kingfish was influenced by the presence of operators. Acoustic attractant did not affect kingfish behaviours, but operators using food-based attractants increased the average time spent at the Neptune Islands by ~27% (from 230.6 ± 6.8 to 293.8 ± 5.5 min). Kingfish were also observed closer to operators using food-based attractants (217 ± 4.82 m from vessel) compared to an acoustic attractant (412 ± 29.5 m from vessel). Our findings identify changes in the daily behaviour of kingfish at the Neptune Islands as a result of food-based attractants from shark-cage-diving, which demonstrates that non-focal large pelagic species can be affected by shark-diving tourism. These effects may lead to long-term effects on the physiological condition and energetic responses of these individuals.
... Shark-diving tourism has, in certain contexts, played a key role in demonstrating a new paradigm for viewing sharks as a renewable, socioeconomically valuable, and non-consumptive resource when compared to fishing [26,28,65]. The economic benefits brought by shark diving may provide strong incentives for the implementation of management strategies that seek to maintain healthy populations of sharks [68]. ...
Shark-diving tourism is an emerging industry in the Azores Islands. However, this industry directly competes with fishing, as both exploiting the same highly migratory shark species. This study quantifies the commercial value of the Azorean shark-diving industry based on a survey of dive tourists and local dive operators and the potential of this industry to further generate funds for implementation of direct conservation actions. The economic contribution of the shark-diving industry to the regional economy of the Azores in 2019 was estimated to be just over USD 103,000 per year to be used for management and enforcement of a proposed MPA for sharks around the dive sites. Our analysis suggests that the emerging shark-diving industry in the Azores Islands has potential to grow throughout the Macaronesian archipelago, thereby increasing tax revenues and the number of jobs and income to Azorean local communities, potentially promoting conservation and sustainable use of the shark populations. However, expansion of this industry into a robust contributor to the archipelago’s economy would require a concomitant strengthening of industry regulation, and support by the government, to protect businesses and investments. This could be partially obtained through improving in fisheries management, implementation of a functional MPA and adequate enforcement.
... Management of Shark Bay dolphins suggests that significant progress could be made by working closely with dive operators and managers to refine tourism activities for other areas and species. In addition, such studies emphasize the importance of understanding the complexities of species responses to provisioning at both the individual and population level, which has implications for human safety, and is particularly important for social species (Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018). For shark dive tourism, these group-level responses remain largely unexplored. ...
Shark dive ecotourism is a lucrative industry in many regions around the globe. In some cases, sharks are provisioned using bait, prompting increased research on how baited dives influence shark behavior and yielding mixed results. Effects on patterns of habitat use and movement seemly vary across species and locations. It is unknown, however, whether wide-ranging, marine apex predators respond to provisioning by changing their patterns of grouping or social behavior. We applied a tiered analytical approach (aggregation-gregariousness-social preferences) examining the impact of provisioning on the putative social behavior of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) at a dive tourism location in The Bahamas. Using network inference on three years of acoustic tracking data from 48 sharks, we tested for non-random social structure between non-provisioned and provisioned monitoring sites resulting in 12 distinct networks. Generally considered a solitary nomadic predator, we found evidence of sociality in tiger sharks, which varied spatiotemporally. We documented periods of both random (n = 7 networks) and non-random aggregation (n = 5 networks). Three of five non-random aggregations were at locations unimpacted by provisioning regardless of season, one occurred at an active provisioning site during the dry season and one at the same receivers during the wet season when provision activity is less prevalent. Aggregations lasted longer and occurred more frequently at provisioning sites, where gregariousness was also more variable. While differences in gregariousness among individuals was generally predictive of non-random network structure, individual site preferences, size and sex were not. Within five social preference networks, constructed using generalized affiliation indices, network density was lower at provisioning sites, indicating lower connectivity at these locations. We found no evidence of size assortment on preferences. Our data suggest that sociality may occur naturally within the Tiger Beach area, perhaps due to the unusually high density of individuals there. This study demonstrates the existence of periodic social behavior, but also considerable variation in association between tiger sharks, which we argue may help to mitigate any long-term impacts of provisioning on this population. Finally, we illustrate the utility of combining telemetry and social network approaches for assessing the impact of human disturbance on wildlife behavior.
... Direct feeding, especially of sharks or marine mammals, is the most contentious of marine wildlife tourism activities (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Healy et al., 2020;Newsome & Rodger, 2008), which may lead to illegal activities. For example, Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus are illegally fed and trained to take fish from a human's mouth for the purposes of eliciting monetary donations from international tourists in Cape Town, South Africa (Kock, personal observation). ...
Wildlife tourism uses various stimuli to attract species and facilitate close encounters. Such activities are often referred to as provisioning, however the term is used interchangeably, and sometimes erroneously, with attracting, feeding, luring, and chumming, all of which lack consistent definitions. Here, we review the current use of provisioning-associated terminology in marine bird, teleost (bony fish), marine mammal, marine reptile, ray and shark tourism, within the scientific literature and on tourism operator webpages. We then propose to reclassify provisioning into Feeding, Attracting, and Modifying habitat, providing eight specific terms that reflect: (1) if the stimulus exploits wildlife appetite or search for preferred habitat; (2) the nature of the attractant (consumable or not); (3) the intention of the activity if using consumable attractants (direct, indirect, or incidental feeding) or modified habitat (intentional or repurposed modification); and (4) which species are affected by the activity (target or non-target species). We applied these terms to wildlife tourism around the world to gain better insight into tourism practices across taxa. Clarifying the terminology describing these wildlife interactions ensures they can be accurately described in the scientific literature, which will in turn help resource managers and industry groups to systematically assess these diverse activities.
... Scavenging crows also spread to coastal beaches in Australia when human food was no longer available (Gilby et al., 2021 [this issue]). Many species that are routinely fed during wildlife tours (e.g., sharks (Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018)) have not had access to this supplementary food due to drastically reduced tourism. This appeared to drive a change in the abundance and types of species that were detected at sites in the Bahamas during the lockdown period (Appendix 4, Table A4, StudyID 67). ...
The global lockdown to mitigate COVID-19 pandemic health risks has altered human interactions with nature. Here, we report immediate impacts of changes in human activities on wildlife and environmental threats during the early lockdown months of 2020, based on 877 qualitative reports and 332 quantitative assessments from 89 different studies. Hundreds of reports of unusual species observations from around the world suggest that animals quickly responded to the reductions in human presence. However, negative effects of lockdown on conservation also emerged, as confinement resulted in some park officials being unable to perform conservation, restoration and enforcement tasks, resulting in local increases in illegal activities such as hunting. Overall, there is a complex mixture of positive and negative effects of the pandemic lockdown on nature, all of which have the potential to lead to cascading responses which in turn impact wildlife and nature conservation. While the net effect of the lockdown will need to be assessed over years as data becomes available and persistent effects emerge, immediate responses were detected across the world. Thus initial qualitative and quantitative data arising from this serendipitous global quasi-experimental perturbation highlights the dual role that humans play in threatening and protecting species and ecosystems. Pathways to favorably tilt this delicate balance include reducing impacts and increasing conservation effectiveness.
... reduced fecundity, increased mortality) is mostly unknown. For example, increased anthropogenic disturbance may cause animals to use riskier environments that increase predation risk (Wittmer et al., 2007), or behavioural changes due to human disturbance may reduce the time and energy allocated to important activities such as foraging, resting, or breeding (Barnett et al., 2016;Frid and Dill, 2002;Gallagher and Huveneers, 2018). Further studies are needed to determine how short-term behavioural changes in response to anthropogenic disturbance translate into long-term, biologically significant impacts on individual fitness, performance and community composition. ...
