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Invited review: Roles of dietary n-3 fatty acids in performance, milk fat composition, and reproductive and immune systems in dairy cattle
Abstract
Mammals can synthesize all of the fatty acids (FA) necessary for proper health and functioning with the exception of FA in the n-3 (omega-3) and n-6 (omega-6) families of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which should be supplied in the diet. The PUFA are the predominant type of lipid in dairy cattle diets; however, common feedstuffs are rich in n-6 FA, whereas the supply of n-3 FA in the intensive dairy industry is mainly limited to flaxseed and fish oils. The n-3 FA are involved in many biological systems and processes, and therefore their dietary supplementation is of special interest in dairy cattle. Furthermore, because milk, milk products, and meat are among the most important and widely used components in traditional and modern human diets, enrichment of these food products with n-3 FA is of special importance. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive description of different aspects and outcomes involved in dietary n-3 FA supplementation in dairy cattle. I provide an inclusive review of the effects of n-3 FA on milk and milk solids and the FA profile in milk fat upon feeding a variety of flaxseed products or fish oil. Selective uptake of n-3 FA has been demonstrated in the ovary compartments, as well as in bull sperm and in the unborn calf through the placenta. Incorporation of these unique FA into the reproductive system influences many processes and exerts some positive effects on fertility. In addition, beneficial effects of feeding n-3 FA on the reproductive system of females and males can be achieved with supplementation of α-linolenic acid from flaxseed or from eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids from fish oil. This work provides a broad perspective and demonstrates the importance and potential of n-3 FA dietary supplementation in dairy cattle on the animal itself, as well as its secondary effects, which are associated with human nutrition and health.
... These PUFA can be further elongated to longer-chain PUFA, with 18:2n-6 being converted to arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and 18:3n-3 to eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) (Palmquist, 2009). Both n-6 and n-3 FA are vital for several biological processes, such as being constituents of cell membranes, synthesizing eicosanoids, and modulating the immune system (Palmquist, 2009;Moallem et al., 2018). However, while 20:4n-6 can be converted to proinflammatory eicosanoids, n-3 FA and their products have the potential to reduce excessive inflammatory responses (Palmquist, 2009). ...
... However, while 20:4n-6 can be converted to proinflammatory eicosanoids, n-3 FA and their products have the potential to reduce excessive inflammatory responses (Palmquist, 2009). Thus, some authors have proposed that dietary supplementation of n-3 FA to dairy cows could also benefit consumers, as milk and its derivatives are important and popular components of Western diets (Moallem et al., 2018). ...
... Interestingly, N3 increased the yields and contents of 20:5n-3 and 22:5n-3 in milk, but we did not detect 22:6n-3, highlighting that the conversion of 18:3n-3 to 22:6n-3 is very inefficient, as discussed in our companion paper (dos Santos . This also agrees with a review by Moallem (2018), in which the authors did not detect 22:6n-3 in milk fat in any of the experiments supplementing dairy cows with flaxseed products. Interestingly, a recent study by Gervais et al. (2023), infusing high doses of flaxseed oil (0, ~70, ~140, ~280, and ~560 g/d), detected 22:6n-3 in milk fat but found no effect of treatment on this FA. ...
... That parity and PL containing DHA are strongly associated may be an important finding, given parity's association with increased risk of disease, reproductive failure, and removal from the herd (Lean et al., 2023a), and the bioactivity of DHA and its association with positive health outcomes (Narayan et al., 2006;Bionaz et al., 2020;Fabjanowska et al., 2023). Interest in DHA from a dairy cow perspective has included both the potential health benefits of increasing DHA content in milk (Parodi, 2004;Huang et al., 2020;Plata-Pérez et al., 2022) and meat for human consumption (Scollan et al., 2001;Dannenberger et al., 2007) and the direct health benefits for the cow (Bradford et al., 2015;Moallem, 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020;Veshkini et al., 2023). There are now several review papers on the importance of PUFA, including DHA, on dairy cow reproduction, inflammation, oxidative stress, milk production, and transition cow health (Bradford et al., 2015;Moallem, 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020;Fabjanowska et al., 2023;Veshkini et al., 2023). ...
... Interest in DHA from a dairy cow perspective has included both the potential health benefits of increasing DHA content in milk (Parodi, 2004;Huang et al., 2020;Plata-Pérez et al., 2022) and meat for human consumption (Scollan et al., 2001;Dannenberger et al., 2007) and the direct health benefits for the cow (Bradford et al., 2015;Moallem, 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020;Veshkini et al., 2023). There are now several review papers on the importance of PUFA, including DHA, on dairy cow reproduction, inflammation, oxidative stress, milk production, and transition cow health (Bradford et al., 2015;Moallem, 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020;Fabjanowska et al., 2023;Veshkini et al., 2023). However, we are the first to show a probable association between DHA and age or parity and this association is plausibly causal with increased risk of disease and culling in older cows. ...
... Farms that incorporate less pasture into their rations have lower blood and milk PUFA concentrations (Moate et al., 2008;La Terra et al., 2010), which may result in an 'older' herd lipid profile and an associated increased risk of disease and removal (Lean et al., 2023a). Enrichment can also be achieved with supplementation of seed oils, for example linseed/flaxseed is particularly high in ALA, 52.5% of FA, or fish oils or algae, which contain high amounts of EPA/DHA (Stamey et al., 2012;Suksombat et al., 2016;Sinedino et al., 2017;Moallem, 2018). Diets enriched with ALA can provide more efficient fat mobilization and subsequent protein accretion in early lactation (von Soosten et al., 2012), which could support older cows that typically have lower body condition during this critical period (Lean et al., 2022). ...
... Many polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are essential nutrients to improve the health of humans and animals [1,2]. Omega-3 is one of the PUFA classes necessary for human nutrition and its incorporation in foods and feeds are continually investigated. ...
... Omega-3 is one of the PUFA classes necessary for human nutrition and its incorporation in foods and feeds are continually investigated. It has been demonstrated being key for the prevention of cardiovascular, inflammatory, neurodegenerative diseases and some types of cancer [1,3,4]. Despite of the well-recognized benefits, PUFA are highly susceptible to environmental factors such as light, heat, moisture, and oxygen, resulting in lipid oxidation [5]. ...
... Protective encapsulation would reduce biohydrogenation in the rumen and would provide protection against oxidative deterioration in other products compared with the unprotected form of PUFA [7]. Furthermore, concerning ruminant nutrition, the use of PUFA in feeds can change and improve the fatty acid profile of milk or meat [1,8], while helping to cope with stress and lower inflammation [3,9], and improve their pregnancy rate [10]. Fish oil is the most employed PUFA supplement due to its high eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) contents [11]. ...
The physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of encapsulated fish oil in a matrix formed by the reaction of crude de-oiled soy lecithin and dextrose following a Maillard reaction path were investigated. The effects of sugar content in formula (4, 8 %) and temperature (25 °C, 80 °C, and 100 °C) on the moisture content, water activity, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and oxidative stability were studied. Oxidative stability was measured over a 90-day testing period at 25 °C. Samples achieved an encapsulation efficiency in the range 50–70 %, low moisture content (<1 %), and low water activity (<0.7). After 90 days of storage, the encapsulated fish oil samples remained within the rancidity limits defined by the peroxide and p-anisidine values, whereas unprotected/free fish oil (control) significantly exceeded those limits. Samples prepared at 100 °C showed the greatest encapsulation efficiency and oxidative stability among the treatments (p < 0.05). The presence of Maillard Reaction Products (MRP) in the encapsulating material was also assessed.
... Cows with high estradiol concentrations have also been found to have a higher proportion of male calves (Emadi et al. 2014). In addition, the general (Moallem 2018). The lower levels of triglycerides found in the FO group may be because EPA and DHA are poor substrates for the liver enzymes involved in triglyceride synthesis, which prevents the production of very lowdensity lipoprotein and triglycerides. ...
... Contrary results were reported in Etawah goats supplemented with flaxseed and lemuru FO, in which the progesterone hormone level was significantly higher than that in the control group (Astuti et al. 2020). This can be interpreted as the addition of 3-6% lemuru FO to the concentrate not being in line with the hypothesis that the addition of EPA and DHA can increase progesterone hormone levels during pregnancy (Astuti et al. 2020;Moallem 2018) or reduce progesterone levels (Hess et al. 2008). These different results can be attributed to several factors, including the animals, experimental design, fat source, type of fatty acids used, and their concentrations (Moallem 2018). ...
... This can be interpreted as the addition of 3-6% lemuru FO to the concentrate not being in line with the hypothesis that the addition of EPA and DHA can increase progesterone hormone levels during pregnancy (Astuti et al. 2020;Moallem 2018) or reduce progesterone levels (Hess et al. 2008). These different results can be attributed to several factors, including the animals, experimental design, fat source, type of fatty acids used, and their concentrations (Moallem 2018). These results indicate that lemuru FO as a source of EPA and DHA (3-6%) and PO as a PUFA source in ewe rations did not interfere with the plasma progesterone profile during gestation. ...
This study aimed to evaluate and analyze the effects of a flushing diet containing Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from Lemuru (Sardinella sp) fish oil on the reproductive performance parameters of Garut ewes. Forty (n = 40) primiparous Garut ewes aged 12–14 months with an average body weight of 28.92 ± 4.94 kg were assigned into four experimental treatment groups. The experimental diets contained roughage: concentrate (30:70%) designated as control concentrate (CNT), flushing concentrate with 6% palm oil (PO), flushing concentrate with 3% palm oil mixed with 3% lemuru oil as DHA and EPA sources (PFO), and flushing concentrate with the addition of 6% lemuru oil (FO). Treatment animals were fed two weeks before and after conception and parturition (8 weeks of total flushing treatment). The addition of fish oil at either 3% (PFO) or 6% (FO) resulted in significantly higher reproductive performance of ewes by increasing the litter size, as reflected by the birth of multiple kids (P < 0.05) compared to CNT and PO. Adding fish oil (PFO and FO) also maintains gestation, resulting in increased lamb yield, especially in the FO treatment, which yields the highest lamb yield (0% single lamb birth). The lamb male ratio was also higher with fish oil supplementation (PFO and PO) (P < 0.05). This research revealed a positive effect of 6% Lemuru oil on decreasing embryo loss and increasing the proportion of twin births. These findings thus support the hypothesis that ration flushing with double the required DHA and EPA from 6% Lemuru fish oil (FO) resulted in significantly higher reproductive performance in Garut sheep.
... In addition, the supplied feed additives must be safe for body health and wellbeing of pregnant and lactating animals to support their ovarian follicles' development, milk production and composition (Al-Mufarji et al., 2023;Al-Masruri et al., 2022). The relationships among nutrition, reproductive performances and metabolic body health conditions have been explored in several studies (Moallem, 2018;Ali et al., 2021;Al-Mufarji et al., 2022Mohammed and Al-Suwaiegh, 2023;Di Meo et al., 2023). The current trial is long experiment conducted in commercial lactation farm to restore the negative effects of peripartum and postpartum periods in lactating Holstein cows. ...
... The results of supplementing cows with extruded flaxseed, the most widely available botanical source of n-3 FA, and salmate (dried fish oil) showed notable improvement in reproductive performance concerning earlier restoration of ovarian activities and higher conception rates. The FAs of extruded flaxseed and salmate might affect the ovarian structures development and quality, fertilization rate and further embryonic development (Petit, 2002;Ambrose et al., 2006;Moallem, 2018). Santos et al. (2008) and Cerri et al. (2009) concluded that increased intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFs) might affect the fatty acid composition of reproductive tissues and consequently improve fertilization rate and embryonic development. ...
... In a large-scale study, 4.0-5.0% extruded flaxseed diet resulted in fewer days from first artificial insemination to conception in addition to fewer open days (Moallem, 2018). In addition, cows fed 2.7-3.2% of DM fishmeal from 24 days pre-partum to 109 postpartum had higher pregnancy rate (41.3 vs. 31.9%). ...
... Flushing with palm oil or lemuru oil had signi cantly lower values of triglycerides than the control. This may be due to the fact that the addition of PUFAs contains in palm and lemuru oils can directly inhibit the development of blood triglycerides in general (Moallem, 2018). Lower triglycerides level in FO thought to be because EPA and DHA are poor substrates for the liver enzymes involved in triglyceride synthesis, thus preventing the production of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and triglycerides. ...
... The opposite results were reported in Etawah goats supplemented with axseed and lemuru sh oil which stated the progesterone hormone was signi cantly higher than in control(Astuti et al., 2020). This can be interpreted that the addition of 3-6% lemuru oil in concentrate is not in line with the hypothesis that the addition of omega-3 EPA and DHA can increase progesterone hormone levels during pregnancy(Astuti et al., 2020;Moallem, 2018) or reduce progesterone levels(Hess et al., 2008). The different results can be attributed to several factors, including the animal, experimental design, fat source and type of fatty acids used, and concentration(Moallem, 2018). ...
... This can be interpreted that the addition of 3-6% lemuru oil in concentrate is not in line with the hypothesis that the addition of omega-3 EPA and DHA can increase progesterone hormone levels during pregnancy(Astuti et al., 2020;Moallem, 2018) or reduce progesterone levels(Hess et al., 2008). The different results can be attributed to several factors, including the animal, experimental design, fat source and type of fatty acids used, and concentration(Moallem, 2018). ...
This study aimed to evaluate and analyze the effects of a flushing diet containing DHA and EPA from Lemuru fish oil on the reproductive performance parameters of Garut ewes. Forty (n = 40) primiparous Garut ewes aged 12–14 months with a body weight of 28.92 ± 4.94 kg were assigned into four experimental treatment groups. The experimental diets contained roughage : concentrate (30:70%) designated as control concentrate (CNT), flushing concentrate with 6% palm oil (PO), flushing concentrate with 3% palm oil mixed with 3% lemuru oil as DHA and EPA sources (PFO), and flushing concentrate with the addition of 6% lemuru oil (FO). Treatment animals were fed two weeks before and after conception and parturition (8 weeks of total flushing treatment). The addition of fish oil at either 3% (PFO) or 6% (FO) resulted in significantly higher reproductive performance of ewes by increasing the litter size, as reflected by the birth of multiple kids (P < 0.05) compared to CNT and PO. Adding fish oil (PFO and FO) also maintains gestation, resulting in increased kid yield, especially in the FO treatment, which yields the highest kid yield (0% single kid birth). The male ration lamb was also higher with fish oil supplementation (PFO and PO) (P < 0.05). Supplementation with fish oil could also maintain progesterone levels during the gestation period and some biochemical blood parameters. This study showed that using Lemuru fish oil 6% (FO) with a concentration of 1.34% DHA and EPA overall led to significantly higher reproductive performance in Garut sheep.
... These changes are exquisitely controlled by hormonal changes to support the sudden changes in physiological state of lactation (Grummer, 1995) [20] . In recent years, dairy cow research has been more focused on roles of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in physiological processes such as cellular membrane integrity, lipid metabolism, energy partitioning, hormonal pathways, oxidative stress, inflammatory pathways and immune response (Moallem 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020) [18,2] . However, due to high rumen hydrogenation of the PUFA C18:2 n-6 (70%) and C18:3 n-3 (85%), makes oral supplementation of PUFA-rich fats an inefficient mechanism to enhance the PUFA concentrations of bovine milk (Juchem, 2007) [16] . ...
... These changes are exquisitely controlled by hormonal changes to support the sudden changes in physiological state of lactation (Grummer, 1995) [20] . In recent years, dairy cow research has been more focused on roles of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in physiological processes such as cellular membrane integrity, lipid metabolism, energy partitioning, hormonal pathways, oxidative stress, inflammatory pathways and immune response (Moallem 2018;Bionaz et al., 2020) [18,2] . However, due to high rumen hydrogenation of the PUFA C18:2 n-6 (70%) and C18:3 n-3 (85%), makes oral supplementation of PUFA-rich fats an inefficient mechanism to enhance the PUFA concentrations of bovine milk (Juchem, 2007) [16] . ...