COVID-19 restrictions have led to an unprecedented global hiatus in anthropogenic activities, providing a unique opportunity to assess human impact on biological systems. Here, we describe how a national network of acoustic tracking receivers can be leveraged to assess the effects of human activity on animal movement and space use during such global disruptions. We outline variation in restrictions on human activity across Australian states and describe four mechanisms affecting human interactions with the marine environment: 1) reduction in economy and trade changing shipping traffic; 2) changes in export markets affecting commercial fisheries; 3) alterations in recreational activities; and 4) decline in tourism. We develop a roadmap for the analysis of acoustic tracking data across various scales using Australia's national Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS) Animal Tracking Facility as a case study. We illustrate the benefit of sustained observing systems and monitoring programs by assessing how a 51-day break in white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) cage-diving tourism due to COVID-19 restrictions affected the behaviour and space use of two resident species. This cessation of tourism activities represents the longest break since cage-diving vessels started day trips in this area in 2007. Long-term monitoring of the local environment reveals that the activity space of yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) was reduced when cage-diving boats were absent compared to periods following standard tourism operations. However, white shark residency and movements were not affected. Our roadmap is globally applicable and will assist researchers in designing studies to assess how anthropogenic activities can impact animal movement and distributions during regional, short-term through to major, unexpected disruptions like the COVID-19 pandemic.
... [4][5][6] White sharks also provide fiscal benefits to the South African economy. 8 For example, the Gansbaai shark cagediving industry raised USD4.4 million in 2003 and brings an estimated USD2 million into False Bay annually, excluding multiplier effects (e.g. hospitality industry). ...
A decline in sightings of a top predator, the white shark (Carcharadon carcharias), in South Africa was quantified in order to identify possible causes for this decline. White shark sightings data across 8 years (2011–2018), recorded from a cage-diving vessel in Gansbaai are reported. A significant decline in mean total white shark sightings per boat trip (>6 in 2011 to <1 in 2018) and a 69% reduction in the probability of a sighting were found. Correlating with this decline in sightings is a rise in sightings of sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus) in False Bay and copper sharks (Carcharhinus brachyurus) in Gansbaai, as well as substantial ecosystem changes. The effects of lethal conservation measures such as the use of shark nets in KwaZulu-Natal; the direct and indirect effects of overfishing including a reduction in smoothhound (Mustelus mustelus) and soupfin (Galeorhinus galeus) sharks; and novel predation on white sharks are discussed as possible causative factors for this decline in white shark sightings.
... Barnett et al., 2016;Huveneers et al., 2018). This information is, however, crucial to understand the effects of wildlife tourism (Brown, Gillooly, Allen, Savage, & West, 2004;Brunnschweiler et al., 2018;Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Wilson et al., 2006). A study on whitetip reef sharks, Triaenodon obesus, at Osprey Reef (Great Barrier Reef, Australia) demonstrated that sharks subjected to regular feeding events showed elevated activity levels during the day when they would normally rest, resulting in a ca. ...
Tourism-related feeding of wildlife can result in detrimental, human-induced changes to the spatial distribution, social behaviour and health of target species. The feeding of sharks as part of shark-viewing activities has become increasingly popular in recent years to ensure reliable and consistent encounters. A common limitation in determining how feeding affects individuals or populations is the lack of baseline data prior to the establishment of a feeding site. Here, we documented the residency, spatial distribution, activity patterns and daily metabolic rates of juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris, prior to initiating daily feeding for 27 days to assess the effect of short-term feeding. We implanted acoustic transmitters equipped with accelerometers to record movement and activity in six lemon sharks. Sharks progressively anticipated the feeding events during the 27 days of daily feeding, as shown by a change in activity and increased time spent near the feeding site 1 h prior to feeding events. Shark behaviour did not fully return to baseline levels within the documented 90 days of postfeeding recovery. However, neither spatial distribution outside the refuge nor mean daily activity was affected by feeding. Sharks decreased their metabolic rates over the course of the study, but this was probably due to falling water temperature rather than the effect of feeding. Overall, our study shows that anticipatory behaviour in juvenile lemon sharks can occur within 11 days of daily feeding events, but behavioural changes seem confined to fine-scale movement patterns and may not affect these sharks' daily energy needs. The ability to assess the effects of daily feeding at a site where tourism has not been occurring previously provides new information for operators and managers of wildlife tourism to account for and minimize potentially detrimental effects on the target species.
... Human disturbances, including wildlife tourism, have a history of recorded impacts on species' behaviour, activity, and physiology (reviewed in Brena et al., 2015;Patroni et al., 2018;Trave et al., 2017). Work highlighting the effects of repetitive disruptions on individuals, and subsequently populations, advocates for research to further the understanding of how nutritional condition is impacted by tourism (Gallagher & Huveneers, 2018;Pirotta et al., 2018). The previous study in question used muscle lipids and fatty acids (FAs) to indicate a lack of detectable change in white shark Carcharodon carcharias L. 1758 diet and nutritional condition after interactions with the cagediving industry (Meyer et al., 2019b). ...
Following a lack of detected change in white shark Carcharodon carcharias L. 1758 diet and nutritional condition attributed to the interaction with the cage‐diving industry, Lusseau and Derous (Tourism Management, 2019, 75, 547–549) cautioned the use of muscle lipids and fatty acids in this context, advocating for other biomarkers. This study provides additional evidence from peer‐reviewed literature to contend the usefulness of elasmobranch muscle fatty acid profiles to detail diet and habitat use. It also presents findings from a controlled experiment on captive Port Jackson sharks Heterodontus portusjacksoni (Meyer 1793) whereby long‐term (daily for 33 days) 3 min exhaustive chase exercise changed muscle lipid class profiles, supporting its use to infer nutritional condition after activities such as interactions with wildlife tourism operators. Conversely, the unaltered muscle fatty acid and lipid content suggests their use in trophic ecology is not confounded by activities such as interacting with tourism operators, remaining useful biomarkers to investigate diet and habitat use.
... Based on the long residency periods of some sharks 15 and the major shift in depth use and water temperature leading to an increase in the expected metabolic rate presented here, it is clear that provisioning alters the behaviour of the whale sharks frequently visiting Oslob. Provisioning of elasmobranchs continues to be a debated topic, with the general understanding that a lack of baseline data on the biology, ecology, and physiology of these species complicates the interpretation of findings from provisioning sites 6,64,65 . However, indication that such activities might have detrimental effects to the physiology and ecology of endangered species should prompt management to follow the precautionary principle. ...
Whale shark (Rhincodon typus) tourism is increasingly popular at predictable aggregations around the world, but only a few use provisioning to ensure close interactions. Understanding the effects of provisioning on the behaviour of this endangered species is critical to manage this growing industry. We recorded the diving behaviour and habitat use of juvenile whale sharks (n = 4) for a mean of 49.5 provisioned and 33.8 non-provisioned days using temperature-depth-recorders. We found that time spent at the surface (< 2 m) between 6 am and 1 pm increased ~ sixfold, while timing of deep dives shifted from 4-10 am to 10 am-2 pm, i.e. near or at the end of the provisioning activities. The shift might be related to a need to thermoregulate following a prolonged period of time in warmer water. These changes could have fitness implications for individuals frequently visiting the provisioning site. Based on recorded amount of time spent in warm waters and published Q 10 values for ectotherms, we estimate a 7.2 ± 3.7% (range 1.3-17.8%) higher metabolic rate when sharks frequent the provisioning site. The observed behavioural, habitat use, and potential fitness shifts should be considered when developing guidelines for sustainable tourism, particularly in light of new provisioning sites developing elsewhere.
... However, in Mexico there is no formal evaluation that explores how to find solutions to the management challenges that exist mainly due to the contrasting interests of the actors involved in the WSOA. For example, academics, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and managers have expressed concerns on the wellbeing of the sharks, disruption of ecological interactions among species, impacts to shark fitness and bioenergetics through the use of baits (also expressed and explored elsewhere, see Ref. [39]). Managers at the RBIG, specifically have concerns on their lack of personnel for surveillance, lack of financial resources, and compliance with rules by tourist operators and tourists (Results from the WSOA Workshop, February 01, 2018). ...