This study was conducted in 36 multiparous Cross Bred Jersey cows at Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of Tamil Nadu state in India from 4 weeks prepartum to 4 weeks postpartum with the aim to evaluate the effect of an immunomodulatory diet on haematological parameters. Animals were randomly divided into three groups on the basis of feeding viz. Group I (n=12), as control, Group II (n=12), was fed with conventional balanced feed and Group III (n=12), was fed with an immunomodulatory diet with flax seed and the inclusion of organic minerals and supplements. Blood was collected on day-28,-21,-14,-7 prepartum; day 0 parturition; day 7, 14, 21 and 28 postpartum and subjected to haematological analysis and Hb (g/dl), PCV (%), TEC (10 6 /µl), TLC (10 3 /µl) and Platelets (x/µl) were estimated. This study revealed that Hb (g/dl) PCV (%), TEC (10 6 /µl), TLC (10 3 /µl) during prepartum, parturition and postpartum periods between day-28 prepartum to 28 postpartum in Group III was significantly higher (p<0.05) than Group II and Group I and Platelets count (x/µl) was significantly higher in Group III only during parturition than Group II and Group I.
... In contrast, Marques et al. (2017) and Brandão et al. (2020) observed greater plasma concentrations of linoleic acid, total PUFA, and total ω-6 at calving in spring-calving beef cows fed 190 g/d of a combination of Ca salts of ω-3 and ω-6 (Marques et al., 2017) or 195 g/d of Ca salts of ω-6 (Brandão et al., 2020) during late gestation compared to supplementation of Ca salts of SFA/MUFA. The inconsistency among our results and those reported by others (Marques et al., 2017;Brandão et al., 2020;Shao et al., 2021aShao et al., , 2023 is likely due to differences in fat source (bakery waste vs. Ca salts of fatty acids) and degree of protection against rumen biohydrogenation (Moallem et al., 2018), supplemental fat amount (64 to 107 vs. 150 to 195 g/d), cow subspecies (Bos indicus-influenced vs. Bos taurus), total concentration and profile of fatty acids in the forage, and perhaps calving season (fall vs. spring) and additional unknown factors. ...
... Plasma and serum data during preconditioning (days 300 to 345) of first offspring 1 born to cows offered no prepartum supplementation (NOSUP) and 1 kg/d of low-fat (LFAT) or high-fat (HFAT) bakery waste-based supplement from days 0 to 70 (6 pastures per maternal treatment; 6 cows and 4.3 ha per pasture) supplements. Although linoleic acid may serve as a precursor for the synthesis of arachidonic acid (Staples et al., 1998) and eicosapentaenoic can be converted into docosapentaenoic acid (and vice-versa) in the liver (Kaur et al., 2011;Moallem et al., 2018), average plasma concentrations of arachidonic, osbond, and docosapentaenoic acids detected herein were 5to 54-fold lower compared to those reported by Brandão et al. (2020) and likely had limited biological importance in the present study. Overall, maternal plasma concentrations of linoleic, PUFA, and total ω-6, which are known for impacting postnatal offspring performance (Cappellozza et al., 2021), were successfully increased following 70 d of maternal prepartum supplementation of LFAT and HFAT bakery waste. ...
This study evaluated the growth and immune function of Bos indicus-influenced offspring born to cows offered prepartum supplementation of bakery waste containing 2 concentrations of crude fat. On day 0 (~90 d before calving), 108 Brangus crossbred cows were stratified by body weight (BW; 551 ± 65 kg) and body condition score (BCS, 5.5 ± 0.9) and were randomly allocated into 1 of 18 bahiagrass pastures (6 cows and 4.3 ha/pasture). Treatments were randomly assigned to pastures (6 pastures/treatment) and consisted of no prepartum supplementation (NOSUP) and 1 kg/d of low-fat (LFAT; 6.4% crude fat) or high-fat (HFAT; 10.7% crude fat) bakery waste-based supplement from day 0 to 70. Calves were weaned on day 292. Then, 15 heifers/treatment were randomly selected, acclimated for 7 d, and assigned to drylot pens from day 300 to 345. Heifers were vaccinated against respiratory pathogens on days 300 and 315. Cow BCS on day 70 was the least (P ≤ 0.05) for NOSUP cows and did not differ (P ≥ 0.12) between LFAT and HFAT cows. Cow BCS on day 140 (start of breeding season) was greater (P = 0.05) for HFAT vs. NOSUP cows and intermediate (P ≥ 0.35) for LFAT cows. Plasma concentrations of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in HFAT cows did not differ (P ≥ 0.76) compared with LFAT cows on day 70, were greater (P ≤ 0.05) compared with NOSUP cows on day 70 and were the greatest on day 140 (P ≤ 0.05). Percentage of cows pregnant on day 292 did not differ (P ≥ 0.26) among treatments but more HFAT cows calved (P ≤ 0.05) their second offspring from day 429 to 450 compared with NOSUP and LFAT cows. First offspring BW on day 292 were greatest (P ≤ 0.05) for LFAT calves and least for NOSUP calves. Maternal treatments did not impact (P ≥ 0.11) post-weaning average daily gain (ADG) and total DM intake. Average plasma cortisol concentrations were greater (P = 0.03) for NOSUP vs. HFAT heifers and intermediate for LFAT heifers (P ≥ 0.26). Final serum titers against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) were greater (P ≤ 0.08) for LFAT vs. HFAT heifers and intermediate (P ≥ 0.27) for NOSUP heifers. Therefore, crude fat concentration in bakery waste offered to late-gestating beef cows had variable effects on offspring performance. Low-fat bakery waste led to greatest offspring preweaning growth whereas high-fat bakery waste enhanced maternal reproductive success and offspring post-weaning humoral immune response.
... Objective of the research Oils extracted from plant and animal products have different fatty acid pro les and ratios of fatty acids (n3: n:6 n:9) with different effects on the reproduction and general health of an animal (Moallem 2018). ...
... Fish oil is rich in n3 fatty acids, sun ower is rich in n6 fatty acids, and palm oil and olive oil are both rich in n9 fatty acids (Moallem 2018;Mwangi et al. 2018). Therefore, using oils as a supplement to pregnant and lactating ewes may potentially increase the economic return through their weaned offspring. ...
The effect of different dietary oils on ewe reproductive performance and lamb growth was investigated. Fifty-second parity Dohne Merino ewes (body condition score 3.5±0.4) were randomly divided into five groups of ten each. Ewes received 30 ml of sunflower- or olive- or fish- or palm oil. The control group received no oil. Ewes received oils before and after laparoscopic artificial insemination (LAI). Two weeks after LAI, follow-up rams were introduced. Mean conception and lambing rates were 88%. Ewes that received olive oil had the highest conception rate and lambing rate of 100% but did not differ (P>0.05) from other groups (sunflower- 90%, fish- 90%, palm- 70% and control group 90%). The control group had the shortest gestation length (150 days). The gestation lengths of sunflower-, olive-, fish- and palm oil were 153, 156, 155, and 156 days. Birth weights of female lambs from control, sunflower-, olive-, fish- and palm oil were 5.41 ± 0.87, 5.70 ± 0.61, 5.8 ± 0.70, 5.8 ± 0.74 and 4.9 ± 0.50 kg (no difference between groups). The birth weights of male lambs from control, sunflower-, olive-, fish- and palm oil were 5.6 ± 1.19, 4.85 ± 0.70, 5.6 ± 0.84, 5.5 ± 0.49 and 5.4 ± 0.33 (no difference between groups). Weaning weights for male lambs were (28.8 ± 4.93, 25.5 ± 8.13, 29.0 ± 4.88, 30.2 ± 4.59, 28.8 ± 5.03) and female lambs were (28.5 ± 4.58, 28.3 ± 3.81, 25.8 ± 6.93, 28.9 ± 4.51, 27.6 ± 2.46), no difference between groups.
... Therefore, they must be introduced through the diet [6]. The most important PUFA-ω3 has been found to be alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), having positive effects on the reproductive system in dairy cattle [7]. Fresh forages contain ALA concentrations ranging from 0.6 to 3.2% dry matter [8]. ...
... Its amount depends on seasonal changes, plant maturity, and the ruminal biohydrogenation process [9]. In large and small ruminants, one of the most valuable sources of ALA used as feedstuff is flaxseed/linseed oil (LO) [7,10]. A protected LO by-pass form has been used as a feed additive to avoid ruminal degradation (biohydrogenation) and guarantee its absorption in the intestine [11]. ...
This study analyzed the effects of dietary supplementation with by-pass linseed oil (LO; rich in α-linolenic acid) on maternal antioxidant systems at Days 14 and 16 of pregnancy in Sarda ewes. This trial used sixteen dry ewes. Eight ewes (CT group) were fed with a control diet without LO, and eight ewes (LO group) were fed with a diet supplemented with LO (10.8 g of α-linolenic acid/ewe/day). Both diets had similar crude protein and energy levels. The experiment included 10 days of an adaptation period and 31 days of a supplementation period. This supplementation period was divided into Period −2 (from Day −15 to −8), Period −1 (from Day −7 to −1; before synchronized mating period/Day 0), Period +1 (from Day +1 to + 7 after mating), and Period +2 (from Day +8 to +15 after mating). Estrous synchronization was induced in all the ewes using an intravaginal sponge (45 mg fluorgestone acetate) for 14 days and equine chorionic gonadotropin (350 UI/ewe) at the end of the treatment. On Days 14 (CT, N = 4; LO, N = 4) and 16 (CT, N = 4; LO, N = 4) after mating, the ewes were slaughtered. Samples of plasma, uterine, and luteal tissues were collected. Thiols, total antioxidant activity (TEAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were measured. On Day 16, thiol and TEAC in luteal tissues were higher in the LO group when compared with the control one (p < 0.05). Moreover, TEAC was higher for the LO group in uterine tissues on Days 14 and 16 (p < 0.05). SOD activity was higher in the LO group in luteal and uterine tissues on Day 14 and Day 16, respectively (p < 0.001). On Day 16, uterine MDA content was lower for the LO group (p < 0.001). No differences were found between groups at the plasmatic level. However, the by-pass LO supplementation enhanced the analyzed antioxidant parameters in luteal and uterine tissues. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that by-pass LO supplementation exerted a positive effect on antioxidative defenses on maternal structures during the embryo-maternal recognition period in ewes. Thus, this could contribute to improving the maternal environment during the embryo-maternal recognition period in mammals.
... The supplementation of dairy cow diets with fish oil, which contains a large quantity of unsaturated, bioactive n-3 fatty acids (FA) including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), has increased the concentration of cis-9, trans-11 CLA and long chain n-3 PUFA in milk [4]. However, DHA supplementation can also increase the levels of trans-18:1 in the rumen with a concomitant decrease in milk fat yield caused by fish oil FA increasing rumen biohydrogenation intermediates that inhibit milk fat synthesis [4][5][6]. Several methods of protecting PUFA from rumen metabolism have been investigated extensively with the objective of improving milk production, reproduction, digestion, metabolism and immunity [7]. For example, calcium salts are often reported to be one of the main commercially practical rumen protection formulations that allow the protection of polyunsaturated FA against rumen biohydrogenation even though their efficacy is debated. ...
... The negative effect of feeding fish oil on intake is largely dependent on the amount of oil fed and its characteristics; one of them is the smell produced when it is directly mixed in the diet [20]. However, the tendency toward a reduction in intake observed in Trial 1 was unexpected because the amounts of fish oil fed in the trial were below the ones reported in the literature that might have an impact on feed intake [6]. Furthermore, feeding fish oil capsules will presumably reduce or eliminate the smell as a detrimental factor for DMI. ...
The objective of this study was to assess the effects of feeding gelatin capsules containing fish oil, treated with alcoholic solutions of flavoring agents followed by drying, on lactation performance, rumen fatty acids content and milk enrichment of fatty acids. In Trial 1, four multiparous ruminally fistulated Holstein cows were randomly assigned to one of four dietary treatments sequences in a 4 × 4 Latin square design. Treatments consisted of (1) Control with no capsules, (2) Control plus 200 untreated capsules per cow/day, mixed with the TMR, (3) Control plus 200 treated capsules per cow/day placed directly into the rumen, (4) Control plus 200 treated capsules per cow/day, mixed with the TMR. In Trial 2, three fistulated Holstein and three fistulated Jersey multiparous cows were randomly assigned to three dietary treatments sequences in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square design. Treatments consisted of (1) Control with no capsules fed to the cows, (2) Control plus 180 untreated capsules per cow/day, (3) Control plus 180 treated capsules per cow/day. Compared to control, feeding fish oil capsules significantly (Trial 1) or numerically (Trial 2) reduced milk fat concentration and yield. Furthermore, in both trials, the feeding of untreated or treated capsules had no effect on animal performance or milk composition. In both trials, compared to controls, supplementing the diet with fish oil capsules consistently increased total trans C18:1 isomers and DHA concentration in the rumen and milk fat. However, for both trials, capsule protection treatment had a minimal effect on the concentration of any of the reported rumen and milk fatty acids. When assessed under laboratory control conditions, due to water absorption, the treated capsule weight was increased by 40% while resistance to pressure decreased by 84% after 2 h of incubation in water. The results of this study suggest that due to a reduction in the capsule shell’s resistance to abrasion, treated capsules marginally prevented the release of fish oil in the rumen.
... In contrast, Marques et al. (2017) and Brandão et al. (2020) observed greater plasma concentrations of linoleic acid, total PUFA, and total ω-6 at calving in spring-calving beef cows fed 190 g/d of a combination of Ca salts of ω-3 and ω-6 (Marques et al., 2017) or 195 g/d of Ca salts of ω-6 (Brandão et al., 2020) during late gestation compared to supplementation of Ca salts of SFA/MUFA. The inconsistency among our results and those reported by others (Marques et al., 2017;Brandão et al., 2020;Shao et al., 2021aShao et al., , 2023 is likely due to differences in fat source (bakery waste vs. Ca salts of fatty acids) and degree of protection against rumen biohydrogenation (Moallem et al., 2018), supplemental fat amount (64 to 107 vs. 150 to 195 g/d), cow subspecies (Bos indicus-influenced vs. Bos taurus), total concentration and profile of fatty acids in the forage, and perhaps calving season (fall vs. spring) and additional unknown factors. ...
... Plasma and serum data during preconditioning (days 300 to 345) of first offspring 1 born to cows offered no prepartum supplementation (NOSUP) and 1 kg/d of low-fat (LFAT) or high-fat (HFAT) bakery waste-based supplement from days 0 to 70 (6 pastures per maternal treatment; 6 cows and 4.3 ha per pasture) supplements. Although linoleic acid may serve as a precursor for the synthesis of arachidonic acid (Staples et al., 1998) and eicosapentaenoic can be converted into docosapentaenoic acid (and vice-versa) in the liver (Kaur et al., 2011;Moallem et al., 2018), average plasma concentrations of arachidonic, osbond, and docosapentaenoic acids detected herein were 5to 54-fold lower compared to those reported by Brandão et al. (2020) and likely had limited biological importance in the present study. Overall, maternal plasma concentrations of linoleic, PUFA, and total ω-6, which are known for impacting postnatal offspring performance (Cappellozza et al., 2021), were successfully increased following 70 d of maternal prepartum supplementation of LFAT and HFAT bakery waste. ...
This study evaluated the growth and immune function of beef calves born to cows supplemented with bakery waste containing 2 concentrations of crude fat. On day 0 (~90 d before calving), 108 multiparous Brangus crossbred cows were stratified by body weight (BW; 551 ± 65 kg) and body condition score (BCS, 5.5 ± 0.9) and randomly allocated into 1 of 18 bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum) pastures (6 cows and 4.3 ha/pasture). Treatments were randomly assigned to pastures (6 pastures/treatment) and consisted of no prepartum supplementation (NOSUP) and isocaloric and isonitrogenous supplementation of low-fat (LFAT; 6.4% crude fat) or high-fat (HFAT; 10.7% crude fat) bakery waste from day 0 to 70 (1 kg DM/cow/day). Calves were weaned on day 292 (201 ± 17 d of age). Then, 15 heifers/treatment were randomly selected and assigned to drylot pens from day 300 to 345 and vaccinated against respiratory pathogens on days 300 and 315. Cow BCS near calving (day 70) was the least (P ≤ 0.05) for NOSUP cows and did not differ (P = 0.12) between LFAT and HFAT cows. Cow BCS at the start of the breeding season (day 140) was greater (P = 0.05) for HFAT vs. NOSUP cows and intermediate (P ≥ 0.35) for LFAT cows. Plasma concentrations of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in HFAT cows did not differ (P ≥ 0.76) compared with LFAT cows but were greater (P ≤ 0.05) compared to NOSUP cows on day 70. Final pregnancy percentage did not differ (P ≥ 0.26) among treatments, but a greater percentage of HFAT cows calved (P ≤ 0.05) their second offspring during the first 21 d of the calving season compared to NOSUP and LFAT cows (bred by natural service). Weaning BW was greatest (P ≤ 0.05) for LFAT and least for NOSUP calves. Maternal treatments did not impact (P ≥ 0.11) post-weaning growth and total DM intake of calves. Average plasma cortisol concentrations were greater (P = 0.03) for NOSUP vs. HFAT calves and intermediate for LFAT calves (P ≥ 0.26). Serum titers against infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) were greater or tended to be greater (P ≤ 0.08) for HFAT vs. LFAT calves and intermediate (P ≥ 0.27) for NOSUP calves at the end of preconditioning. Thus, supplemental fat concentration fed to late-gestating beef cows had variable effects on calf performance. Low-fat bakery waste led to greatest calf preweaning growth, whereas high-fat bakery waste enhanced maternal reproduction and had minor benefits to calf humoral immune function.
... Additionally, the inclusion of 3% flaxseed oil in the diets of dairy cows was found to increase milk yield; nonetheless, it was suggested that the inclusion rate should not exceed 4%, as further supplementation could act as a risk factor to decrease DMI, and thus resulting in milk yield depression [29]. The reasons for these discrepancies are not clear, and would be related to the production systems, the type of seed used (extruded or whole), the inclusion rate, which varies greatly between studies, ranging from 4% to 12,7%, and the different compositions of the rations used [30]. Despite the vast information in the literature on the effects of flaxseed on dairy performance, there is limited information on the combination of flaxseed and lupins in dairy cow diets. ...
... In our trial, FML supplementation did not impact milk protein or fat yield. It is generally believed [30][31][32] that feeding ω-3 rich diets (such as in flaxseed) and unsaturated fats (such as contained in lupins) to dairy cows causes a reduction in fat content, which is explained by the formation of trans fatty acids that do not favor fat synthesis in the mammary cells [33]. However, in other studies, no effect on milk fat content was found when cows were fed whole flaxseed or lupins [28,34] or, on the other hand, positive effects were noted [25]. ...
Flaxseed and lupin seed were offered as an alternative dietary approach in dairy cows, through the partial substitution of soybean meal. Milk production and fertility traits were investigated. A total of 330 animals were allocated into two groups, treated (n = 176) and control (n = 154). From each group, 30 animals were selected for hematological and cytological studies. The experimental feeding period lasted for 81 days (25 days prepartum and 56 days postpartum). The control ration (group C) contained corn, barley, soybean meal, rapeseed cake, corn silage and lucerne hay; whereas, in the treatment group (group T), 50% of the soybean meal was replaced by an equal mixture of flaxseed and lupins. The two rations were formulated to be isonitrogenous and isoenergetic. Milk samples were analyzed for chemical composition, somatic cell count (SCC) content and total colony forming units (CFU). Blood samples were collected, and serum was analyzed for non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), acute phase proteins (haptoglobin and serum amyloid) and lipid oxidation indices, namely thiobarbituric-acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and catalase activity. To assess polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) numbers, endometrial samples from each cow were collected on days 21 and 42. No difference was recorded between groups in milk yield (p > 0.05). In multiparous cows, NEFA (mMol/L) concentrations were significantly lower in group T than in group C on day 14 (p > 0.009) and on day 42 (p = 0.05), while no difference was detected in the group of primiparous cows. At all time points, serum TBARS and catalase values were similar in both groups (p > 0.05). Multiparous cows in group T expressed the first postpartum estrus and conceived earlier than cows in group C (p ≤ 0.05). Between days 21 to 42 postpartum, the PMN reduction rate was higher in group T animals (p ≤ 0.05). Acute phase protein levels were in general lower in group T animals, and at specific time points differed significantly from group C (p ≤ 0.05). It was concluded that the partial replacement of soybean meal by flaxseed and lupins had no negative effect on milk yield or milk composition, and improved cow fertility; which, along with the lower cost of flaxseed and lupins mixture, may increase milk production profitability.
... Los resultados en la presente investigación se explican posiblemente porque el suministro de ácido linoleico aumenta la síntesis de colesterol, precursor de la P4, relacionada con el aumento en circulación del factor de crecimiento de insulina tipo I (IGF I), que presentó influencia en el crecimiento folicular y desarrollo del cuerpo lúteo, además de aumento en sitios de unión de la hormona LH, en las células de la teca e incremento en la síntesis de estrógenos ováricos, comparado con las vacas que no recibieron suplementación (Bionaz et al., 2020;Moallem, 2018). En algunos experimentos se reportó un diámetro similar entre los tratamientos: 14,55 mm en el grupo control y 14,18 mm en el grupo con grasa de soya (Childs et al., 2008). ...
El uso de biotecnologías reproductivas en programas de selección y mejora genética busca obtener productos frente a características productivas. Para esta investigación, se comparó el desempeño reproductivo de 134 vacas sometidas a sincronización de celo para inseminación artificial a tiempo fijo, sin suplementación (T1) o con suplementación (T2) con ácidos grados poliinsaturados (AGPI), desde 15 días antes del inicio del protocolo hasta el día 75. El protocolo de sincronización usado fue: día 0: benzoato de estradiol con dispositivo intravaginal de progesterona; día 8: retiro del dispositivo y cloprostenol; día 10: inseminación a tiempo fijo y aplicación de acetato de buserelina. Después de la inseminación, las vacas permanecieron con un toro. La validación de los resultados usó un modelo completamente aleatorizado y la prueba de Tukey (P < 0,05) para interpretación de medias. Hubo una diferencia significativa en el tamaño del folículo preovulatorio (P < 0,0018) y el tamaño del cuerpo lúteo (P < 0,007) positivo para vacas suplementadas. La tasa de preñez a la inseminación a tiempo fijo fue de: T1 = 34,84 % y T2 = 46,26 %, donde el resultado fue un 11,42 % mayor para T2 (P < 0,05); la tasa de preñez del toro fue de T1 = 37,86 % y T2 = 25,44 %, y resultó ser un 12,42 % mayor para T1 (P ˂ 0,05), sin diferencia entre tratamientos (P > 0,05) para la tasa de preñez total. La ganancia de peso fue mayor en terneros hijos de vacas suplementadas (T1 = 19,6 vs. T2 = 33,07 kg) y la suplementación de vacas reproductoras con AGPI aumentó las tasas de preñez a la inseminación artificial a tiempo fijo, reduciendo el intervalo entre partos.
... Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) is an oleaginous plant characterized by a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as linolenic acid (C18:3 n3), fibers, and lignans [3,4]. Linolenic acid improves the PUFA profile in ruminant milk and meat [5]. The inclusion of this fatty acid in animal feed can have positive effects, such as reducing the accumulation of fat in the liver and increasing the milk yield during the transition period, as well as lower rates of embryo death, increased postpartum fertility, and shorter calving intervals of dairy cows [6,7]. ...
... However, further research is needed to investigate how lipids participate in the formation and function of the CL to enhance conception rates. As pointed out by [41], the mechanisms through which fatty acids influence follicular development remain unknown. ...
This experiment aimed to evaluate the effect of calcium salts of linseed oil (rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, C18:3n-3) on metabolic and reproductive traits in high-producing dairy cows under grazing. Thirty-six Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned, in a complete block design, to receive ALA supplementa-tion (0.85 kg•day −1 of calcium salts of linseed oil) or to remain as untreated control (CON). The concentrate was formulated to offer the same amount of energy across treatments (CON cows received an extra kg of corn to compensate for the higher energy density of ALA treatment). A PMR + Alfalfa pasture was offered to all cows at the same time. A fixed time artificial inse-mination (FTAI) at 80 DIM, preceded by a Presynch plus Ovsynch protocol was implemented for the first service and later, on return to estrus, heat detection and artificial insemination (AI) were performed. Pregnancy diagnosis was checked at 30, 42, 60, and 90 d after AI. Blood and milk samples were taken biweekly. Treatment affected plasma cholesterol concentration (160.36 vs. 186.70 mg•dl −1 , p = 0.03, for ALA and CON, respectively) and on size of corpus luteum (CL, 17.6 vs. 13.7 mm, p = 0.02, for ALA and CON, respectively). Sup-plementation tended (p = 0.136) to increase conception rate by 200 DIM (81.69% vs. 55.43% in ALA and CON cows, respectively). However, treatment had no effect (p > 0.05) on body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and circulating levels of beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA), glucose, insulin, growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I). Our results suggest that supplementation with calcium salts of linseed oil could enhance ovarian function without affecting energy metabolism in early lactation dairy cows. How to cite this paper: Iorio, J.
... Ten kwas tłuszczowy promuje zwiększoną zawartość kwasów tłuszczowych n-3 i sprzężonego kwasu linolowego (CLA) w mleku [Chilliard i in. 2007, Moallem 2018 czy mięsie [Mapiye i in. 2013, He i in. ...
... Current recommendations suggest maintaining dietary n-6/n-3 ratios between 2.5 and 4:1 to reduce cardiovascular disease incidences, while the ratio normally ranges from 15:1 to 16.7:1 [70,71]. The average n-6/n3 ratio of milk fat is around 6:1 [55], and thus, lowering the n6/n3 ratio of milk (i.e., the LA/ALA ratio) has the potential to improve the health of consumers [72]. In fact, long-chained n-3 PUFAs, which are essential for human health (i.e., eicosapentaenoic-EPA-and docosahexaenoic acids-DHA), could be synthesized in humans from ALA elongation by ∆5 and ∆6 desaturase [73], despite this metabolic pathway having been documented to have a moderate efficiency in adult human beings [74]. ...
Milk has become a staple food product globally. Traditionally, milk quality assessment has been primarily focused on hygiene and composition to ensure its safety for consumption and processing. However, in recent years, the concept of milk quality has expanded to encompass a broader range of factors. Consumers now also consider animal welfare, environmental impact, and the presence of additional beneficial components in milk when assessing its quality. This shifting consumer demand has led to increased attention on the overall production and sourcing practices of milk. Reflecting on this trend, this review critically explores such novel quality parameters, offering insights into how such practices meet the modern consumer’s holistic expectations. The multifaceted aspects of milk quality are examined, revealing the intertwined relationship between milk safety, compositional integrity, and the additional health benefits provided by milk’s bioactive properties. By embracing sustainable farming practices, dairy farmers and processors are encouraged not only to fulfill but to anticipate consumer standards for premium milk quality. This comprehensive approach to milk quality underscores the necessity of adapting dairy production to address the evolving nutritional landscape and consumption patterns.
... Dietary n-3 FAs positively affect the physiological and reproductive properties in dairy cows [45]. In this work we aimed to investigate how maternal supplementation with different sources of n-3 FAs affects the genes and proteins related to the main physiological pathways in the placenta of dairy cows. ...
Background
The placenta plays a crucial role in supporting and influencing fetal development. We compared the effects of prepartum supplementation with omega-3 (n-3) fatty acid (FA) sources, flaxseed oil (FLX) and fish oil (FO), on the expression of genes and proteins related to lipid metabolism, inflammation, oxidative stress, and the endocannabinoid system (ECS) in the expelled placenta, as well as on FA profile and inflammatory response of neonates. Late-pregnant Holstein dairy cows were supplemented with saturated fat (CTL), FLX, or FO. Placental cotyledons ( n = 5) were collected immediately after expulsion, and extracted RNA and proteins were analyzed by RT-PCR and proteomic analysis. Neonatal blood was assessed for FA composition and concentrations of inflammatory markers.
Results
FO increased the gene expression of fatty acid binding protein 4 ( FABP4 ), interleukin 10 ( IL-10 ), catalase ( CAT ), cannabinoid receptor 1 ( CNR1 ), and cannabinoid receptor 2 ( CNR2 ) compared with CTL placenta. Gene expression of ECS-enzyme FA-amide hydrolase ( FAAH ) was lower in FLX and FO than in CTL. Proteomic analysis identified 3,974 proteins; of these, 51–59 were differentially abundant between treatments ( P ≤ 0.05, |fold change| ≥ 1.5). Top canonical pathways enriched in FLX vs. CTL and in FO vs. CTL were triglyceride metabolism and inflammatory processes. Both n-3 FA increased the placental abundance of FA binding proteins (FABPs) 3 and 7. The abundance of CNR1 cannabinoid-receptor-interacting-protein-1 (CNRIP1) was reduced in FO vs. FLX. In silico modeling affirmed that bovine FABPs bind to endocannabinoids. The FLX increased the abundance of inflammatory CD44-antigen and secreted-phosphoprotein-1, whereas prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 was decreased in FO vs. CTL placenta. Maternal FO enriched neonatal plasma with n-3 FAs, and both FLX and FO reduced interleukin-6 concentrations compared with CTL.
Conclusion
Maternal n-3 FA from FLX and FO differentially affected the bovine placenta; both enhanced lipid metabolism and modulated oxidative stress, however, FO increased some transcriptional ECS components, possibly related to the increased FABPs. Maternal FO induced a unique balance of pro- and anti-inflammatory components in the placenta. Taken together, different sources of n-3 FA during late pregnancy enhanced placental immune and metabolic processes, which may affect the neonatal immune system.
... This was in agreement with the findings of other studies, which showed an increase in the fat content of milk when linseed was added to the diet [48,58]. Additionally, an investigation found that the addition of different levels of encapsulated flaxseed oil in the diet led to a reduction in the fat content of milk due to microbial digestion in the rumen, which could influence the availability of fatty acid profiles in the added fats [47]. Additionally, a study by Abuelfatah et al. (2016) hypothesized that the inclusion of linseed in the diet might augment the molar proportion of acetate concentration in the rumen. ...
The current trial aimed to investigate the effects of three ratios of Omega-6 to Omega-3 Fatty Acids (FAs) in experimental diets in milk composition, milk yield, and FA profile and plasma metabolites in Zel dairy ewes. Sources of omega-6 and Omega-3 FAs in experimental diets consist of extruded soybean and extruded linseed, respectively. Multiparous lactating dairy ewes were divided into four experimental groups to receive the experimental diets: Control (without FA sources), Linoleic Acid (LA) to Alpha-Linolenic (ALA) ratio 1:1, 5:1 and 10:1. Diets showed no effect on lactose and Solid Non-Fat (SNF) concentration in secreted milk, while milk yield, protein and fat content of milk had influenced by FA supplementations in diets (P <0.05). Dairy ewes fed FA profile sources showed greater portions of all investigated FA profiles except (Caproic acid) C6:0. Regarding plasma metabolites, High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) and Very Low-Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) concentrations were higher in the Control group; however, HDL and thyroxin (T4) concentration in plasma in 1:1 experimental group showed highest concentration among experimental groups. Non-Esterified Fatty Acids (NEFA), β-Hydroxybutyric Acid (BHBA), and T3 had not changed significantly between experimental treatments (P>0.05). Overall and according to obtained data, including different omega-3 to omega-6 FAs in different ratios in diets is effective for enhancing the portions of healthy Fas in produced milk, with no reverse effect on milk yield.
... Based on the results of the present study, extruded flaxseed is the best type of fat supplement during the last 2 months of pregnancy up to the 4 months of lactation. Extruded flaxseed or flaxseed oil has been found to have a positive effect on the milk production of various animals in numerous studies (Kholif et al., 2018;Moallem, 2018;Moats et al., 2018), confirming the results that were achieved in this study. Neveu et al. (2013) stated that adding extruded flaxseed to the diet of early lactation Holstein cows did not have any impact on milk production; however, it increased the production of corrected milk based on 3.5% fat. ...
Background
Nutritional manipulation with functional nutrients like polyunsaturated fatty acids can boost milk production efficiency in dairy farming. It is important to consider the animal's physiological periods, especially the second half of the first pregnancy for mammary gland development.
Objectives
By considering multiple factors and comparing them, multi‐attribute decision‐making (MADM) can be utilized to conduct further assessments and select the best diet for the animals.