... Provisioning of food to attract animals may affect behaviour, diet, animal health and condition and reproductive success [95,98,184,[252][253][254][255][256][257]. As a consequence of the increasing evidence of the impact of tourism activities on wildlife, ethical concerns have been raised regarding these activities [94], and codes of conduct are being developed for the different activities, areas, and species involved [75, 258,259]. Moreover, it has been documented that uncontrolled ecotourism activity may indeed impair the expected positive consequences of the reduction in extractive uses [19]. ...
Marine megafauna has always elicited contrasting feelings. In the past, large marine animals were often depicted as fantastic mythological creatures and dangerous monsters, while also arousing human curiosity. Marine megafauna has been a valuable resource to exploit, leading to the collapse of populations and local extinctions. In addition, some species have been perceived as competitors of fishers for marine resources and were often actively culled. Since the 1970s, there has been a change in the perception and use of megafauna. The growth of marine tourism, increasingly oriented towards the observation of wildlife, has driven a shift from extractive to non-extractive use, supporting the conservation of at least some species of marine megafauna. In this paper, we review and compare the changes in the perception and use of three megafaunal groups, cetaceans, elasmobranchs and groupers, with a special focus on European cultures. We highlight the main drivers and the timing of these changes, compare different taxonomic groups and species, and highlight the implications for management and conservation. One of the main drivers of the shift in perception, shared by all the three groups of megafauna, has been a general increase in curiosity towards wildlife, stimulated inter alia by documentaries (from the early 1970s onwards), and also promoted by easy access to scuba diving. At the same time, environmental campaigns have been developed to raise public awareness regarding marine wildlife, especially cetaceans, a process greatly facilitated by the rise of Internet and the World Wide Web. Currently, all the three groups (cetaceans, elasmobranchs and groupers) may represent valuable resources for ecotourism. Strikingly, the economic value of live specimens may exceed their value for human consumption. A further change in perception involving all the three groups is related to a growing understanding and appreciation of their key ecological role. The shift from extractive to non-extractive use has the potential for promoting species conservation and local economic growth. However, the change in use may not benefit the original stakeholders (e.g. fishers or whalers) and there may therefore be a case for providing compensation for disadvantaged stakeholders. Moreover, it is increasingly clear that even non-extractive use may have a negative impact on marine megafauna, therefore regulations are needed.
... Approximately 40% of all shark sighting tourism [6] are using provision as a method to interact with sharks. The controversy for shark provisioning has been existed since the practice were introduced in 1980-1990s, most notably due to its animal welfare critics, fitness and bioenergetics factors, and shark watcher safety [7]. Despite its potential bite risks [8] during shark diving or watching, behavior shifting on a specific reefshark -e.g. ...
As part of conservation means, ecotourism on shark watching activities has been popular for the last 10 – 25 years. Achieving rank fourth in the shark tourism world, shark watching tourism in Indonesia begins to play as an economically important for gross national products (GDPs). Morotai, as one of the prominent shark diving and shark research site in Indonesia is became popular in recent years. However, the precise number of blacktip reef shark living in Morotai’s most famous dive site, blacktip point is unknown. The knowledge of shark individual marking and their number is important for developing ecological assessment, shark diving carrying capacity, and shark behavior observation. DOV (Diver Operated Video) is employed to visually identify the blacktip reef shark’s fin marking, its patterns and its changes over time. Analysis of hundreds of photographs and video of the Carcharhinus melanopterus during SCUBA diving – from February 2015 to March 2019 – reveals the precise number of these blacktip reef shark living in the proximity of blacktip point area. Study also shows that the photo identification shark fin’s natural marking can be used effectively to recognize unique individual of blacktip reef shark.
There is growing evidence of the important role learning plays in shark foraging, but
few studies have examined the relationship between learning and foraging behavior in free-living
settings. We addressed this knowledge gap by experimentally contrasting responses of blacktip
reef Carcharhinus melanopterus and sicklefin lemon Negaprion acutidens sharks to an olfactoryonly
feeding stimulus—baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS)—that was either spatially
randomized (as a control) or offered repeatedly at the same location in the lagoon of Tetiaroa,
French Polynesia. Relative to their response to the randomized BRUVS, blacktip reef sharks appeared to sensitize to the repeated treatment, exhibiting increasing relative abundance upon introduction of the cue (maximum number of individuals of a species observed on any frame of a video [MaxN] at deployment) and decreasing arrival times as the experiment progressed. By contrast, sicklefin lemon shark responses were either consistent across control and treatment BRUVS over time or suggested habituation (as evidenced by declining MaxN in response to the spatially repeated exposure). Accordingly, our findings advance our understanding of shark cognition by highlighting that sensitized learning responses to stable feeding cues can develop even when the olfactory attractant is not accompanied by a reward, while also indicating that shark responses to these cues can be species-specific. They also suggest that, for at least some shark species, olfactory cues alone could lead to learned responses that confound non-invasive efforts to monitor shark populations and communities (e.g. with BRUVS) and drive spatial behavior with the potential to affect both ecotourism and negative human-shark interactions.
There is growing evidence of the important role learning plays in shark foraging, but few studies have examined the relationship between learning and foraging behavior in free-living settings. We addressed this knowledge gap by experimentally contrasting responses of blacktip reef Carcharhinus melanopterus and sicklefin lemon Negaprion acutidens sharks to an olfactory-only feeding stimulus—baited remote underwater video stations (BRUVS)—that was either spatially randomized (as a control) or offered repeatedly at the same location in the lagoon of Tetiaroa, French Polynesia. Relative to their response to the randomized BRUVS, blacktip reef sharks appeared to sensitize to the repeated treatment, exhibiting increasing relative abundance upon introduction of the cue (maximum number of individuals of a species observed on any frame of a video [MaxN] at deployment) and decreasing arrival times as the experiment progressed. By contrast, sicklefin lemon shark responses were either consistent across control and treatment BRUVS over time or suggested habituation (as evidenced by declining MaxN in response to the spatially repeated exposure). Accordingly, our findings advance our understanding of shark cognition by highlighting that sensitized learning responses to stable feeding cues can develop even when the olfactory attractant is not accompanied by a reward, while also indicating that shark responses to these cues can be species-specific. They also suggest that, for at least some shark species, olfactory cues alone could lead to learned responses that confound non-invasive efforts to monitor shark populations and communities (e.g. with BRUVS) and drive spatial behavior with the potential to affect both ecotourism and negative human-shark interactions.
Shark diving tourism is an industry potentially contributing to shark conservation while supporting economies worldwide. Managing experiences in shark diving tourism is essential to guarantee the sustainability of this industry and the safety of people and sharks. In this context, investigations of what constitutes positive and negative shark diving experiences are necessary to steer management. This qualitative study assessed the perspectives of tourists and professionals (N = 55) concerning positive and negative experiences characterising shark diving tourism. The study focused on Southern Africa, including four shark diving locations in South Africa and Mozambique. The thematic analysis of participants’ responses to a semistructured interview revealed that positive experiences in shark diving tourism include responsible dive operations, edifying experiences, and quality dive sites, while negative experiences include declining natural features and careless behaviour from stakeholders. Taking into account the limitations of this study, the results highlight the importance of ethically sound operational management in shark diving, as well as education, to steer the growth of shark diving tourism as a sustainable industry. Additionally, the results offer guidelines for ensuring positive experiences in shark diving tourism that can support shark conservation while counteracting negative public opinions of sharks.