Methods
Forty primiparous Saanen does, from the last 2 months of pregnancy up to 4 months of lactation, have been assigned to four iso‐energetic and iso‐nitrogenous diets. Four dietary groups included: no external sources of fat (negative control, CT), saturated palm oil (positive control), roasted soybeans (omega‐6, SB) and extruded flaxseed (omega‐3, FS). Twenty‐two performance criteria such as feed intake, milk yield and composition, body weight, blood metabolites and hormones, the milk fatty acid profile, as well as morphological and histological measurements of the mammary gland, in the form of least‐square means, were considered.
Results
A decision‐making tool was used to select the best form of fat supplements in late pregnancy and early lactation diets, to improve lactation performance in Saanen goats. For this purpose, a MADM method was applied to determine the order of preference similarity to the ideal solution. According to the score of this method, the FS group had the highest coefficients (0.689), and the CT group had the lowest coefficients (0.281).
Conclusions
Incorporating flaxseed into the diets of Saanen goats during late pregnancy and early lactation is a valuable strategy for enhancing milk performance. This supplement is recommended as a source of fat. Additionally, the implementation of decision‐making tools, such as the MADM method in animal science, can significantly improve management decision‐making processes by reducing both time and cost. This presents a new avenue for making well‐informed decisions.
... Different pathways, including carbon and FA energy metabolism, including the pentose phosphate pathway and FA oxidation, steroidogenesis, PI-signaling, and n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated FA metabolism, were enriched in the ffEV lipids identified here. Most of these pathways are known to be very important in female reproduction functions, and several of them were reported to be involved in folliculogenesis [1,3], ovarian energy metabolism [58][59][60], steroidogenesis by follicular theca and granulosa cells [16,61], oocyte growth and maturation [2,[62][63][64], and preterm labor and delivery [65]. Moreover, in dairy cows, metabolic status was associated with ffEV-coupled miRNAs, which were involved in various pathways associated with follicular growth and oocyte maturation [66] and suggested the potential involvement of ffEVs in oocyte developmental competence [6]. ...
Follicular fluid (FF) ensures a safe environment for oocyte growth and maturation inside the ovarian follicle in mammals. In each cycle, the large dominant follicle (LF) contains the oocyte designated to be ovulated, whereas the small subordinate follicles (SFs) of the same wave will die through atresia. In cows, the oocytes from the SF, being 2 mm in size, are suitable for in vitro reproduction biotechnologies, and their competence in developing an embryo depends on the size of the follicles. FF contains proteins, metabolites, fatty acids, and a multitude of extracellular vesicles (ffEVs) of different origins, which may influence oocyte competence through bidirectional exchanges of specific molecular cargo between follicular cells and enclosed oocytes. FF composition evolves along with follicle growth, and the abundance of different lipids varies between the LF and SF. Here, significant differences in FF lipid content between the LFs and SFs within the same ovary were demonstrated by MALD-TOF mass spectrometry imaging on bovine ovarian sections. We then aimed to enlighten the lipid composition of FF, and MALDI-TOF lipid profiling was performed on cellular, vesicular, and liquid fractions of FF. Differential analyses on the abundance of detected lipid features revealed specific enrichment of phospholipids in different ffEV types, such as microvesicles (MVs) and exosomes (Exo), compared to depleted FF. MALDI-TOF lipid profiling on MVs and Exo from the LF and SF samples (n = 24) revealed that more than 40% of detected features were differentially abundant between the groups of MVs and Exo from the different follicles (p < 0.01, fold change > 2). Glycerophospholipid and sphingolipid features were more abundant in ffEVs from the SFs, whereas different lysophospholipids, including phosphatidylinositols, were more abundant in the LFs. As determined by functional analysis, the specific lipid composition of ffEVs suggested the involvement of vesicular lipids in cell signaling pathways and largely contributed to the differentiation of the dominant and subordinate follicles.
... Therefore, the animal diet and the addition of phenolic compounds can influence the final characteristics of animal products such as milk, cheese and eggs [21]. Milk is an important source of saturated (SFAs), monounsaturated (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (i.e., omega-3 and omega-6) [22]. The content of the essential fatty acids omega-3 and omega-6 depends more on the dietary intake of cows [23]. ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of dietary supplementation with Olea europaea L. extract on the animal welfare and milk quality of lactating Italian Holstein-Friesian dairy cows at different calving orders. Cows in mid lactation phase received, for 60 days, the natural olive extract Phenofeed Dry® (500 mg/cow/day) with high antioxidant power. Hormonal and metabolic parameters were determined through ELISA assays, the milk fatty acid profile through gas chromatography, chemical-nutritional and hygienic-sanitary parameters through ultrasonic analyses. The milk lysozyme content was measured through a specific ELISA assay. The administration of the enriched feed did not alter the hormonal balance. Primiparous cows were more sensitive to the treatment and showed a better general health status compared to other calving orders. The enriched feed resulted in a reduction of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and an increase of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), ensuring an adequate nutritional content and, above all, a significantly higher content of the antibacterial protein, lysozyme. Overall, our study demonstrate that the inclusion of natural bioactive molecules such as Olea europaea L. polyphenols contributes to improving the welfare status of dairy cows and ensuring high nutritional and functional quality of animal productions.
... [16] From nutritional point of view the n-6/n-3 ratio is generally used to assess milk fat quality. Present results were in accordance with Moalum, [33] Guida et al., [32] and Breslow, [34] who stated that, a diet with low n-6/n-3 ratio is healthier for humans due to the reduced risk of many chronic diseases. The optimum dietary n-6/n-3 ratio should be around 1-4:1; ...
Two experiments are conducted to find out the effect of rice bran crude lecithin on rumen ecology, milk fat quality, metabolic indices, and leptin (LEP) gene expression. In first experiment, 12 crossbred calves are randomly divided into two groups, that is, RBCL‐0 and RBCL‐6, and they are fed wheat straw based diet with concentrate mixture containing 0% RBCL (CM1) and 6% RBCL (CM2), respectively, for 120 d for rumen fermentation study. Ruminal ammonia‐N and short chain fatty acids and rumen microbes are nonsignificantly affected in RBCL calves. In second experiment, 12 lactating cows are randomly divided into RBCL‐0 and RBCL‐6 groups and fed CM1 and CM2 concentrate along with napier grass as roughage. In milk fatty acid profile, C16:1 fatty acid is significantly lower while cis‐ C18:1 is significantly higher in the RBCL supplemented cows. The atherogenic index and thrombogenic index are 16 and 19% lower while health promoting index, polyunsaturated saturated fatty acids, and hypocholesterolaemic/hypercholesterolaemic are 16, 10, and 16, respectively, higher in RBCL‐6 cows. The mean nonesterified fatty acid and β‐hydroxy butyric acid value is lower while LEP gene expression is higher in RBCL supplemented cows than control cows. The milk income is higher in RBCL cows. Finally, it can be concluded that RBCL at 6% in concentrate mixture of dairy ration do not adversely affect the rumen ecology. Although RBCL has capacity to enhance health properties of milk fat along with profitability, still more studies are warranted.
Practical applications: Cow milk has always been an important component of the human diet in the world. The milk composition, especially fat, is directly influenced by feeding regime in dairy animals. In the milk fat, the unsaturated fatty acids (mainly polyunsaturated fatty acids) help in improving the health condition of consumers along with the keeping quality of milk. In this series, rice bran crude lecithin was used in the dairy ration and found that it altered certain metabolic parameters and gene expression, which may be beneficial for animal health without altering rumen fermentation. Although RBCL substantially modify the milk fatty acid profile and improves the fat indices which will enhance the human health by protecting them from cardiovascular diseases.
... We hypothesize that the addition of concentrates and bypass fat into the diets of Malaysian buffaloes could improve the in-vitro ruminal fermentation. Nevertheless, previous studies suggested that the type of supplement and their ratios affected the characteristics of ruminal fermentation and microbial populations differently (Angeles-Hernandez et al., 2020;Moallem, 2018). This is because each supplement differs in its physical and chemical properties (Behan et al., 2019;Li et al., 2019). ...
The use of dietary supplementation such as concentrate and bypass fat to improve the buffalo performance warrants further investigations, especially in an in-vitro study. Even though several studies have reported the potential of supplementation in enhancing the growth of buffaloes, the effect on a different breeds of buffaloes, the potential to reduce methane production, and the changes in microbial populations remained unclear following different ratios of forage: supplementation feeding regime. This study described the effects of supplementing Brachiaria decumbens grass (G) received either concentrate (C) or mixed with bypass fat (B) supplement on the in-vitro rumen fermentation and microbial ecosystem of Murrah cross and Swamp buffaloes. Three males Murrah cross and Swamp buffaloes con- suming 100% DM of fresh B. decumbens were used as rumen contents donors. The in-vitro ruminal fermentation and microbial population profiles were investigated. The study revealed that Diet C had the highest ether extract and gross energy, with optimum value of crude proteins but low in crude fiber compared to diets B and A. Total volatile fatty ac- ids (TVFA) and their molars proportion, gas production, total fatty acids, total bacteria count, and total protozoa count increased in parallel with the concentrate levels in Diets B and C (P < 0.05) in both breeds. The result also revealed that Murrah cross and Swamp buffaloes showed comparable rumen fermentation patterns when treated with the same dietary treatments, but Swamp buffalo were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in Ruminococcus albus and total fatty acid. This study showed that supplementing concentrates solely or a mixture with bypass fat into a grass-based diet could decrease methane production, as well as methanogens without giving a detrimental effect on rumen fermentation but also increase the degree of fatty acids saturation partially via increasing the abundance of fibrolytic bacteria. Thus, both dietary treatments are highly recommended to enhance optimal rumen fermentation and eventually support production performance.
... Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) supplementation has become a common tactic to enhance the energy density of diets and decrease the effects of negative energy balance (Bionaz et al., 2020). In this scenario, the PUFA from omega 3 as α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and those from omega 6 as linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid, receive special consideration due to their roles in reproductive and immune function (Moallem, 2018;Moallem et al., 2020). Lackey & Olefsky (2016) state that fatty acids are metabolic intermediaries. ...
Fatty acids are considered metabolic intermediaries, although new facts indicate they also work as signaling molecules with different roles in the immune response. Based on that, in this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and α-linolenic acid (LNA) in ex vivo bovine endometrial explants. For this, two groups were formed: (1) LPS-challenged and (2) control, both to evaluate the accumulation of proinflammatory cytokines as interleukin 1β (IL1B) and interleukin 6 (IL6). To develop the study, bovine female reproductive tracts from non-pregnant Angus heifers without evidence of reproductive diseases were selected. Endometrial explants were processed and treated for 24 h with EPA, DHA, and LNA in five different concentrations (0μM, 50μM, 100 μM, 200μM and 400 μM) and then, challenged with LPS for 24 h. Supernatants were collected to evaluate the concentration of IL1B and IL6 by ELISA. Explants treated with EPA from control groups reduced the concentrations of ILB (200µM) and IL6 (400 µM), and IL6 (50 µM; 100 µM) from the LPS-challenged group. DHA decreased the accumulation of IL1B and IL6 at 200 µM on explants from the LPS-challenged group, and 200 µM reduced IL6 from the control group. In contrast, explants treated with LNA only reduced the accumulation of IL1B to 400μM (from both groups). In conclusion, the EPA acid is the best anti inflammatory option to decrease the concentration of both pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1B and IL6) from LPS-challenged and control groups in bovine endometrial explants; while LNA evidence to be the last option to promote an anti-inflammatory response.
... When it comes to lipid diets in ruminant animals, based on the particularities associated with the type of digestive system and lipid metabolism, dietary formulations normally contain a low concentration of fatty acids (2.5-3.5% of the dry matter [DM] in the diet) (Moallem, 2018). High concentrations of fat (≥ 6% of DM in the diet) can affect the rumen microbiota, efficiency of microbial protein synthesis, and fiber digestion, and may lead to fatal metabolic conditions (Hess et al., 2008). ...
This study aimed to verify the impact of high-fat diet consumption for a prolonged period on oxidative stress, fetal growth, umbilical vascular system, and placental structures in pregnant goats. Twenty-two pregnant goats were grouped into the control diet (n= 11) and fat diet (n = 11). Flaxseed meal was added to the fat diet, replacing the corn grain of concentrate, from gestational day 100 to delivery date. Diets were isonitrogenous and isoenergetic, differing in fat content (2.8% vs. 6.3% dry matter). The fat group showed higher feed intake and total plasma lipid levels than the control group (P < 0.001). No difference was found in placentome, and umbilical vascular development. Fat diet-fed goats exhibited a lower systolic peak in the umbilical artery. At delivery, placental traits were similar with the exception of the cotyledon width (P = 0.0075), which was smaller in the fat group and cotyledon surface (P = 0.0047) for multiple pregnancy of fat diet. Cotyledonary epithelium showed more intense staining of lipid droplets and a greater area for lipofuscin staining in the fat group compared to control group (P < 0.001). The mean live weight of the kids was lower in the fat group in the first week after delivery than in control group. Thus, in goats, the continuous administration of a high-fat diet during pregnancy does not appear to modify the fetal-maternal vascular structures but has an impact on a part of the placental structure; therefore, its use must be carefully evaluated.
A R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Calcium salt of soybean oil calcium salt of linseed oil transition period backfat thickness fatty acids energy balance A B S T R A C T This study investigated the effects of supplementation with two calcium salt fatty acid sources (soybean oil (CaSO) and linseed oil (CaLN)) before and after parturition on lactation performance and blood metabolite profiles in dairy cows. A study was conducted with twenty-four multiparous Holstein cows (parity = 3.12 ± 0.9 and Backfat thickness = 21.77 ± 1.98) that were divided into a 2 × 2 factorial design 21 days before expected calving. The aim was to investigate the interplay between prepartum (CaSO or CaLN, at 2 % of dry matter) and postpartum (at 1.4 % of dry matter) fat supplementation on lactation performance and blood metabolite profiles. Initially, cows were grouped according to the source of prepartum fat (either CaSO or CaLN, with 12 cows in each group). Postpartum, these groups were further subdivided according to whether the fat source was administered continuously (LN-LN, SO-SO) or alternately (LN-SO, SO-LN) over a 28-day period. This resulted in four different treatment groups, each with six cows. The fat supplements contained 84 % fat and 9 % Ca. No statistically significant differences were found in dry matter intake (DMI), colostrum yield or most concentrations of blood metabolites (insulin, cholesterol, glucose, triglycerides, total protein, albumin, β-hydroxybutyric acid (BHB), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and urea-N). However, cows fed CaSO prepartum had a significantly higher plasma concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) than cows fed CaLN. Cows fed CaSO had higher backfat thickness (BFT) from day − 21-0 than those fed CaLN (P = 0.05). Notably, cows in the SO-SO group lost the most weight, while cows in the SO-LN group lost the least, especially on days 21 and 28 postpartum (P = 0.05). Switching from soybean oil prepartum to linseed oil postpartum (SO-LN) significantly increased milk production in the first 28 days of lactation compared to other diets. In addition, the fat content in milk was influenced by the type of fat supplementation prepartum, with cows receiving CaSO having a lower milk fat percentage than those receiving CaLN (P < 0.05). The results on blood parameters suggest potential benefits of the SO-LN diet for Abbreviations: ADF, Acid detergent fiber; ALT, Alanine aminotransferase; AST, Aspartate aminotransferase; BFT, Backfat thickness; BHB, β-hydroxybutyric acid; CaLN, calcium salt of linseed oil; CaSO, calcium salt of soybean oil; CSFA, calcium salt of fatty acids; DMI, dry matter intake; ECM, energy corrected milk; FCM, fat corrected milk; IGF-1, insulin-like growth factor-1; ME, metabolizable energy; NEB, negative energy balance; NDF, neutral detergent fiber; NEFA, non-esterified fatty acids; NEL, net energy for lactation; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids. postpartum cows, as emphasized by stable BHB concentrations and the highest IGF-1 concentrations , especially without the elevated BHB concentrations typically associated with the SO-SO diet. The blood concentrations of total protein, urea-N, triglycerides and NEFA were not affected by the treatments. Also, the dietary change did not adversely affect liver function, as shown by unchanged AST and ALT concentrations. Therefore, the results suggest that a dietary intervention involving the administration of soybean oil prepartum and switching to linseed oil postpartum (SO-LN strategy) has the potential to improve milk yield during the early lactation period.
The impact of nutritional modification to increase functional polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as n-3 and n-6 fatty acids (FA) or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), on milk proteome profile during early lactation remains largely unknown. We used an untargeted proteomics approach to investigate the impact of lactation day and PUFA supplementation on the proteome signature in skimmed milk over the course of early lactation. Sixteen Holstein dairy cows received abomasal infusion of saturated FA (CTRL) or a mixture of essential FA and CLA (EFA + CLA group) from − 63 to + 63 days relative to parturition. Using quantitative proteomics, 479 unique proteins were identified in skimmed milk at days 1, 28, and 63 postpartum. The top discriminating proteins between transition milk (day 1) and mature milk (days 28 and 63), including members of complements (i.e. C2 and C5), growth factor (TGFB2), lipoproteins (i.e. APOE and APOD), and chaperones (i.e. ST13 and CLU), are associated with calves’ immune system and gut development. The EFA + CLA supplementation moderately affected a few proteins associated with regulating mammary glands’ lipogenesis through the (re)assembly of lipoprotein particles, possibly under the PPAR signaling pathway. Collectively, skimmed milk proteome is dynamically regulated initially by cow’s metabolic and physiological changes and to a lesser extent by nutritional PUFA modifications.
Dairy ruminants provide a major part of the livestock and agriculture sectors. Due to the increase in world population and the subsequent increase in dairy product demands, the dairy sector has been intensified. Dairy farming intensification and the subsequent increase in animal nutritional demands and the increase in the average global temperature as well have subjected animals to various stress conditions that impact their health and welfare. Various management practices and nutritional strategies have been proposed and studied to alleviate these impacts, especially under heat stress, as well as during critical periods, like the transition period. Some of the nutritional interventions to cope with stress factors and ensure optimal health and production are the inclusion of functional fatty acids and amino acids and feed additives (minerals, prebiotics, probiotics, essential oils and herbs, phytobiotics, enzymes, etc.) that have been proven to regulate animals’ metabolism and improve their antioxidant status and immune function. Thus, these nutritional strategies could be the key to ensuring optimum growth, milk production, and reproduction efficiency. This review summarizes and highlights key nutritional approaches to support the remarkable metabolic adaptations ruminants are facing during the transition period and to reduce heat stress effects and evaluate their beneficial effects on animal physiology, performance, health, as well as welfare.
The use of vegetable oils has improved the productive and reproductive conditions in sheep, although the beneficial effects depend on the type of fatty acid supplemented. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of conjugated linoleic acid and recycled vegetable oil used in seafood deep-frying on the reproductive and productive activity of sheep in tropical México. Thirty-three Katahdin x East Friesian ewes were randomly assigned to one of three diets with: 3% vegetable oil (control); 2% vegetable oil + 1% conjugated linoleic acid; or 3% recycled vegetable oil used in seafood deep-frying. The trial lasted from
two weeks prior to estrus synchronization to 60 d after partum. Body weight and reproductive characteristics were recorded in ewes and body weight in lambs. The results indicated beneficial effects of conjugated linoleic acid supplementation on reproductive activity (conception rate and resumption of reproductive activity); however, lambs of dams fed recycled vegetable oil used in seafood deep-frying had
the best daily weight gains. Therefore, the reproductive activity was improved with conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in dams, while the growth performance of the progeny was enhanced with recycled vegetable oil used in seafood deep-frying.
Supplemental dietary rumen available fats show promise as enteric methane (eCH4) mitigators for lactating dairy cows. However, concerns include variability in eCH4 response and possible negative effects on dairy cow performance. Successful implementation of this mitigation option requires better prediction of responses specifically to rumen available FA as well as understanding the modulating effects of other dietary and animal characteristics. Using meta-analytic and meta-regression techniques, 35 published studies with diet definition were used to assess changes in eCH4 emissions and lactation performance associated with supplemental fat, specific supplemental rumen available FA types, and other dietary characteristics. Enteric CH4 (g/d) was reduced by 3.77% per percentage unit of supplemental rumen available EE (RAEE). Supplemental rumen available PUFA (C18:2 and C18:3) and UFA (C18:1, C18:2, C18:3) mitigated eCH4 (g/d) emissions in dairy cows by 6.88 and 4.65% per percentage unit increase, respectively. The anti-methanogenic effects of PUFA, MUFA and MCFA increased with correspondingly greater basal dietary levels of each FA type. Higher rumen-degradable starch (RDS; > 18% DM) in the basal diet promoted greater reductions in eCH4 yield (eCH4/DMI, g/kg) with supplemental rumen available PUFA and UFA. Both milk fat percentage and yield (kg/d) were reduced with rumen available fat supplementation with a reduction of 7.8% and 6.0%, respectively, relative to control diets. Our results highlight the importance of determining basal levels of the rumen available FA before providing supplemental rumen available FA as an option for enteric eCH4 mitigation. Dairy nutritionists can use estimates generated from this analysis to predict changes in eCH4 emissions and dairy cow performance associated with dietary supplementation of rumen available EE and specific rumen available FA types for the purpose of eCH4 mitigation.
During the transition to calving, dairy ruminants undergo physiological changes affecting several metabolic functions, including feeding behavior, nutrient flux and redistribution, hormonal patterns, and immune responses. Failure in those adaptations often induces a physiological imbalance condition, predisposing animals to developing several metabolic and infectious disorders at the onset of lactation.
The immune system exerts a pivotal role in allowing a proper adaptation of dairy ruminants to the transition period, as immune dysfunctions and chronic inflammatory conditions contribute to increasing the development of physiological imbalance condition. Several managerial practices could be adopted to improve dairy ruminants’ adaptation to the transition period through improving the immune system function and mainly mitigating the inflammatory conditions. This chapter is aimed at (1) exploring physiological adaptations affecting metabolic functions of dairy ruminants while approaching calving, (2) understanding metabolic processes that are more likely affected by a physiological imbalance condition, (3) highlighting the role of the immune system in affecting a successful adaptation to the transition period, and (4) listing possible intervention aimed at improving such adaptation, mainly through modulating inflammation.
The present study evaluated the effects of switching from fatty acids, n-6 polyunsaturated (PUFA) to n-3 (PUFA) supplements while maintaining constant lipogenic and glucogenic diets around calving period. A total of 30 Holstein cows, selected based on their body condition and parity, were divided into three treatment groups. The cows were blocked from 21 (± 2) days before calving to 42 days post-calving.The teatments included a group that received a basal diet (control group), a group that received basal diet with 1.38% dry matter (DM) of palm fat, a saturated fatty acid (SFA group), and a group received 5% (DM) of safflower seeds (source of n-6 PUFA) from day 21 before calving to the day 21 after calving and 3.85% (DM) of flaxseed (n-3, PUFA) from the day 21 to day 42 after calving (Omega group). The feed supplemented with saturated and PUFA could increase milk production in comparison to the control group. Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) concentration was significantly greater in the SFA and the Omega groups compared to the control group. Insulin levels before and after calving were greater in the Omega group than in the SFA group. Among the inflammatory and immune factors, the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were significantly greater in the Omega group during the prepartum period and total antioxidant capacity in the SFA and Omega groups during the entire experiment. Consequently, supplementing n-6 PUFA during the close-up and n-3 PUFA during the early lactation period can increase milk production without affecting dry matter intake.
Here, we evaluated the effect of dietary supplementation with an Olea europaea L. extract on the animal welfare and milk quality of dairy cows. Thirty Italian Holstein–Friesian dairy cows in the mid-lactation phase (90 to 210 days) were blocked into experimental groups based on parity class (namely, primiparous (P) (n = 10), secondiparous (S) (n = 10) and pluriparous (PL) (n = 10)) and received, for 60 days, Phenofeed Dry® at 500 mg/cow/day. Milk and blood samples were collected before the start of the treatment (T0), subsequently every 15 days (T1–T4) and at 45 days after the end of treatment (T5). In the serum, glucose and triglycerides, stress, the thyroid, lactation and sex hormones were measured; in the milk, lysozyme content as well as the fatty acid profile were assessed. In the whole animal, the enriched feed helped to maintain hormonal parameters in the physiological range while producing hypoglycemic (T4 vs. T0, for P and PL p < 0.001) and hypolipidemic effects (T4 vs. T0, for P p < 0.001 and for PL p < 0.01). At the milk level, it resulted in a reduction in total fat (T5 vs. T0, for P, S and PL p < 0.001) and in the saturated fatty acids (SFAs)/monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) ratio paralleled by an increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (T5 vs. T0, for P, S and PL p < 0.001), protein content (lysozyme (T4 vs. T0, for P and PL p < 0.001)) and lactose (T5 vs. T0, for P, S and PL p < 0.001). Thus, the inclusion of natural bioactive molecules such as O. europaea L. polyphenols in the dairy cow diet may help to improve animal welfare and milk quality.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and n-6 PUFA on dry matter intake (DMI), energy balance, oxidative stress, and performance of transition cows. Forty-five multiparous Holstein dairy cows with similar parity, body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and milk yield were used in a completely randomized design during a 56-d experimental period including 28 d prepartum and 28 d postpartum. At 240 d of pregnancy, cows were randomly assigned to one of the 3 isoenergetic and isoprotein dietary treatments, including a control ration containing 1% hydrogenated fatty acid (CON), a ration with 8% extruded soybean (HN6, high n-6 PUFA source), and a ration with 3.5% extruded flaxseed (HN3; high n-3 PUFA source). The HN6 and HN3 diets had an n-6/n-3 ratio of 3.05:1 and 0.64:1 in prepartum cows and 8.16:1 and 1.59:1 in postpartum cows, respectively. During the prepartum period (3, 2, and 1 wk before calving), DMI, DMI per unit of BW, total net energy intake, and net energy balance were higher in the HN3 than in the CON and NH6 groups. During the postpartum period (2, 3, and 4 wk after calving), cows fed HN3 and HN6 diets both showed increasing DMI, DMI as a percentage of BW, and total net energy intake compared with those fed the CON diet. The BW of calves in the HN3 group was 12.91% higher than those in the CON group. Yield and nutrient composition of colostrum (first milking after calving) were not affected by HN6 or HN3 but milk yield from 1 to 4 wk of milking was significantly improved compared with CON. During the transition period, BW, BCS, and BCS changes were not affected. Cows fed the HN6 diet had a higher plasma NEFA concentration compared with the CON cows during the prepartum period. Feeding HN3 reduced the proportion of de novo fatty acids and increased the proportion of preformed long-chain fatty acids in regular milk. In addition, the n-3 PUFA-enriched diet reduced the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio in milk. In conclusion, increasing the n-3 fatty acids concentration in the diet increased both DMI during the transition period and milk production after calving, and supplementing n-3 fatty acids was more effective in mitigating the net energy balance after calving.
This book aims to bring together the quantitative approaches concerned with elucidating mechanisms used in the study of ruminant digestion, metabolism and related areas from different contributing practitioners, experts and scientists. A great deal of research had been carried out on the digestive system of ruminants and also led to studies on the peculiarities of metabolism that cope with unusual products of microbial digestion. Quantitative approaches to ruminant physiology and special features of the ruminant digestive system together with topics on the rate of rumen digestion; intestinal transit; digesta flow; digestibility measurement; particle dynamics; rumen microorganisms and functions; gas production; glucose and fatty acid metabolism; protein and fat metabolism; metabolic regulation; mineral metabolism; protein and energy metabolism interactions; growth; lactation; mathematical modelling; feed processing; feed evaluation; calorimetry; and relationship between pasture characteristics and animal performance are discussed. This book will be of significant interest to researchers, animal scientists, nutritionists, veterinarians, animal breeders and students.
Objectives were to determine the effects of supplementing docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-rich algae on reproduction of dairy cows. Holstein cows were assigned randomly to either a control (n = 373) or the same diet supplemented daily with 100 g/cow of an algae product containing 10% DHA (Algae, n = 366) from 27 to 147 days postpartum. Measurements included yields of milk and milk components, fatty acids (FA) profiles in milk fat and plasma phospholipids, resumption of ovulation by 57 days postpartum, pregnancy per artificial insemination (AI), and expression of interferon-stimulated genes in leukocytes. Feeding Algae increased resumption of estrous cyclicity (77.6 vs. 65.9%) and pregnancy at first AI (47.6 vs. 32.8%) in primiparous cows. Algae increased pregnancy per AI in all AI in both primiparous and multiparous cows (41.6 vs. 30.7%), which reduced days to pregnancy by 22 days (102 vs. 124 days) compared with control cows. Pregnant cows fed Algae had greater expression of RTP4 in blood leukocytes compared with pregnant control cows. Feeding Algae increased incorporation of DHA, eicosapentaenoic acid, conjugated linoleic acid isomers cis-9 trans-11, trans-10 cis-12, and total n-3 FA in phospholipids in plasma and milk fat. Yields of milk and true protein increased by 1.1 kg/day and 30 g/day, respectively, whereas fat yield decreased 40 g/day in Algae compared with control. Supplementing DHA-rich algae altered the FA composition of lipid fractions and improved reproduction in dairy cows. The benefits on reproduction might be mediated by enhanced embryo development based on changes in interferon-stimulated gene expression.
Background: Maternal essential fatty acid status declines during pregnancy, and as a result, neonatal concentrations of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n-6) may not be optimal. Objective: Our objective was to improve maternal and neonatal fatty acid status by supplementing pregnant women with a combination of a-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6), the ultimate dietary precursors of DHA and AA, respectively. Design: From week 14 of gestation until delivery, pregnant women consumed daily 25 g margarine supplying either 2.8 g ALA + 9.0 g LA (n = 29) or 10.9 g LA (n = 29). Venous blood was collected for plasma phospholipid fatty acid analyses at weeks 14, 26, and 36 of pregnancy, at delivery, and at 32 wk postpartum. Umbilical cord blood and vascular tissue samples were collected to study neonatal fatty acid status also. Pregnancy outcome variables were assessed. Results: ALA+LA supplementation did not prevent decreases in maternal DHA and AA concentrations during pregnancy and, compared with LA supplementation, did not increase maternal and neonatal DHA concentrations but significantly increased eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22:5n-3) concentrations. In addition, ALA+LA supplementation lowered neonatal AA status. No significant differences in pregnancy outcome variables were found. Conclusions: Maternal ALA+LA supplementation did not promote neonatal DHA+AA status. The lower concentrations of Osbond acid (22:5n-6) in maternal plasma phospholipids and umbilical arterial wall phospholipids with ALA+LA supplementation than with LA supplementation suggest only that functional DHA status improves with ALA+LA supplementation.
The study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different dietary oil sources supplementation on laying hens' performance and fatty acids profile of egg yolks. Seventy-two 23-week-old laying hens (Tetra-SL) divided into six experimental diets (four replicates and three birds per replication) in a completely randomized design for nine weeks. Experimental diets were included: 1) control (no oil), 2) 3.00% fish oil, 3) 3.00% olive oil, 4) 3.00% grape seed oil, 5) 3.00% canola oil, and 6) 3.00% soybean oil. The diets were similar in terms of energy and protein. Egg production, egg mass, egg weight, feed intake, feed conversion ratio and fatty acid composition of egg yolk were determined at the end of the trial. The results indicated that the performance parameters were not significantly different between treatments in the entire period (p > 0.05). However, fatty acids profiles of yolk were affected by experimental diets (p < 0.05). Fish oil significantly reduced omega-6 fatty acids and increased docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in egg yolk. Also canola oil increased linolenic acid content in the egg yolk. In conclusion, fish oil increased omega-3 long-chain fatty acids and decreased omega-6 to omega-3 ratio in eggs which may have beneficial effects on human health.