Dada a elevada diversidade nas estratégias de história de vida, os elasmobrânquios (tubarões e raias) tornam-se interessantes modelos para o estudo de relações entre a fisiologia e interações ecológicas no ambiente marinho. Embora os esforços para a conservação dos elasmobrânquios, que é atualmente o segundo grupo de vertebrados mais ameaçado do planeta, tenha estimulado um aumento no número de estudos sobre os padrões ecológicos e impactos antrópicos, pouco ainda se sabe sobre sua fisiologia. Assim, nesta tese de doutorado foram investigadas as variações fisiológicas sazonais e espaciais associadas ao estágio de vida e comportamento de tubarões de diferentes histórias de vida, utilizando múltiplas ferramentas não-letais para fornecer uma melhor compreensão dos padrões energéticos e reprodutivos, além de uma base fisiológica que ajude a prever os efeitos de distúrbios ambientais nos tubarões. O capítulo 1 aborda as variações inter- e intraespecíficas na ecologia nutricional de tubarões de diferentes estratégias de história de vida em um sistema insular oceânico protegido, o Arquipélago de Fernando de Noronha. Foram abordados também as variações nos padrões de dieta e condição nutricional e metabólica relacionados à reprodução de fêmeas de tubarões-tigre Galeocerdo cuvier (capítulo 2) e machos de tubarões-lixa Ginglymostoma cirratum e tubarões-galha-preta Carcharhinus limbatus (capítulo 3). Os capítulos 4, 5 e 6 abordam os efeitos da vida urbana na condição nutricional e padrões alimentares de tubarões com diferentes estilos de vida, o tubarão-lixa, o tubarão-galha-preta e o tubarão-tigre, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que a influência da urbanização na qualidade da dieta dos tubarões parece ser mais pronunciada em espécies sedentárias, como o tubarão-lixa, quando comparado com espécies mais ativas. Por fim, o capítulo 7 trouxe uma abordagem inédita na pesquisa de tubarões, combinando múltiplos marcadores fisiológicos com informações obtidas através de ultrassonografia e da telemetria acústica passiva para entender relações entre os aspectos fisiológicos e comportamentais de tubarões-tigre expostos ao turismo de alimentação. Os resultados demonstraram que o estágio de vida, a regulação endócrina e a condição nutricional influenciam e/ou são influenciadas pelo tempo que os tubarões passam interagindo com o turismo de alimentação. Em conjunto, os resultados mostraram que os biomarcadores nutricionais, reprodutivos e metabólicos utilizados nesta tese fornecem uma poderosa ferramenta para descrever padrões ecológicos complexos dos tubarões, especialmente quando combinados com outras tecnologias para rastreamento da movimentação e identificação do estágio reprodutivo dos tubarões.
El objetivo general del Programa de Acción para la Conservación de la Especie Tiburón Blanco (PACE) consiste en establecer una estrategia integral de investigación, protección y conservación del Tiburón Blanco en aguas mexicanas, que permita incrementar el conocimiento de la especie, robustecer las medidas de manejo para su aprovechamiento
no extractivo sustentable y prevenir y mitigar las posibles amenazas para la especie y su hábitat.
Wildlife tourism (WT) is an emerging sector of tourism, majorly meant to view and/or encounter wildlife in the wild, captive, and semi-captive settings. Because of the new emerging economies, there is an increased demand for wildlife destinations in both, developing and developed nations. However, a comprehensive study is lacking in WT. In this context, the present study seeks to bring together and discuss the key findings on WT from the present literature and propose new approaches to research using co-citation, co-authorship, and co-occurrence analyses. Further, the study also considers research on WT conducted so far like attitudes, bird-watching, conservation, economics, hunting, mammals, management, marine monitoring, negative impacts, positive impacts, captive wildlife, and guidelines. A data set is created that includes authors, article titles, citations, countries, co-authorship, institutions, publication years and sources, keywords, and abstracts by collecting the bibliographies from Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) indexed journals with keywords search “Wild Life, Jungle and Tourism.” The study collected 1,519 and used 1,259published articles from 1990 to 2020, and analyzed employing VOS viewer software, which has enabled us to understand the relationship and structure of the literature.
Anthropogenic activities are dramatically changing marine ecosystems. Wildlife tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism industry and has the potential to modify the natural environment and behaviour of the species it targets. Here, we used a novel method to assess the effects of wildlife tourism on the activity of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias). High frequency three-axis acceleration loggers were deployed on ten white sharks for a total of ~9 days. A combination of multivariate and univariate analysis revealed that the increased number of strong accelerations and vertical movements when sharks are interacting with cage-diving operators result in an overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA) ~61% higher compared with other times when sharks are present in the area where cage-diving occurs. Since ODBA is considered a proxy of metabolic rate, interacting with cage-divers is probably more costly than are normal behaviours of white sharks at the Neptune Islands. However, the overall impact of cage-diving might be small if interactions with individual sharks are infrequent. This study suggests wildlife tourism changes the instantaneous activity levels of white sharks, and calls for an understanding of the frequency of shark-tourism interactions to appreciate the net impact of ecotourism on this species’ fitness.
Predators play a crucial role in the structure and function of ecosystems. However, the magnitude of this role is often unclear, particularly for large marine predators, as predation rates are difficult to measure directly. If relevant biotic and abiotic parameters can be obtained, then bioenergetics modelling offers an alternative approach to estimating predation rates, and can provide new insights into ecological processes. We integrate demographic and ecological data for a marine apex predator, the broadnose sevengill shark Notorynchus cepedianus, with energetics data from the literature, to construct a bioenergetics model to quantify predation rates on key fisheries species in Norfolk Bay, Australia. We account for the uncertainty in model parameters by incorporating parameter confidence through Monte Carlo simulations and running alternative variants of the model. Model and parameter variants provide alternative estimates of predation rates. Our simplest model estimates that ca. 1130 ± 137 N. cepedianus individuals consume 11,379 (95% CI: 11,111–11,648) gummy sharks Mustelus antarcticus (~21 tonnes) over a 36-week period in Norfolk Bay, which represents a considerable contribution to total predation mortality on this key fishery species. This study demonstrates how the integration of ecology and fisheries science can provide information for ecosystem and fisheries management.
A radio-acoustic positioning system was used to assess the effects of shark cage-diving operators (SCDO) on the fine-scale movements of a non-focal species, the smooth stingray Bathytoshia brevicaudata. The results revealed that the time spent in the array was individually variable, but generally increased when SCDO were present and that the presence of SCDO may have the capacity to elicit changes in the space use of B. brevicaudata. These results indicate that the effects of marine wildlife tourism may extend beyond the focal species of interest.
Shark-diving is part of a rapidly growing industry focused on marine wildlife tourism. Our study aimed to provide an estimate of the economic value of shark-diving tourism across Australia by comprehensively surveying the whale shark (Rhincodon typus), white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), grey nurse shark (Carcharias taurus), and reef shark (mostly Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos and Triaenodon obesus) diving industries using a standardised approach. A socio-economic survey targeted tourist divers between March 2013 and June 2014 and collected information on expenditures related to diving, accommodation, transport, living costs, and other related activities during divers’ trips. A total of 711 tourist surveys were completed across the four industries, with the total annual direct expenditure by shark divers in Australia estimated conservatively at 8.1 and 0.9 M in airfares and other activities while in Australia. These additional revenues show that the economic value of this type of tourism do not flow solely to the industry, but are also spread across the region where it is hosted. This highlights the need to ensure a sustainable dive-tourism industry through adequate management of both shark-diver interactions and biological management of the species on which it is based. Our study also provides standardised estimates which allow for future comparison of the scale of other wildlife tourism industries (not limited to sharks) within or among countries.
Due to rapid declines of shark populations across many species and regions of the world, the need for large-scale conservation measures has become widely recognized. Some coastal states have opted to implement ‘Shark Sanctuaries’, which prohibit commercial shark fishing and the export of shark products across large areas, typically their entire Exclusive Economic Zones. Although shark sanctuaries cover almost as much area globally as marine protected areas (MPAs), their success has yet to be evaluated. Here, key features and regulatory details for eleven shark sanctuaries (covering 3% of global ocean area) are summarized, highlighting their commonalities and differences. Catch data are then used to shed light on the impact current shark sanctuaries could have on shark catch, foreign fleets, trade and abundance. Based on this comparative analysis, recommendations are made to implement program evaluation measures within existing and future shark sanctuaries that would explicitly outline goals and measures of success or failure. In summary, although shark sanctuaries may have the intended effect of reducing shark mortality, there appears a need to address bycatch within shark sanctuary regulations, and to collect baseline data that can be used to monitor sanctuary effectiveness.