Characterizations of fatty acids composition in % of total methylester of fatty acids (FAMEs) of fourteen vegetable oils-safflower, grape, silybum marianum, hemp, sunflower, wheat germ, pumpkin seed, sesame, rice bran, almond, rapeseed, peanut, olive, and coconut oil-were obtained by using gas chromatography (GC). Saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), palmitic acid (C16:0; 4.6%-20.0%), oleic acid (C18:1; 6.2%-71.1%) and linoleic acid (C18:2; 1.6%-79%), respectively, were found predominant. The nutritional aspect of analyzed oils was evaluated by determination of the energy contribution of SFAs (19.4%-695.7% ERDI), PUFAs (10.6%-786.8% ERDI), n-3 FAs (4.4%-117.1% ERDI) and n-6 FAs (1.8%-959.2% ERDI), expressed in % ERDI of 1 g oil to energy recommended dietary intakes (ERDI) for total fat (ERDI-37.7 kJ/g). The significant relationship between the reported data of total fat, SFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs intakes (% ERDI) for adults and mortality caused by coronary heart diseases (CHD) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) in twelve countries has not been confirmed by Spearman's correlations.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of diets with different starch concentrations and fish oil (FO) supplementation on lactation performance, in vivo total-tract nutrient digestibility, N balance, and methane (CH4) emissions in lactating dairy cows. The experiment was conducted as a 4 × 4 Latin square design with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: 2 concentrations of dietary starch [low vs. high: 23.7 and 27.7% on a dry matter (DM) basis; neutral detergent fiber/starch ratios: 1.47 and 1.12], the presence or absence of FO supplement (0.80% on a DM basis), and their interaction were evaluated. Four Italian Friesian cows were fed 1 of the following 4 diets in 4 consecutive 26-d periods: (1) low starch (LS), (2) low starch plus FO (LSO), (3) high starch (HS), and (4) high starch plus FO (HSO). The diets contained the same amount of forages (corn silage, alfalfa and meadow hays). The starch concentration was balanced using different proportions of corn meal and soybean hulls. The cows were housed in metabolic stalls inside open-circuit respiration chambers to allow measurement of CH4 emission and the collection of separate urine and feces. No differences among treatments were observed for DM intake. We observed a trend for FO to increase milk yield: 29.2 and 27.5 kg/d, on average, for diets with and without FO, respectively. Milk fat was affected by the interaction between dietary starch and FO: milk fat decreased only in the HSO diet. Energy-corrected milk (ECM) was affected by the interaction between starch and FO, with a positive effect of FO on the LS diet. Fish oil supplementation decreased the n-6:n-3 ratio of milk polyunsaturated fatty acids. High-starch diets negatively influenced all digestibility parameters measured except starch, whereas FO improved neutral detergent fiber digestibility (41.9 vs. 46.1% for diets without and with FO, respectively, and ether extract digestibility (53.7 vs. 67.1% for diets without and with FO, respectively). We observed a trend for lower CH4 emission (g/d) and intensity (g/kg of milk) with the high-starch diets compared with the low-starch diets: 396 versus 415 g/d on average, respectively, and 14.1 versus 14.9 g/kg of milk, respectively. Methane intensity per kilogram of ECM was affected by the interaction between starch and FO, with a positive effect of FO for the LS diet: 14.5 versus 13.3 g of CH4/kg of ECM for LS and LSO diets, respectively.
Fish meal is considered a major source of protein commonly used in domestic animal feeds as
well as in commercial aqua feeds. The present study documents the different species used for
the production of fish meal in Pakistan and to determine the proximate composition of fish
meal samples obtained from these units. Samples of fish meal were collected from nine
different commercial fish meal processing units and were processed for proximate analysis. Results of the proximate analysis revealed more than 60% crude protein (CP) in the fish meal
samples obtained from Abdul Baqi, Shamim, Abdul Rasheed and Liaqat fish meal processing
units while samples collected from rest of the processing units contained less than 60% CP.
Crude fat ranged from 9.9% to 29.5%, ash content 12.7 to 28.2% and gross energy 4,118 to
4,883cal/g. The present study is a preliminary step to identify the source of fish meal
production and its chemical evaluation determining the quality and its possible utilization in
aqua feed production.
The objectives were to evaluate the effect of supplementing saturated or unsaturated long-chain fatty acids (FA) to nulliparous and parous Holstein animals (n = 78) during late gestation on FA profile of colostrum and plasma of newborn calves and on production and absorption of IgG. The saturated FA supplement (SAT) was enriched in C18:0 and the unsaturated FA supplement (ESS) was enriched in the essential FA C18:2n-6. Fatty acids were supplemented at 1.7% of dietary dry matter to low-FA diets (1.9% of dietary dry matter) during the last 8 wk of gestation. Calves were fed 4 L of colostrum within 2 h of birth from their own dam or from a dam fed the same treatment. Feeding fat did not affect prepartum dry matter intake, body weight change, or gestation length. Parous but not nulliparous dams tended to give birth to heavier calves if fed fat prepartum. Parous dams were less able to synthesize essential FA derivatives, as evidenced by lower desaturase indices, compared with nulliparous dams, suggesting a greater need for essential FA supplementation. The FA profile of colostrum was modified to a greater degree by prepartum fat feeding than was that of neonatal calf plasma. The placental transfer and synthesis of elongated n-3 FA (C20:5, C22:5, and C22:6) were reduced, whereas the n-6 FA (C18:2, C18:3, and C20:3) were increased in plasma of calves born from dams fed ESS rather than SAT. Supplementing unsaturated FA prepartum resulted in elevated concentrations of trans isomers of unsaturated monoene and diene FA, as well as C18:2n-6 in colostrum. Serum concentrations of IgG tended to be increased in calves born from dams fed fat compared with those not fed fat, and prepartum feeding of SAT tended to improve circulating concentrations of IgG in newborn calves above the feeding of ESS. Apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG was improved in calves born from dams fed fat, and SAT supplementation appeared more effective than supplementation with ESS. Feeding SAT prepartum may be of greater benefit based upon greater circulating IgG concentrations of calves after colostrum feeding. Feeding moderate amounts of saturated or unsaturated long-chain FA during the last 8 wk of gestation changed the FA profile of colostrum and plasma of neonates to reflect that of the supplements.
The objectives were to determine the differential incorporation of various omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids (FAs) supplemented to dairy cows into ovarian compartments, and assess the effects on in vitro fertilization (IVF). Forty-two 256-day-pregnant cows were supplemented with encapsulated fats, in treatments designated as: (i) SFA - saturated fat at 240 and 560 g/d per cow, prepartum and postpartum, respectively; (ii) FLX - flaxseed oil at 300 and 700 g/d per cow prepartum and postpartum, respectively; (iii) FO - fish oil at 300 and 700 g/d per cow prepartum and postpartum, respectively. Commencing at 60 days in lactation ovum pickup (OPU) was performed twice weekly (20 sessions; 5 cows per group) and in vitro maturation and fertilization were conducted. The proportion of ALA was greater in follicular fluid (FF), granulosa cells and cumulus-oocyte-complexes (COCs) of FLX cows than in other groups (P < 0.001). The proportion of DHA was 6.7 times as great in FF of FO as in other groups (P < 0.001); DPAn-3 and DHA were detected in COCs of FO but not in others. The follicles number during OPU was higher in FLX and FO than in SFA (P < 0.05), and the oocyte cleavage rate was higher in FLX and FO than in SFA (P < 0.01). Also, the percentage of oocytes that developed to blastocysts tended to be higher in both n-3 groups than in SFA (P < 0.1). In conclusion, both dietary n-3 FAs similarly improved folliculogenesis and IVF performance, therefore ALA-rich botanical n-3 seem to be a satisfactory approach to improve oocyte quality.
Western diets are characterized by both dietary omega-3 fatty acid deficiency and increased fructose intake. The latter found in high amounts in added sugars such as sucrose and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Both a low intake of omega-3 fatty acids or a high fructose intake contribute to metabolic syndrome, liver steatosis or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), promote brain insulin resistance, and increase the vulnerability to cognitive dysfunction. Insulin resistance is the core perturbation of metabolic syndrome. Multiple cognitive domains are affected by metabolic syndrome in adults and in obese adolescents, with volume losses in the hippocampus and frontal lobe, affecting executive function. Fish oil supplementation maintains proper insulin signaling in the brain, ameliorates NAFLD and decreases the risk to metabolic syndrome suggesting that adequate levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the diet can cope with the metabolic challenges imposed by high fructose intake in Western diets which is of major public health importance. This review presents the current status of the mechanisms involved in the development of the metabolic syndrome, brain insulin resistance, and NAFLD a most promising area of research in Nutrition for the prevention of these conditions, chronic diseases, and improvement of Public Health.
Four primparous Holstein cows were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square with 21-d periods to determine the effect of redfish oil and monensin sodium on milk composition. The four dietary treatments were a basal diet (control), the basal diet plus 14.5 mg monensin kg-1 dietary dry matter (M), 2% fish oil (FO), and a combination of fish oil and monensin (FO + M). Total DM intake, measured during the last week of each period was reduced on the two fish oil treatments but an interaction with monensin depressed intakes further. An additive inhibition of rumen fibre degradation is discussed. Differences in yields of milk and lactose were not shown to be significant among treatments. Milk fat content was reduced 29.8% by fish oil supplementation and protein content dropped 5.3%. Protein:fat ratios increased from 0.78 on the control ration to 1.08 on the fish oil treatments. Monensin, on the other hand, only caused a change in milk fat percentage, and that by a 7.5% decline. Fish oil increased the concentrations of 20-and 22-carbon fatty acids in milk, including the n-3 eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids which were transferred at 9.3 and 16.2% efficiency from the diet, respectively. Monensin had no effect on milk fatly acid profile. The fish-oil-by-monensin interaction produced the poorest energy intakes and rates of energy deposition into milk.
The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of extruded flaxseed supplementation to high-yielding dairy cows on milk yield and fatty acid profile. One-hundred Israeli-Holstein dairy cows averaging 150 days in milk (DIM) were stratified into two treatment groups on the basis of milk production, DIM and parity. The treatments were: (1) control—cows were fed a lactating-cows diet; and (2) extruded flaxseed (EF)—cows were fed a lactating-cows diet which included an extruded supplement at 40g/kg dry matter (DM) that contained flaxseed and wheat bran at 700 and 300g/kg, respectively. The average daily milk yield was 2.7% higher in the EF group than in the control group (45.4 and 44.2kg/d, respectively; P
Mammalian cell viability is dependent on the supply of the essential fatty acids (EFAs) linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid. EFAs are converted into omega3- and omega6-polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are essential constituents of membrane phospholipids and precursors of eicosanoids, anandamide and docosanoids. Whether EFAs, PUFAs and eicosanoids are essential for cell viability has remained elusive. Here, we show that deletion of delta6-fatty acid desaturase (FADS2) gene expression in the mouse abolishes the initial step in the enzymatic cascade of PUFA synthesis. The lack of PUFAs and eicosanoids does not impair the normal viability and lifespan of male and female fads2 -/- mice, but causes sterility. We further provide the molecular evidence for a pivotal role of PUFA-substituted membrane phospholipids in Sertoli cell polarity and blood-testis barrier, and the gap junction network between granulosa cells of ovarian follicles. The fads2 -/- mouse is an auxotrophic mutant. It is anticipated that FADS2 will become a major focus in membrane, haemostasis, inflammation and atherosclerosis research.
Health and nutrition professionals advise consumers to limit consumption of saturated fatty acids and increase the consumption of foods rich in n-3 fatty acids. Researchers have previously reported that feeding extruded flaxseed, which is high in C18:3n-3, improves the fatty acid profile of milk and dairy products to less saturated fatty acids and to more C18:3n-3. Fat concentrations in milk and butter decreased when cows were fed higher concentrations of extruded flaxseed. The objective of this study was to determine the optimal rate of flaxseed supplementation for improving the fatty acid profile without decreasing production characteristics of milk and dairy products. By using a double 5 × 5 Latin square design, 10 mid- to late-lactation Holstein cows were fed extruded (0, 0.91, 1.81, and 2.72 kg/d) and ground (1.81 kg/d) flaxseed as a top dressing for 2-wk periods each. At the end of each 2-wk treatment period, milk and serum samples were taken. Milk was subsequently manufactured into butter and fresh Mozzarella cheese. Increasing supplementation rates of extruded flaxseed improved the fatty acid profile of milk, butter, and cheese gradually to less saturated and atherogenic fatty acids and to more C18:3n-3 by increasing concentrations of C18:3n-3 in serum. The less saturated fatty acid profile was associated with decreased hardness and adhesiveness of refrigerated butter, which likely cause improved spreadability. Supplementation rates of extruded flaxseed did not affect dry matter intake of the total mixed ration, milk composition, and production of milk, butter, or cheese. Flaxseed processing did not affect production, fatty acid profile of milk, or texture of butter and cheese. Our results suggest that feeding up to 2.72 kg/d of extruded flaxseed to mid- to late-lactation Holstein cows may improve nutritional and functional properties of milk fat without compromising production parameters.
Fatty acids, n-3 as well as n-6, are es-sential for normal physiological function-ing and for the health of humans and all domestic species. It is important to emphasize an adequate linolenic acid (LNA) intake; the n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio is not a useful concept, and it detracts from increasing absolute intakes of n-3 PUFA. In humans, when LNA is consumed in adequate amounts and with-out excessive n-6 fatty acids, conversion to eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosa-hexaenoic (DHA) acids can maintain normal physiological functioning and health. However, conversion of LNA to EPA is more limited in humans than in rodent models, and conversion to DHA is even more limited. Stearidonic acid bypasses the limiting step in synthesis of EPA, but not DHA, from LNA. There-fore, development of gene-modified oil crops to increase content of stearidonic acid supply holds promise to increase EPA synthesis in humans. Quantitative synthesis of EPA and DHA from LNA in domestic animals has not been reported, but conversion is limited in these as well, although perhaps not for some aquatic species. In humans, evidence is clear that increased intake of the fish oil fatty acids, especially DHA, will improve physiological and health outcomes dur-ing pregnancy and lactation, stresses of the immune system, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and some mental and emotional conditions. At least 200 mg DHA should be consumed daily by preg-nant and lactating women. Certain feed supplements increase the n-3 fatty acid content of animal products, including eggs, meat from major domestic species, and milk. Feeding flax (linseed or linseed oil) increases LNA content of products 2-to 3-fold, and in some products, EPA is also increased, with the exception of eggs, in which DHA, but not EPA, is in-creased. The increase is adequate to have a positive effect on the n-3 fatty acid intake of the general public. To change EPA, and especially DHA, significantly in animal products, fish oil or marine algae products must be fed. To achieve 2-to 3-fold increases in ruminant tissues and milk, supplementation with rumen-protected linseed or marine oil products is necessary. At higher levels of n-3 PUFA incorporation, effects on prod-uct quality (oxidative stability, sensory characteristics) and costs of production and segregation of modified from con-ventional products in the production and distribution streams must be considered. It seems possible that niche markets for products containing greater amounts of n-3 fatty acids can be developed without expensive protection processes and risks of decreased product quality.
The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the transfer efficiency of α-linolenic acid (ALA) from the abomasum into milk fat, its interaction with milk fat content and yield, and the relationship between ALA and C16:0 in milk fat. Three rumen-fistulated multiparous Holstein cows at midlactation were used in a 3×3 Latin square design. Treatments consisted of abomasal infusion of (1) 110 mL of water/d (control), (2) 110 mL of flaxseed oil/d (low flaxseed oil, LFO), and (3) 220 mL of flaxseed oil/d (high flaxseed oil, HFO). Experimental periods were continued for 2 wk and fat supplements were infused abomasally during the last 7 d of each period. Average dry matter intake and milk yield were not affected by oil infusion. Milk fat and lactose content tended to be greater with flaxseed infusion compared with the control. Plasma ALA was 2.9- and 4.0-fold greater with LFO and HFO, respectively. The apparent transfer efficiency of ALA to milk was 44.8 and 45.7% with LFO and HFO, respectively. The C16:0 content in milk fat was decreased by 3.59 and 5.25 percentage units, whereas the ALA content was increased by 1.68 and 3.09 percentage units with LFO and HFO, respectively. Similarly, C18:2n-6 was increased by 0.95 and 1.31 percentage units with LFA and HFO, respectively, without changes in other fatty acids (FA). Total polyunsaturated FA was 4.4 and 2.7% lower in the HFO and LFO, respectively, than in the control. Furthermore, C16:0 content in the milk fat was reduced to a greater extent than the increase in ALA content, as a 1.68 and 3.09 percentage unit increase occurred in ALA compared with a 3.6 and 5.25 percentage unit decrease in C16:0 for LFO and HFO, respectively, such that a negative correlation existed between ALA and C16:0 (r=-0.72). In conclusion, abomasal infusion of flaxseed oil dramatically increased the ALA content in plasma and milk fat. Because the replacement of C16:0 with ALA and C18:2n-6 occurred without changes in other FA presumed to be synthesized de novo in the mammary gland, this suggests that the preformed C16:0 was replaced, rather than being caused, by an overall suppression of de novo FA synthesis in the mammary gland.