Despite rapid growth in the marine tourism sector, the impacts of recreation on the marine environment are generally not well understood. Most existing studies of marine recreation ecology have focused on behavioural changes resulting from direct interactions between humans and wildlife including provisioning. However, non-consumptive, non-provisioning human impacts may also result in persistent behavioural impacts to shark populations. In this study, we examined differences in residency, abundance, and behaviour of reef sharks at Palmyra Atoll in response to long-term SCUBA diving activity, using a combination of survey techniques including baited remote underwater video systems and multi-year passive acoustic monitoring. In most locations with recreational diving operations, some level of human impact is pervasive, but on Palmyra, extractive fishing is prohibited, and scientific diving activities are concentrated on just a few sites that house long-term monitoring projects. These sites experience relatively intensive diving, while the majority of the island is entirely undived. Evidence from elsewhere has shown that sharks behaviourally respond to people in the water over short time scales, but our results indicate that this response may not persist. We did not detect differences in reef shark abundance or behaviour between heavily dived and undived locations, nor were there differences in shark residency patterns at dived and undived sites in a year with substantial diving activity and a year without any diving. Our results suggest that humans can interact with reef sharks without persistent behavioural impacts, and that well-regulated shark diving tourism can be accomplished without undermining conservation goals.
White shark (Carcharodon carcharias) cage-diving tourism is a controversial activity that provokes emotional and often opposing points of view. With increasing demand for shark tourism since the 1990s, the un- derlying determinants driving this growth in participation remain unclear. This paper adopts a qualitative approach to investigate beliefs underlying tourists’ choice to observe white sharks while cage-diving at the Neptune Islands, South Australia. Elicitation surveys gathered responses from a sample (n = 86) of cage-diving participants. Content analysis of the responses revealed the decision to cage-dive with white sharks is driven by factors including education and the perceived naturalness of the experience. The findings of this study indicate an opportunity for cage-dive operators to pro- vide in situ education and interpretation with potential for increased tourist satisfaction and shark conservation outcomes.
While shark-based tourism is a rapidly growing global industry, there is ongoing controversy about the effects of provisioning on the target species. This study investigated the effect of feeding on whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) at a provisioning site in Oslob, Cebu, in terms of arrival time, avoidance and feeding behaviour using photo-identification and focal follows. Additionally, compliance to the code of conduct in place was monitored to assess tourism pressure on the whale sharks. Newly identified sharks gradually arrived earlier to the provisioning site after their initial sighting, indicating that the animals learn to associate the site with food rewards. Whale sharks with a long resighting history showed anticipatory behaviour and were recorded at the site on average 5 min after the arrival of feeder boats. Results from a generalised linear mixed model indicated that animals with a longer resighting history were less likely to show avoidance behaviour to touches or boat contact. Similarly, sequential data on feeding behaviour was modelled using a generalised estimating equations approach, which suggested that experienced whale sharks were more likely to display vertical feeding behaviour. It was proposed that the continuous source of food provides a strong incentive for the modification of behaviours, i.e., learning, through conditioning. Whale sharks are large opportunistic filter feeders in a mainly oligotrophic environment, where the ability to use novel food sources by modifying their behaviour could be of great advantage. Non-compliance to the code of conduct in terms of minimum distance to the shark (2 m) increased from 79% in 2012 to 97% in 2014, suggesting a high tourism pressure on the whale sharks in Oslob. The long-term effects of the observed behavioural modifications along with the high tourism pressure remain unknown. However, management plans are traditionally based on the precautionary principle, which aims to take preventive actions even if data on cause and effect are still inconclusive. Hence, an improved enforcement of the code of conduct coupled with a reduction in the conditioning of the whale sharks through provisioning were proposed to minimise the impacts on whale sharks in Oslob.
The use of olfactory stimuli and the provision of food are a common practice to prompt artificial aggregations of emblematic wild species and ensure the economic viability of the wildlife-watching industry. Several elasmobranch species have been targeted by such operations in a variety of locations for over four decades. A recent review succinctly addressed the potential effects of shark diving tourism, including shark provisioning, on shark individual behavior and ecology, but the general paucity of data on the ecology of elasmobranchs precluded general statements. By using a functional framework, we reviewed the findings of the 22 available studies that investigated the behavioral, physiological, and ecological response of 14 shark and three ray species targeted by artificial provisioning. Focusing on the underlying processes that rule the response of targeted elasmobranch species, we report further effects acting beyond the individual-scale and their cross-scale relationships. We suggest that the most commonly described alterations of individual movement patterns have cascading effects through the group and community-scale, ultimately resulting in altered health condition and individual behavior toward humans. We conclude by stressing the potential for provisioning activities to support the investigation of complex ecological and behavioral processes in elasmobranchs.
Whale shark tourism is a growing niche market within the marine wildlife tourism
sector. Increased visitation and declining whale shark numbers at some tourism sites
worldwide raise questions over the long-term sustainability of this industry. This
study examines the social and potential biological impacts of “swim-with” whale
shark tourism on Isla Holbox, Mexico. A total of 397 tour participants completed a
self-administered questionnaire regarding perceived crowding, reported encounters
and encounter norms, as well as self-reported physical contact rates with whale
sharks. Relatively high physical contact rates suggest that tourism may cause
some harm to sharks. Users who encountered more swimmers than their norm felt
significantly more crowded and were more likely to perceive the industry as having a
negative impact on the sharks and surrounding environment. However, the results
suggest that the number of boats in the whale shark viewing area may have a greater
influence on crowding than number of swimmers. Management interventions to
improve the sustainability of the industry include improved interpretation and guide
intervention, achieving higher compliance with existing guidelines, and limiting the
number of boats allowed in the whale shark viewing area.
There is no conclusive evidence of any nonhuman animal using the sun as part of its predation strategy. Here, we show that the world’s largest predatory fish—the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias)—exploits the sun when approaching baits by positioning the sun directly behind them. On sunny days, sharks reversed their direction of approach along an east-west axis from morning to afternoon but had uniformly distributed approach directions during overcast conditions. These results show that white sharks have sufficient behavioral flexibility to exploit fluctuating environmental features when predating. This sun-tracking predation strategy has a number of potential functional roles, including improvement of prey detection, avoidance of retinal overstimulation, and predator concealment.
White sharks Carcharodon carcharias aggregate at specific times of the year at localities along the South African coast. At Mossel Bay, on the southern Cape coast, four sites were sampled (Seal Island, Hartenbos, Kleinbrak and Grootbrak) to investigate spatial and seasonal patterns in relative abundance and life-history composition. These are known aggregation sites within the bay, each having particular physical and/or biological characteristics. Sightings-per-unit-effort data were collected from February to December 2008–2010. Sighting rates demonstrated significant seasonal and interannual variation at the four sites. The highest mean sighting rate was recorded at Seal Island and the lowest at Hartenbos, which might be a consequence of differences in prey availability. The greatest interannual variability was recorded at Kleinbrak, followed by Seal Island, with little variability at Grootbrak and Hartenbos. White sharks appeared to concentrate at Grootbrak and Kleinbrak in summer and autumn, at Seal Island in winter, and at Hartenbos and Seal Island in spring. All life-history stages were present year-round but their occurrence was influenced significantly by season (p < 0.05), although not site. Few adults (325–424 cm total length) were seen, with the highest frequency being in spring, whereas that of young-of-the-year (≤174 cm) was in autumn. Juveniles (175–324 cm) constituted 78% of the animals sighted, indicating that Mossel Bay is an important aggregation site for this life-history stage.
This study investigated memory retention capabilities of juvenile gray bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium
griseum) using two-alternative forced-choice experiments. The sharks had previously been trained in a range of visual discrimination tasks, such as distinguishing between squares, triangles and lines, and their corresponding optical illusions (i.e., the Kanizsa figures or Mu¨ller–Lyer illusions), and in the present study, we tested them for memory retention. Despite the absence of reinforcement, sharks remembered the learned information for a period of up to 50 weeks, after which testing was terminated. In fish, as in other vertebrates, memory windows vary in duration depending on species and task; while it may seem beneficial to retain some information for a long time or even indefinitely, other information may be forgotten more easily to retain flexibility and save energy. The results of this study indicate that sharks are capable of long-term memory within the framework of selected cognitive skills. These could aid sharks in activities such as food retrieval, predator avoidance, mate choice or habitat selection and therefore be worth being remembered for extended periods of time. As in other cognitive tasks, intraspecific differences reflected the behavioral breadth of the species.