The passage of long-chain fatty acids (FA) through the placenta in ruminants is limited. However, essential long-chain polyunsaturated FA, and especially n-3 FA, are crucial for normal development of the bovine fetus; therefore, uptake of these FA by the embryo must occur during pregnancy. The objectives of the present study were to examine the effects of enrichment of dam plasma with various n-3 FA during late gestation on newborn calf plasma FA composition. Twenty-seven multiparous cows at 256 d of pregnancy were divided into 3 groups and fed encapsulated fats as follows: 1) control: supplemented at 240 g/d per cow with saturated FA; 2) flaxseed oil (FLX): supplemented at 300 g/d per cow with fat that provided 56.1g/d per cow of α-linolenic acid (ALA) from flaxseed oil; and 3) fish oil (FO): supplemented at 300 g/d per cow with fat that provided 5.8 and 4.3g/d per cow eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from fish oil, respectively. Blood samples were taken from dams twice weekly and from calves immediately after calving before first colostrum. The FA composition in plasma was determined in dams at the last sample before parturition, on average 2d before calving. Feeding cows with FLX resulted in a 2.6-fold increase in the proportion of ALA in dam plasma as compared with the control. The proportion of EPA in cow plasma was not different between groups; however, the percentage of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) was 1.4 and 2 times higher, respectively, in cows fed FLX and FO than in the controls. In addition, the plasma proportion of DHA was 15 times higher in FO cows than in controls. In calves, no differences between groups were observed in the plasma proportions of ALA and EPA; however, the proportion of DHA was 1.9 times higher in the FO calves than in controls. Across treatments, data showed no correlation between the proportions of ALA, EPA, and DPA in dam and calf plasma; however, positive correlation was demonstrated between dams and calves in DHA proportion (r=0.55). In conclusion, the distinct plasma FA profile in newborn calves compared with dams was apparently due to low permeability of the bovine placenta to polyunsaturated FA. Enriching late-gestation dairy cows with n-3 FA increased the proportion of DHA, but not ALA, in newborn calf plasma, probably because of the essentiality of DHA to fetal development.
The objectives of this study were to critically review randomized controlled trials, and quantify, using meta-analysis and meta-regression, the effects of supplementation with fats on milk production and components by dairy cows. We reviewed 59 papers, of which 38 (containing 86 comparisons) met eligibility criteria. Five groups of fats were evaluated: tallows, calcium salts of palm fat (Megalac, Church and Dwight Co. Inc., Princeton, NJ), oilseeds, prilled fat, and other calcium salts. Milk production responses to fats were significant, and the estimated mean difference was 1.05 kg/cow per day, but results were heterogeneous. Milk yield increased with increased difference in dry matter intake (DMI) between treatment and control groups, decreased with predicted metabolizable energy (ME) balance between these groups, and decreased with increased difference in soluble protein percentage of the diet between groups. Decreases in DMI were significant for Megalac, oilseeds, and other Ca salts, and approached significance for tallow. Feeding fat for a longer period increased DMI, as did greater differences in the amount of soluble protein percentage of the diet between control and treatment diets. Tallow, oilseeds, and other Ca salts reduced, whereas Megalac increased, milk fat percentage. Milk fat percentage effects were heterogeneous for fat source. Differences between treatment and control groups in duodenal concentrations of C18:2 and C 18:0 fatty acids and Mg percentage reduced the milk fat percentage standardized mean difference. Milk fat yield responses to fat treatments were very variable. The other Ca salts substantially decrease, and the Megalac and oilseeds increased, fat yield. Fat yield increased with increased DMI difference between groups and was lower with an increased estimated ME balance between treatment and control groups, indicating increased partitioning of fat to body tissue reserves. Feeding fats decreased milk protein percentage, but results were heterogeneous. An increased number of milkings increased the milk protein percentage, whereas the difference between the treatment and control groups in duodenal concentrations of 18:2 fatty acids and dietary Mg concentration reduced the milk protein percentage. None of the fat treatments influenced milk protein production. The range of responses to different fats fed approached or exceeded 5 standard deviations from the mean and differed in point direction for all variables studied, indicating the varied and profound biological effects of fats. Responses to fat feeding were highly heterogeneous for all variables studied and heterogeneity was present within responses to individual fat groups. The lower DMI combined with higher milk and milk fat production showed that fats could improve the efficiency of milk production. More studies are required to more completely characterize sources of variation in responses to fats.
The total number of ovarian follicles ≥ 3mm in diameter (antral follicle count, AFC) during follicular waves varies among cattle of similar age, but AFC is highly repeatable within individuals. We hypothesized that lower AFC could be associated with reduced fertility in cattle. The AFC was assessed by ultrasonography for 2 d consecutively during the first wave of follicular growth of the estrous cycle, 4.6±1.43 d (mean ± SD) after estrus, in 306 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows approximately 70 d postpartum. Cows were classified into 3 groups based on AFC: low (AFC ≤15), intermediate (AFC=16 to 24), and high (AFC ≥25). During the cycle in which AFC was assessed and in subsequent cycles, cows were artificially inseminated (AI) following detection of estrus, and pregnancy status was assessed using ultrasonography. Cows with high AFC had 3.34 times greater odds of being pregnant at the end of the breeding season compared with cows with low AFC; the odds of a successful pregnancy at first service were 1.75 times greater in the intermediate compared with the low group. The predicted probability of a successful pregnancy by the end of the breeding period (length of breeding season was 86±16.3 d) was 94, 88, and 84% for the high, intermediate, and low AFC groups, respectively. No difference was evident among groups in 21-d submission rate (proportion of all cows detected in estrus and submitted for AI in the first 21 d of the breeding season), but the interval from calving to conception was shorter in the high (109.5±5.1 d) versus low (117.1±4 d) group, and animals with intermediate AFC received fewer services during the breeding season (2.3±0.1) compared with animals with low AFC (2.7±0.1). Lactating cows with ≤15 ovarian follicles have lower reproductive performance compared with cows with higher numbers of follicles, but the existence of a positive association between high numbers of ovarian follicles and fertility is yet to be established.
Thirty lactating dairy cows were used in a 3 × 3 Latin-square design to investigate the effects of a raw or extruded blend of linseed and wheat bran (70:30) on plasma and milk fatty-acids (FA). Linseed diets, containing 16.6% linseed blend on a dry-matter basis, decreased milk yield and protein percentage. They decreased the proportions of FA with less than 18 carbons in plasma and milk and resulted in cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3 proportions that were more than three and four times higher in plasma and milk, respectively, whereas cis-9, cis-12 18:2 proportions were decreased by 10-15%. The cis-9, trans-11, cis-15 18:3 isomer of conjugated linolenic acid was not detected in the milk of control cows, but was over 0.15% of total FA in the milk fat of linseed-supplemented cows. Similarly, linseed increased plasma and milk proportions of all biohydrogenation (BH) intermediates in plasma and milk, including the main isomer of conjugated linoleic acid cis-9, trans-11 18:2, except trans-4 18:1 and cis-11, trans-15 18:2 in plasma lipids. In milk fat, compared with raw linseed, extruded linseed further reduced 6:0-16:0 even-chain FA, did not significantly affect the proportions of 18:0, cis-9 18:1 and cis-9, cis-12 18:2, tended to increase cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3, and resulted in an additional increase in the proportions of most BH intermediates. It was concluded that linseed addition can improve the proportion of conjugated linoleic and linolenic acids, and that extrusion further increases the proportions of intermediates of ruminal BH in milk fat.
Clinical and biomedical studies have provided evidence for the critical role of n-3 fatty acids on the reduction of chronic disease risk in humans, including cardiovascular disease. In the current experiment, the potential to enhance milk n-3 content in two breeds with inherent genetic differences in mammary lipogenesis and de novo fatty acid synthesis was examined using extruded linseeds. Six lactating cows (three Holstein and three Jersey) were used in a two-treatment switchback design with 3 × 21-day experimental periods to evaluate the effect of iso-energetic replacement of calcium salts of palm oil distillate (CPO) in the diet (34 g/kg dry matter (DM)) with 100 g/kg DM extruded linseeds (LIN). For both breeds, replacing CPO with LIN had no effect (P > 0.05) on DM intake or milk yield, but reduced (P < 0.05) milk fat and protein yield (on average, from 760 to 706 and 573 to 552 g/day, respectively). Relative to CPO, the LIN treatment reduced (P < 0.01) total saturated fatty acid content and enhanced (P < 0.001) 18:3n-3 in milk, whereas breed by diet interactions were significant for milk fat 16:0, total trans fatty acid and conjugated linoleic acid concentrations. Increases in 18:3n-3 intake derived from LIN in the diet were transferred into milk with a mean marginal transfer efficiency of 1.8%. Proportionate changes in milk fatty acid composition were greater in the Jersey, highlighting the importance of diet-genotype interactions on mammary lipogenesis. More extensive studies are required to determine the role of genotype on milk fat composition responses to oilseeds in the diet.
Flax hull, a co-product obtained from flax processing, is a rich source of n-3 fatty acids (FA) but there is little information on digestion of flax hull based diets and nutritive value of flax hull for dairy production. Flax oil is rich in α-linolenic acid (LNA) and rumen bypass of flax oil contributes to increase n-3 FA proportions in milk. Therefore, the main objective of the experiment was to determine the effects of abomasal infusion of increasing amounts of flax oil on apparent digestibility, dry matter (DM) intake, milk production, milk composition, and milk FA profile with emphasis on the proportion of LNA when cows were supplemented or not with another source of LNA such as flax hull. Six multiparous Holstein cows averaging 650±36 kg body weight and 95±20 d in milk were assigned to a 6×6 Latin square design (21-d experimental periods) with a 2×3 factorial arrangement of treatments. Treatments were: 1) control, neither flax hull nor flax oil (CON), 2) diet containing (DM basis) 15·9% flaxseed hull (FHU); 3) CON with abomasal infusion of 250 g/d flax oil; 4) CON with abomasal infusion of 500 g/d flax oil; 5) FHU with abomasal infusion of 250 g/d flax oil; 6) FHU with abomasal infusion of 500 g/d flax oil. Infusion of flax oil in the abomasum resulted in a more pronounce decrease in DM intake for cows fed the CON diets than for those fed the FHU diets. Abomasal infusion of flax oil had little effect on digestibility and FHU supplementation increased digestibility of DM and crude protein. Milk yield was not changed by abomasal infusion of flax oil where it was decreased with FHU supplementation. Cows fed FHU had higher proportions of 18:0, cis9-18:1, trans dienes, trans monoenes and total trans in milk fat than those fed CON. Proportion of LNA was similar in milk fat of cows infused with 250 and 500 g/d flax oil in the abomasum. Independently of the basal diet, abomasal infusion of flax oil resulted in the lowest n-6:n-3 FA ratio in milk fat, suggesting that the most important factor for modification of milk FA profile was the amount of n-3 FA bypassing the rumen and not the amount of flax hull fed to dairy cows. Moreover, these data suggest that there is no advantage to supply more than 250 g/d of flax oil in the abomasum to increase the proportion of LNA in milk fat.
Several experiments were conducted over the past few years to evaluate the feeding value of flax seed and oil in dairy cow diets. The current meta-analysis and meta-regression was undertaken to assess the overall effect of different forms of flax, as a source of trienoic (cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3) fatty acids (FA), on lactation performance and on transfer efficiency of its constituent n-3 FA from diet to milk fat. Comparisons were first conducted with nonsupplemented controls or with diets containing either saturated (mainly 16:0 or 18:0 or both), monoenoic (mainly cis-9 18:1), or dienoic (mainly cis-9, cis-12 18:2) FA. Results indicate that supplementing flax seed and oil decreased dry matter intake, as well as actual and energy-corrected milk yield without affecting the efficiency of utilization of dietary dry matter or energy as compared with nonsupplemented iso-energetic controls. When compared with the other 3 types of dietary fat evaluated, flax rich in trienoic FA supported a yield of energy-corrected milk similar to supplements rich in saturated, monoenoic, or dienoic FA. Greater milk fat concentration and feed efficiency were observed with saturated supplements. However, milk fat concentration and yield were lower with dienoic FA than with flax supplements. Further analyses were conducted to compare the effect of different forms of flax oil, seed, or fractions of seed. Among the 6 categories evaluated, mechanically processed whole seed (rolled or ground) allowed the greatest yield of energy-corrected milk and the best feed efficiency when compared with free oil, intact or extruded whole seed, protected flax, and flax hulls. Feeding protected flax and flax hulls allowed the greatest milk fat concentration of cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3. Moreover, the greatest transfer efficiencies of this fatty acid from diet to milk were recorded with the same 2 treatments, plus the mechanically processed whole seed. These results make this last category the most suitable treatment, among the 6 flax forms evaluated, to combine optimum lactation performance and protection of flax constituent cis-9, cis-12, cis-15 18:3.
The objective of this meta-analysis was to determine the effects of supplemental fat on fiber digestibility in lactating dairy cattle. Published papers that evaluated the effects of adding fat to the diets of lactating dairy cattle on total-tract neutral detergent fiber digestibility (ttNDFd) and dry matter intake (DMI) were compiled. The final data set included 108 fat-supplemented treatment means, not including low-fat controls, from 38 publications. The fat-supplemented treatment means exhibited a wide range of ttNDFd (49.4% ± 9.3, mean ± standard deviation) and DMI (21.3 kg/d ± 3.5). Observations were summarized as the difference between the treatment means for fat-supplemented diets minus their respective low-fat control means. Additionally, those differences were divided by the difference in diet fatty acid (FA) concentration between the treatment and control diets. Treatment means were categorized by the type of fat supplement. Supplementing 3% FA in the diet as medium-chain fats (containing predominately 12- and 14-carbon saturated FA) or unsaturated vegetable oil decreased ttNDFd by 8.0 and 1.2 percentage units, respectively. Adding 3% calcium salts of long-chain FA or saturated fats increased ttNDFd by 3.2 and 1.3 percentage units, respectively. No other fat supplement type affected ttNDFd. Except for saturated fats and animal-vegetable fats, supplementing dietary fat decreased DMI. When the values for changes in ttNDFd are regressed on changes in DMI there was a positive relationship, though the coefficient of determination is only 0.20. When changes in ttNDFd were regressed on changes in DMI, within individual fat supplement types, there was no relationship within calcium salt supplements. There was a positive relationship between changes in ttNDFd and changes in DMI for saturated fats. Neither relationship suggested that the increased ttNDFd with calcium salts or saturated FA was due to decreased DMI for these fat sources. A subset of the means included measured ruminal neutral detergent fiber digestion. Analysis of this smaller data set did not suggest that ruminal neutral detergent fiber digestibility is depressed by fat supplementation more than ttNDFd. Adding fats, other than those with medium-chain FA, consistently increased digestible energy density of the diet. However, due to reduced DMI, this increased energy density may not result in increased digestible nutrient intake.
Dairy cattle are susceptible to increased incidence and severity of both metabolic and infectious diseases during the periparturient period. A major contributing factor to increased health disorders is alterations in bovine immune mechanisms. Indeed, uncontrolled inflammation is a major contributing factor and a common link among several economically important infectious and metabolic diseases including mastitis, retained placenta, metritis, displaced abomasum, and ketosis. The nutritional status of dairy cows and the metabolism of specific nutrients are critical regulators of immune cell function. There is now a greater appreciation that certain mediators of the immune system can have a reciprocal effect on the metabolism of nutrients. Thus, any disturbances in nutritional or immunological homeostasis can provide deleterious feedback loops that can further enhance health disorders, increase production losses, and decrease the availability of safe and nutritious dairy foods for a growing global population. This review will discuss the complex interactions between nutrient metabolism and immune functions in periparturient dairy cattle. Details of how either deficiencies or overexposure to macro- and micronutrients can contribute to immune dysfunction and the subsequent development of health disorders will be presented. Specifically, the ways in which altered nutrient metabolism and oxidative stress can interact to compromise the immune system in transition cows will be discussed. A better understanding of the linkages between nutrition and immunity may facilitate the design of nutritional regimens that will reduce disease susceptibility in early lactation cows.