Amid declining shark populations because of overfishing, a burgeoning shark watching industry, already well established in some locations, generates benefits from shark protection. We compile reported economic benefits at shark watching locations and use a meta-analytical approach to estimate benefits at sites without available data. Results suggest that, globally, c. 590,000 shark watchers expend > USD 314 million per year, directly supporting 10,000 jobs. By comparison, the landed value of global shark fisheries is currently c. USD 630 million and has been in decline for most of the past decade. Based on current observed trends, numbers of shark watchers could more than double within the next 20 years, generating > USD 780 million in tourist expenditures around the world. This supports optimistic projections at new sites, including those in an increasing number of shark sanctuaries established primarily for shark conservation and enacted in recognition of the ecological and economic importance of living sharks.
The attraction or provisioning of sharks for the purpose of tourism is a lucrative and popular industry that remains controversial regarding its possible risks to target species and impacts on local ecosystems. The long-term impacts of such activities on the behaviour and movement patterns of sharks have typically been difficult to establish as most studies investigate contemporary behaviour concurrent with existing operations and thus have no comparative base from which to compare effects. We compared patterns of residency and behaviour of acoustic-tagged white sharks at the Neptune Islands in South Australia between periods before and after an abrupt and sustained doubling of cage-diving effort that occurred in 2007. The number of sharks reported by cage-dive operators significantly increased after 2007. Comparisons also revealed there were significant increases in sharks’ periods of residency, the periods spent within areas where shark cage-diving operations occur and changes in sharks’ diel pattern of habitat use. Changes were site-specific with no significant differences in shark behaviour revealed over the same period at an island group 12 km from regular shark cage-dive sites. The results suggest that cage-diving operations can lead to long-term changes in the site-specific behaviour of a highly vagile shark species which may need to be considered in the context of their conservation and in managing the impacts of the industry.
Arguments for conservation of sharks based on their role in the maintenance of healthy marine ecosystems have failed to halt the worldwide decline in populations. Instead, the value of sharks as a fishery commodity has severely reduced the abundance of these animals. Conservation may be assisted by the development of an alternative approach that emphasizes the economic value of sharks as a non-harvested resource. Our study quantifies the value of a tourism industry based on shark diving. Using data collected from surveys, as well as government statistics, we show that shark diving is a major contributor to the economy of Palau, generating US1.2 million in salaries to the local community, and generated US10 800, a fraction of the worth of these animals as a non-consumptive resource. Fishers earn more selling fish for consumption by shark divers than they would gain by catching sharks. Shark diving provides an attractive economic alternative to shark fishing, with distribution of revenues benefiting several sectors of the economy, stimulating the development and generating high revenues to the government, while ensuring the ecological sustainability of shark populations.
Basic understanding of the fundamental principles and mechanisms involved in learning is lacking for elasmobranch fishes. Our aim in this study was to experimentally investigate the learning and memory capacity of juvenile Port Jackson sharks, Heterodontus portusjacksoni. Sharks (N = 30) were conditioned over a 19-day period to associate an underwater LED light or stream of air-bubbles [conditioned stimulus (CS)] with a food reward [unconditioned stimulus (US)], using three procedures (delay, trace and control). During experiments, the CS signalled at a random time between 180 and 300 s for 30 s (six times per day). For the delay the US overlapped in time with the CS, for the trace the US delivered 10 s after the CS and for our control the US was delivered at random time between 180 and 300 s after the CS. H. portusjacksoni sharks trained in all procedures improved consistently in their time to obtain food, indicative of Pavlovian learning. Importantly, the number of sharks in the feeding area 5 s prior to CS onset did not change over time for any procedures. However, significantly more sharks were present 5 s after CS onset for delay for both air-bubble and light CS. Sharks trained in the delay and trace procedures using air-bubbles as the CS also displayed significantly more anticipatory behaviours, such as turning towards the CS and biting. Sharks trained with the light CS did not exhibit such behaviours; however, trace procedural sharks did show a significant improvement in moving towards the CS at its onset. At 20 and 40 days after the end of the conditioning experiments, some sharks were presented the CS without reward. Two sharks trained in the delay procedure using air-bubbles as the CS exhibited biting behaviours: one at 20 and the other at 40 days. This study demonstrates that H. portusjacksoni have the capacity to learn a classical conditioning procedure relatively quickly (30 trials during 5 days) and associate two time-separated events and retention of learnt associations for at least 24 h and possibly up to 40 days.
Ecotourism operations which provide food to large predators have the potential to negatively affect their target species, by conditioning them to associate humans with food, or by generally altering their behavioural patterns, This latter effect could have potentially detrimental consequences for the ecosystem inhabited by the predator, because any behavioural changes could affect the species with which they interact. We present the results of an experimental study conducted from June to October 2004, which examined the effects of provisioning ecotourism on the behaviour of white sharks around a seal colony on a small island in South Africa. Although ecotourism activity had an effect on the behaviour of some sharks, this was relatively minor, and the majority of sharks showed little interest in the food rewards on offer. It is unlikely that conditioning would occur from the amount of ecotourism activity tested, because even those sharks identified supplying most of the data presented here (which may be more strongly predisposed towards conditioning, as their persistence around the boat is what allowed them to be identified) showed. a nearly ubiquitous trend of decreasing response with time. Furthermore, even the sharks frequently acquiring food rewards typically stopped responding after several interactions. Consequently, moderate levels of ecotourism probably have only a minor impact on the behaviour of white sharks, and are therefore unlikely to create behavioural effects at the ecosystem level.
Wildlife tourism has become increasingly popular and is one of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism industry. A radio-acoustic positioning system was deployed to monitor the fine-scale movements of 21 white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) and investigate the effects of shark cage-diving activities on their swimming behaviour and space use. This study contributes towards improving our understanding of the complex relationship between wildlife tourism and its effects on sharks, and assesses how tourism targeting sharks affects behaviour at a finer spatial scale than previously investigated. Our study demonstrated that shark cage-diving operators (SCDO) influenced the fine-scale three-dimensional spatial distribution and the rate of movement of white sharks at the Neptune Islands. White sharks stayed more than 30 m away from the SCDO on 21 % of the days detected, but spent a significant amount of time in close proximity to the SCDO on the remaining days. Individual variation was detected, with some sharks behaviourally responding to SCDO more than others. The degree of variation between individual sharks and the different levels of interaction (e.g. presence, proximity to SCDO, and consumption of tethered bait) highlights the complexity of the relationships between SCDO and the effects on sharks. To improve our understanding of these relationships, future monitoring of shark cage-diving operations requires proximity to SCDO to be recorded in addition to the presence within the area. Further work is needed to assess whether the observed behavioural changes would affect individual fitness and ultimately population viability, which are critical information to unambiguously assess the potential impacts of wildlife tourism targeting sharks.
Over 100 million sharks are killed annually, putting enormous pressure on shark populations worldwide. Sharks have traditionally been considered a detriment to coastal tourism, but since the early 1990s, shifts in attitudes amongst divers have led to growth in the popularity of shark watching as a tourist activity. An estimated 500,000 divers a year find, photograph, feed, and swim with sharks, contributing millions of dollars to local and regional economies. This paper examines whether the economic value attached to shark watching can provide enough incentive to reduce consumptive exploitation levels. Although the economic value attached to shark watching has led to greater protection of sharks in some locations, analysis of available data suggests that incentives do not appear large enough to encourage a significant reduction in fishing pressure appropriate to the scale of threat facing sharks. Growth of the shark watching industry is constrained by a number of factors including perceived risks and benefits, declining shark populations, and government regulations. However, conservation strategies for sharks involving tourism can be envisaged, involving varying levels of non-consumptive and consumptive uses of sharks. Three kinds of interaction between the non-consumptive and consumptive use of sharks are outlined along with implications for shark conservation.
The whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) is a popular focal species within the global marine tourism industry. Although this has contributed to increased protection being granted to the species in several countries, tourism itself can be detrimental to the sharks in the absence of appropriate management. Potential impacts can be mitigated, at least in the short term, by adherence to well‐designed interaction guidelines.
A burgeoning marine tourism industry based on swimming with whale sharks has developed at Tofo Beach in Mozambique. However, no formal management is currently in place at this site.
The behaviour of whale sharks during interactions with boats and swimmers were recorded during 137 commercial snorkelling trips run from Tofo Beach over a 20 month period. Whale sharks were encountered on 87% of trips, which operated year‐round.
Boat proximity and shark size were significant predictors of avoidance behaviour. No avoidance responses were recorded at >20 m boat distance.
The mean in‐water interaction time between sharks and swimmers was 8 min 48 s overall. There was a significant decrease in interaction times during encounters where sharks expressed avoidance behaviours, and also in cases where sharks had expressed boat avoidance behaviour before swimmers entered the water.
It is suggested that mean encounter times can be extended through adherence to a basic Code of Conduct for operators and swimmers that enforces minimum distances between the sharks, boats and swimmers. Using encounter time as a measure of the ‘success’ of interactions holds promise, as longer encounters appear to be indicative of lower impacts on sharks while also providing higher customer satisfaction for swimmers. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Ecotourism represents a highly popularised activity which has exhibited global growth in recent years. In the present paper, we examine the distribution, frequency, and economic value of shark-based ecotourism operations worldwide. A total of 376 shark ecotour operations across 83 locations and 8 geographic regions were identified. Here we describe the global and regional scope of the industry; determine the species utilised in shark ecotourism activities; and examine the recreational usage values of sharks. Further, we conducted a case study of a shark tourism operation based in South Africa by analysing 12 years of demographical and economical data, revealing increasing trends in the total number of customers served and cost per trip over the sampling period. We also compare consumptive and non-consumptive values of shark resources and discuss the potential research and conservation implications of the industry to sharks worldwide.
ABSTRACT Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) are seasonal visitors to four sites in the Western Caribbean, 3 of which are encompassed by the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef. Predictable encounters with the world’s largest fish have raised this species’ profile globally and led to several research and conservation efforts that aim to elucidate the need for information for the species management and balance the growing demand for highly lucrative encounter tourism. Tagging studies have demonstrated that the whale shark population is relatively small and likely forms a single population. Individuals move throughout the region between 3 of 4 known feeding sites and are capable of timing their movements to pulses of productivity. Whale shark tourism’s dramatic growth has led to a range of protective measures and scientific studies both precautionary and reactionary that require better harmonization throughout the region to be effective. This paper will provide an overview of the status of whale shark research and conservation efforts in the Western Caribbean and identify future management needs to minimize anthropogenic impacts and enable continued whale shark visitation at key feeding sites.
This study examines tourist compliance to the Code of Conduct for whale shark (Rhincodon typus) interactions and assesses impacts of tourists on whale sharks in Donsol, Philippines. Whale sharks feed in Donsol's nutrient rich waters between November and June, drawing up to 7100 visitors annually. Tourist, tour operator, and whale shark behavior were examined during human–whale shark interactions (n = 777) on 117 boat trips (March, April and May) in 2004, and on 76 boat trips in 2005 (n = 620). Average compliance to Code of Conduct regulations in 2004 and 2005 was 44% for the minimum distance kept; 82% for no touching, no path obstruction and a maximum of six swimmers per whale shark; 89% for a maximum of one boat per shark, 99% for no flash photography and no SCUBA, scooters, and jet-skis. Significant predictors of whale shark's directional changes were path obstruction and proximity of swimmer to whale shark, while for whale shark's dive response it was first-time sighting and whale shark feeding. The significant predictor of a violent shudder behavior was touching. Generalized linear modeling evaluated change in direction, dive response and violent shuddering variables, and found that touching, flash photography, and swimmer diving towards the whale shark significantly affected the magnitude of disturbance. Tourism impacts on whale sharks can be minimized through adaptive management that monitors tourism and alters interaction regulations to reflect tourist and tour operator actions that have detrimental effects on whale sharks.
Between 1997 and 2003, there were 2088 natural predations by white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) on Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) and 121 strikes on towed seal-shaped decoys were documented from observation vessels at Seal Island, South Africa. White sharks at Seal Island appear to selectively target lone, incoming young of the year Cape fur seals at or near the surface. Most attacks lasted < 1 min and consisted of a single breach, with predatory success rate decreasing rapidly with increasing duration and number of subsequent breaches. A white shark predatory ethogram,composed of four phases and 20 behavioural units, is presented, including four varieties of initial strike and 11 subsequent behaviour units not previously defined in the literature. Behaviour units scored from 210 predatory attacks revealed that, for both successful and unsuccessful attacks, Polaris Breach was the most commonly employed initial strike, while Surface Lunge was the most frequent second event, closely followed by Lateral Snap. Examination of video footage, still images, and tooth impressions in decoys indicated that white sharks at Seal Island bite prey obliquely using their anterolateral teeth via a sudden lateral snap of the jaws and not perpendicularly with their anterior teeth, as previously supposed. Analysis of white shark upper tooth morphology and spacing suggest the reversed intermediate teeth of white sharks occur at the strongest part of the jaw and produce the largest wound. White sharks predatory success at Seal Island is greatest (55%) within one hour of sunrise and decrease rapidly with increasing ambient light; the sharks cease active predation on seals of sunrise and decreases rapidly with increasing ambient light; the sharks cease active predation on seals when success rate drops to +/- 40%; this is the first evidence of cessation of foraging at unproductive times by any predatory fish. At Seal Island, white shark predatory success is significantly lower at locations where frequency of predation is highest, suggesting that white sharks may launch suboptimal strikes in areas of greatest intraspecific competition; this is the first evidence of social influence on predation in any elasmobranch. Idiosyncratic predatory behaviours and elevated success rates of known individual white sharks at Seal Island suggest some degree of trial-and-error learning. A hypothetical decision tree is proposed that models predatory behaviour of white sharks attacking Capr fur seals at the surface.
Wildlife tourism is a growing industry, with significant conservation and socio-economic benefits. Concerns have however been raised about the possible impacts of this industry on the long-term behaviour, health and fitness of the animal species tourists come to see (the target species), particularly when those species are regularly fed to improve the tourism experience. Information on the contribution of food rewards to the diet of the target species at feeding sites is critical to assess the dependency on handouts and to identify possible health/fitness problems that might be associated, if handouts become the main part of animals' diets. Here, we use stable isotopes (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) to evaluate the importance of handouts for a marine predator, the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas), at a feeding site (Fiji) where shark feeds occur 5 days/week and sharks (up to 75 individuals/dive) are fed ~200 kg of tuna heads/day. There was no evidence of incorporation of food provided, even for individuals that regularly consume food rewards. Results, when combined with those from previous studies on bull shark movements and feeding rates at our study site, show that current levels of provisioning likely have no long-term impacts on bull shark diet or behaviour. This study also demonstrates the applicability of stable isotope analysis to assess and monitor the contribution of food rewards to wildlife, and highlights the benefits of using multi-sources of information to gain a holistic understanding of the effects of provisioning predators.
Although wildlife tourism is becoming increasingly popular worldwide, the industry has a potential to affect the fauna it targets. A variety of methods are used to monitor the activities and impacts of wildlife tourism. In South Australia, mandatory logbook reporting and the ability to photograph and identify individual sharks provides two industry-based data sources to monitor how cage-diving tourism may impact white sharks. Findings show that both methods can assess shark populations, and detect seasonal sex-biased changes in white shark abundance. Photo-ID significantly underestimates effort days and number of sharks sighted, and is considerably more labour-intensive, but allows accurate identification of individual sharks, facilitating additional analysis. The continued use of logbook reporting is the optimum long-term monitoring method, although we recommend the maintenance of a photographic database for periodic extraction of individual information. Combining these methods will facilitate an ongoing adaptive management framework, aiding the long-term sustainability of the industry.
Wildlife tourism is often promoted as an activity which supports conservation by enhancing environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour through interpretative messaging and personal experiences with wildlife. Despite these potential linkages, evidence to support such claims is limited. In order for wildlife tourism operators to build a motivated constituency supporting conservation, elements of the tour which contribute to positive attitudes and environmental behaviour must be identified. This study investigated the attitudes and environmental behaviour of 136 wildlife tourists following a white shark cage-dive experience in South Australia. Responses to an online survey revealed a significant increase in participation for seven of the eight conservation-related behaviours explored, and a positive shift in participants’ understanding, awareness, attitudes, and concern for sharks following the tour. Results suggest that emotional engagement during the tour is associated with enhancing participants’ knowledge and attitude towards sharks. Recommendations for complementing the emotional response to viewing wildlife, with interpretative communication, are discussed.
In recent decades, public interest in apex predators has led to the creation and expansion of predator-focused wildlife tourism. As wildlife tourism has become an increasing topic of study for both social and biological scientists, researchers have debated whether these activities serve conservation goals by providing non-con-sumptive values for wildlife. Discussion of predator tourism requires additional recognition of predator-specific biological and ecological characteristics, consideration of human safety concerns, and mitigation of human-wildlife conflict. By reviewing tourism activities centered on both aquatic and terrestrial predators from diverse taxa (sharks, crocodiles, and big cats), we evaluate the potential benefits and conservation challenges associated with predator tourism. Our review suggests that positive conservation outcomes are possible, but not assured given historical, cultural, and ecological complexities. We explore some of the factors which determine whether tourism contributes to conservation outcomes, including (1) effective protection of animals and habitats, (2) avoidance and mitigation of human-wildlife conflict, (3) quality of associated educational interpretation and outreach, (4) collaboration with local stakeholders, and (5) use of generated funds to advance conservation goals. Our findings suggest tourism is most likely to support predator conservation and/or recovery when the industry has both public and political support and under conditions of effective regulation focused on management , monitoring and enforcement by local, national, and international bodies.
Wildlife tourism is often extolled for its contribution to conservation. However, understanding the effects of tourism activities on the health of target animals is required to fully assess conservation benefits. Shark tourism operators often use food rewards to attract sharks in close proximity to tourists, but nothing is known about the contribution of these food rewards to the energetic requirements of target species. In this study, hand-feeding of bull sharks Carcharhinus leucas was directly observed on 36 commercial shark watching dives in the Shark Reef Marine Reserve (SRMR), Fiji. Mean number of tuna heads consumed per dive by focal individuals ranged from 1.3 to 3.7. Monitored bull sharks consumed an average of ~ 0.74 heads per provisioning day, and bioenergetics modelling suggests that some sharks might periodically be meeting their full energy requirement from provisioning at the SRMR. Knowing how much individual sharks consume at provisioning sites and how this relates to their energy requirements is crucial in order to better understand the effects of wildlife tourism and its contribution to conservation.
Knowledge of the diel spatial ecology of wild animals is of great interest to ecologists and relevant to resource management and conservation. Sharks are generally considered to be more active during nocturnal periods than during the day; however, few studies have empirically evaluated diel variation in shark habitat use and how anthropogenic disturbances may influence these patterns. In the western central Atlantic Ocean, tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) are highly abundant in the shallow waters of the Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas. Within the northwest edge of the Bank, there is an area nicknamed “Tiger Beach,” where tiger sharks are provisioned year-round at spatially discrete ecotourism dive sites spanning ~ 1.5 km². In this study, we used an array of acoustic receivers encircling an area of 102.4 km² to evaluate for potential differences in diel spatial habitat use patterns for 42 tagged tiger sharks at Tiger Beach and the surrounding area. Using tracking data from 24 June 2014 to 13 May 2015, we evaluated spatial and diel patterns of shark activity space, centers of activity, residency and the daily proportion of sharks detected within the array. Sharks were detected during both day and night with no significant diel differences in habitat use metrics across the array, although spatial differences in residency existed. Four sharks accounted for 53.8% of residency data throughout the tracking period, with the majority of sharks primarily entering and exiting the array, except during summer months when the most of the tagged tiger sharks were absent from the array. We also found limited empirical support for hypothesized effects of provisioning tourism on tiger shark habitat use. However, additional research at finer, individual scales, may be needed to better resolve the potential influence of provisioning on tiger sharks at Tiger Beach.
Traditionally, the ‘social licence to operate’ (SLO) refers to the societal expectations imposed on corporate and commercial activities, often displayed by the willingness for corporations to go beyond the requirements of formal regulations. Alternatively, this paper investigates the emerging influence of the SLO in shaping government decisions regarding the use and impact of the marine environment and its resources. Using expert interviews, text analysis and case study analysis, this research delineated the contemporary SLO as it has manifested in Australian marine governance, with the results indicating that this is potentially occurring at a pace faster than can be systematically reacted to within the current political decision-making processes. Under these emerging conditions, the risk has been identified that traditional government decision-making and stakeholder consultation processes are lagging in their capacity to adapt to ensure that public policy processes can support and engage in this shifting dialogue and ensure the influence of information is appropriately weighted. This research highlights an emerging adjustment of community presence in marine governance and the immediate complexities and challenges this creates for government decision-making. In particular, it begins to explore the interaction of differing information, how this information is carried through communication channels, stakeholder behaviour, approaches to withholding or granting a SLO and the responsibility this carries.
Wildlife tourism has been shown to cause behavioural changes to numerous species. Yet, there is still little understanding if behavioural changes have consequences for health and fitness. The current study combined accelerometry and respirometry to show that provisioning whitetip reef sharks (Trianadon obesus) for tourism increases their daily energy expenditure by elevating activity levels during periods when they normally rest. Field metabolic rate increased by 6.37% on provisioning days compared to non-provisioning days. Since metabolism is a key parameter influencing most biological and ecological processes, this represents some of the clearest evidence to date that ecotourism can impact critical biological functions in wild animals.
The role of learning in behaviour is well known for many animal taxa, including teleost fishes, insects, birds and mammals. However, its importance to sharks in everyday behavioural processes has rarely been considered. Almost 50 years ago the first learning experiments on sharks were conducted; our first section discusses these studies and places them in a framework of associative and non-associative learning. These experiments showed that sharks were capable of different forms of learning, such as operant and classical conditioning and habituation. Sharks could learn associations as rapidly as other vertebrates and also remember training regimes for several months. However, much of this experimental evidence was based on small sample sizes and few shark orders, such as Carcharhiniformes and Orectobliformes, leaving large gaps in our knowledge of the general learning capabilities of other shark orders. We also examine recent research that has tested for, or inferred learning in behavioural processes. This section reveals that sharks, like teleost fishes use learning to improve prey search and capture to potentially navigate and orientate in their home range and recognize conspecifics, heterospecifics and mates. Learning is also discussed in relation to ecotourism and fisheries. Findings indicated that these activities may lead to conditioning of sharks and that considerable effort should go into investigating what impact this could have on the shark species involved. Finally, we discuss the importance of combining laboratory experiments with field studies, the use of new experimental techniques, the role of model species and research priorities for future work.
A review of Cage Diving Impacts on White Shark Behaviour and Recommendations for Research and Industry's Management in New Zealand. Report to the Department of Conservation
- B D Bruce
B.D. Bruce, A review of Cage Diving Impacts on White Shark Behaviour and
Recommendations for Research and Industry's Management in New Zealand. Report
to the Department of Conservation, New Zealand, CSIRO Publishing, Hobart,
Tasmania, 2015.
Human perceptions and attitudes towards sharks
- C Neff
C. Neff, Human perceptions and attitudes towards sharks, in: E. Techera, N. Klein
(Eds.), Sharks: Conservation, Governance and Management, 2014, pp. 107-131.