Fats in the diet can influence reproduction positively by altering both ovarian follicle and corpus luteum function via improved energy status and by increasing precursors for the synthesis of reproductive hormones such as steroids and prostaglandins. Dietary fatty acids of the n-3 family reduce ovarian and endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin F2alpha, decrease ovulation rate in rats and delay parturition in sheep and humans. Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic, linolenic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids may inhibit prostaglandin F2alpha synthesis through mechanisms such as decreased availability of its precursor arachidonic acid, an increased competition by these fatty acids with arachidonic acid for binding to prostaglandin H synthase, and inhibition of prostaglandin H synthase synthesis and activity. It is not known whether polyunsaturated fatty acids regulate expression of candidate genes such as phospholipase A2 and prostaglandin H synthase via activation of nuclear transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Manipulation of the fatty acid profile of the diet can be used potentially to amplify suppression of uterine synthesis of prostaglandin F2alpha during early pregnancy in cattle, which may contribute to a reduction in embryonic mortality. Feeding fats and targeting of fatty acids to reproductive tissues may be a potential strategy to integrate nutrition and reproductive management to improve animal productivity.
ContentsIn many countries, fat supplementation in the diet has become common in the dairy industry. There are several ideas as to how dietary fat could influence reproductive performance. Saturated fatty acids, such as palm oil, can increase milk yield but may aggravate negative energy balance and thus may impair fertility when fed during the first week post-partum. However, priming the lipid oxidation in the liver by feeding saturated fats during the dry period has recently been shown to be a potentially promising strategy to mitigate fat mobilization and liver accumulation post-partum. Furthermore, polyunsaturated fats (omega-3 fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acids) are fed to reduce the ‘de novo’ fat synthesis in the udder and thus the milk fat content, which may be of modest benefit for overall energy balance. Furthermore, omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are reported to alter follicular growth, steroid synthesis and prostaglandin metabolism in the ovary and endometrium, respectively. Omega-6 fatty acids are believed to have pro-inflammatory and thus PGF2α-stimulating properties rendering them extra value as ‘nutraceutical’ early post-partum, while omega-3 fatty acids can weaken this inflammatory potency, leading to a higher chance of survival of the embryo when supplemented during the periconceptual period. Unfortunately, research results rarely provide a consensus in this perspective. The consequences of these fat-feeding strategies on oocyte and embryo quality remain an intriguing issue for debate. Fat feeding may alter the microenvironment of the growing and maturing oocyte of the early and older embryo and thus may affect reproductive outcome. We recently reported that dietary-induced hyperlipidaemic conditions can be harmful for embryo development and metabolism. However, to date, research results remain somewhat conflicting most probably due to differences in fat sources used, in diet and duration of supplementation and in experimental set-up in general.
The composition of fatty acids in the diets of both human and domestic animal species can regulate inflammation through the biosynthesis of potent lipid mediators. The substrates for lipid mediator biosynthesis are derived primarily from membrane phospholipids and reflect dietary fatty acid intake. Inflammation can be exacerbated with intake of certain dietary fatty acids, such as some ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and subsequent incorporation into membrane phospholipids. Inflammation, however, can be resolved with ingestion of other fatty acids, such as ω-3 PUFA. The influence of dietary PUFA on phospholipid composition is influenced by factors that control phospholipid biosynthesis within cellular membranes, such as preferential incorporation of some fatty acids, competition between newly ingested PUFA and fatty acids released from stores such as adipose, and the impacts of carbohydrate metabolism and physiological state. The objective of this review is to explain these factors as potential obstacles to manipulating PUFA composition of tissue phospholipids by specific dietary fatty acids. A better understanding of the factors that influence how dietary fatty acids can be incorporated into phospholipids may lead to nutritional intervention strategies that optimize health.
The effect of supplementation of increasing amounts of extruded linseed in diets based on hay (H; experiment 1) or corn silage (CS; experiment 2) was investigated in regard to dairy performance and the milk fatty acid (FA) composition. In each experiment, 4 lactating multiparous Holstein cows were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design (28-d periods). The cows were fed a diet (50:50 and 40:60 concentrate:forage ratio for experiments 1 and 2, respectively; dry matter basis) without supplementation (H0 or CS0) or supplemented with 5% (H5 or CS5), 10% (H10 or CS10), or 15% (H15 or CS15) of extruded linseed. Regardless of the forage type, diet supplementation with increasing amounts of extruded linseed had no effect on the dry matter intake, milk yield, or protein content or yield. In contrast, the milk fat content decreased progressively from H0 to H10 diets, and then decreased strongly with the H15 diet in response to increasing amounts of extruded linseed. For CS diets, the milk fat content initially decreased from CS0 to CS10, but then increased with the CS15 diet. For the H diets, the milk saturated FA decreased (-24.1 g/100 g of FA) linearly with increasing amounts of extruded linseed, whereas the milk monounsaturated FA (+19.0 g/100 g), polyunsaturated FA (+4.9 g/100 g), and total trans FA (+14.7 g/100 g) increased linearly. For the CS diets, the extent of the changes in the milk FA composition was generally lower than for the H diets. Milk 12:0 to 16:0 decreased in a similar manner in the 2 experiments with increasing amounts of extruded linseed intake, whereas 18:0 and cis-9 18:1 increased. The response of total trans 18:1 was slightly higher for the CS than H diets. The milk trans-10 18:1 content increased more with the CS than the H diets. The milk cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid response to increasing amounts of extruded linseed intake was linear and curvilinear for the H diets, whereas it was only linear for the CS diets. The milk 18:3n-3 percentage increased in a similar logarithmic manner in the 2 experiments. It was concluded that the milk FA composition can be altered by extruded linseed supplementation with increasing concentrations of potentially health-beneficial FA (i.e., oleic acid, 18:3n-3, cis-9,trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid, and odd- and branched-chain FA) and decreasing concentrations of saturated FA. Extruded linseed supplementation increased the milk trans FA percentage.
Flaxseed contains approximately 55%of total fatty acids of the oil as α-linolenic acid and is rich in lignans, which are strong antioxidants. Diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants are known to have beneficial effects on human health such as a decrease in the incidence of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, and arthritis. Flaxseed could then be an interesting natural feed to consider for changing milk composition. Cyanogenic glycosides (linustatin and neolinustatin) are present in flaxseed, but the concentration of hydrocyanic acid is very low in milk and ruminal fluid of cows fed flaxseed products. In general, feeding up to 15%of the total dry matter as whole flaxseed has a limited effect on dry matter intake. Heat treatments such as micronization and extrusion have no effect on dry matter intake and the effect of formaldehyde treatment on feed intake is unclear. The effects of flaxseed supplementation on milk production of dairy cows in the early stage of lactation have been neutral. Diet supplementation with whole flaxseed has had no effect on milk yield and composition of dairy cows in the mid or late stages of lactation. Physical processing of flaxseed increased milk production although heat treatment did not. Results on the effect of flaxseed processing on overall milk fat concentration have been controversial, but heat and formaldehyde treatments had no effect. Flaxseed supplementation had no effect on milk fat and protein concentrations, and processing of flaxseed had little effect. The extent of change in the concentration of fatty acids in milk is generally proportional to the level of inclusion of flaxseed in the diet. In conclusion, feeding flaxseed does not affect milk production or composition in the large majority of studies, but its long-term effects on health of cows and productivity still need to be determined.
A total of 356 early lactation multiparous Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block design to determine the effects of feeding extruded linseed on milk production and composition, and reproductive performance. Forty of these cows were randomly selected to study the effects of extruded linseed on milk fatty acid (FA) profile, individual feed intake and prostaglandin secretion. Cows were fed a 40:60 forage to concentrate ratio diet (17.9% CP, 27.7% NDF and 6.0% EE) ad libitum that was similar in composition between treatments except for the protein supplements that differed and were control (CTR: 4.9% extruded soybean) and linseed (LIN: 5.5% extruded linseed). Individual DM intake measured at 40 (23.0 kg/d) and 90 (24.2 kg/d) days in milk, and milk yield (45.0 kg/d) were not affected by treatment, but the lower (P
A total of 27 multiparous Holstein cows averaging 634kg body weight (BW) were allotted at calving to six groups of four cows and one group of three cows blocked for similar calving dates to determine effects of feeding whole or ground flaxseed on dry matter (DM) intake, milk production, milk composition, milk fatty acid profile and concentration of some blood metabolites. Cows within each block were assigned to one of four iso-net energy for lactation total mixed rations containing either 21g/kg DM calcium salts of palm oil (control diet), 72g/kg DM whole flaxseed, 72g/kg DM ground flaxseed or 36g/kg DM whole flaxseed and 36g/kg DM ground flaxseed. Diets were fed for ad libitum intake from calving to week 28 of lactation. Flaxseed grinding and supplementation had no effect on BW and milk production, but intake of DM was lower for cows fed 72g/kg DM ground flaxseed. The main difference in milk fatty acid profile determined on week 8 of lactation due to flax grinding was for linolenic acid proportion, which was higher in milk fat of cows fed ground (36 or 72g/kg DM) flaxseed compared to cows fed 72g/kg DM whole flaxseed. Flaxseed supplementation enhanced the linolenic acid proportion in milk fat compared to the control diet. Cows fed the control diet had higher proportions of 16:0 and cis7-16:1, and lower proportions of 18:0 and cis9-18:1, in milk fat than those fed flaxseed. Cows fed ground flaxseed tended (P=0.07) to have higher plasma concentrations of β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA) than those fed the other diets. Compared to diets containing 21g/kg DM calcium salts of palm oil, 72g/kg DM whole flaxseed or a mixture of 36g/kg DM ground and 36g/kg DM whole flaxseed, feeding 72g/kg DM ground flaxseed may contribute to increased lipolysis of early lactation cows, as indicated by lower DM intake and higher BHBA concentrations in blood.
The fatty acid composition of bovine milk fat can be substantially altered by feeding lipid sources which alter the fatty acid profile of lipid entering the intestine from the rumen. As long-chain fatty acids of dietary origin can be incorporated directly into milk fat the opportunity exists to alter the ratio of short and long-chain fatty acids as well as the degree of saturation of milk fat. In practice our ability to alter the fatty acid profile of milk fat is limited not by the synthetic capacity of the mammary gland, but rather by the challenge of achieving effective protection of unsaturated dietary fatty acids from biohydrogenation in the rumen, as well as keeping the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids within the range where the organoleptic quality and shelf-life of milk and dairy products are not compromised. The fatty acid composition of oilseeds such as canola are considered desirable from a human health perspective and thus their inclusion in the diet of dairy cattle as a means of achieving a more desirable fatty acid profile in milk fat may enhance the nutritive quality of milk.
Twenty Holstein cows were used in a Latin square design experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement to determine the effects of extruded flaxseed (EF) supplementation with 2 different forage to concentrate ratios on the performance of dairy cows. Extruded flaxseed diets contained 9% (dry matter basis) EF product which consisted of 75% EF and 25% ground alfalfa meal. Four lactating Holsteins cows fitted with rumen fistulae were used to determine the effects of dietary treatments on ruminal fermentation. Intakes of dry matter and crude protein were not influenced by dietary treatments. However, neutral detergent fiber intake was greater for the high-forage (8.4 kg/d) than the low-forage (7.8 kg/d) diet. Milk yield (average 40.2 kg/d) was similar for all dietary treatments. However, cows fed the high-forage diets produced milk with higher fat (3.76 vs. 2.97%) and total solids (12.58 vs. 11.95%) concentrations, but lower protein (3.19 vs. 3.33%) and lactose (4.66 vs. 4.72%) contents. Ruminal pH and total volatile fatty acid concentration were not affected by dietary treatments. However, feeding high forage relative to low forage diets increased molar proportion of acetate but decreased that of propionate. Ruminal NH3-N was reduced by feeding high forage relative to low forage diets. Milk fatty acid composition was altered by both forage level and EF supplementation. Feeding diets containing EF or low forage reduced the concentrations of saturated fatty acids and increased those of mono-unsaturated fatty acids. Concentrations of poly-unsaturated fatty acids were increased by feeding EF or low-forage diets. Extruded flaxseed supplementation increased milk fat α-linolenic acid content by 100% and conjugated linoleic acid by 54%. It was concluded that differences in animal performance and ruminal fermentation observed in this study were mostly due to differences in forage to concentrate ratio. However, EF supplementation caused most of the differences observed in milk fatty acid composition.
Uncontrolled inflammation contributes to the increased incidence and severity of infectious diseases in periparturient dairy cattle. The objective of this study was to determine if increasing n-3 fatty acid (FA) content and altering the profile of vasoactive eicosanoids could attenuate endothelial cell inflammatory responses. Bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) were cultured with free FA mixtures that mimic the plasma NEFA composition during the first week of lactation of dairy cows or with a free FA mixture supplemented with a higher proportion of n-3 FA, including eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. The effects of increasing the docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acid content of BAEC on the expression of proinflammatory mediators and eicosanoid biosynthesis was assessed. Culturing BAEC with enriched concentrations of n-3 FA decreased the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules, and reactive oxygen species with a concomitant increase in the biosynthesis of proresolving eicosanoids, including resolvins, protectins, and lipoxins. This study showed for the first time that increasing the n-3 FA content of endothelial cell phospholipids could alter the expression of eicosanoids and control the magnitude of inflammatory responses. Future studies are necessary to elucidate the mechanisms by which resolvins, protectins, and lipoxins may modify endothelial inflammatory pathways necessary to reduce the severity and duration of disease in periparturient cows.
Intense lipid mobilization during the transition period in dairy cows is associated with increased disease susceptibility. The potential impact of altered plasma nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA) concentrations and composition on host inflammatory responses that may contribute to disease incidence and severity are not known. The objective of this study was to evaluate if increased NEFA concentrations could modify vascular inflammatory responses in vitro by changing the expression of important inflammatory mediators that are important in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases of transition cows such as mastitis and metritis. Bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) were cultured with different concentrations of a NEFA mixture that reflected the plasma NEFA composition during different stages of lactation. The expression of cytokines, adhesion molecules, and eicosanoids were measured to assess changes in BAEC inflammatory phenotype. Addition of NEFA mixtures altered the fatty acid profile of BAEC by increasing the concentration of stearic acid (C18:0) and decreasing the content of arachidonic acid (C20:4n6c) and other long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the phospholipid fraction. A significant increase also occurred in mRNA expression of cytokine and adhesion molecules that are associated with increased inflammatory responses during the transition period. Expression of cyclooxygenase 2, an important enzyme associated with eicosanoid biosynthesis, was increased in a NEFA concentration-dependent manner. The production of linoleic acid-derived eicosanoids 9- and 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids also was increased significantly after treatment with NEFA mixtures. This research described for the first time specific changes in vascular inflammatory response during in vitro exposure to NEFA mixtures that mimic the composition and concentration found in cows during the transition period. These findings could explain, in part, alterations in inflammatory responses observed during intense lipid mobilization stages such as in the transition period of dairy cows. Future studies should analyze specific mechanisms by which high NEFA concentrations induce a vascular proinflammatory phenotype including the effect of 9 and 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids and other lipid mediators.
Reference techniques to study rumen biohydrogenation (BH) rely on the comparison of intake and duodenal or (ab)omasal flows of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), whereas the net BH of PUFA to their saturated end-products gives a quantitative measure of accumulating BH intermediates. The current review paper aims at evaluating alternative in vivo, in vitro and in sacco techniques to simulate reference in vivo results of unprotected PUFA sources, as well as strategies for overcoming or manipulating BH. In vivo rumen sampling approaches show potential but require further investigation, whereas in sacco results are inappropriate. In vitro 24-h batch incubations and continuous cultures approach in vivo BH of unprotected C18 PUFA sources and are useful to assess the pH value at which dissociation of calcium salts of fatty acids occurs, but overestimate the degree of rumen inertness of formaldehyde-treated oil(seeds) and marine products. Batch or continuous cultures provide an accurate estimate (0.6) of the proportion of hydrogenated C18 PUFA that are converted into their saturated end-product, except for incubations with high levels of fermentable substrate (>1.0 g/100 mL) in combination with high amounts of C18 PUFA (>0.5 mg/mL) or in incubations with EPA and DHA.
A total of 153 lactating Holstein cows averaging 695 kg body weight (standard error = 11) were allotted 6 wk before the expected date of parturition to 51 groups of three cows blocked for similar calving dates to determine the effects of feeding different profiles of fatty acids from 6 wk before calving on feed intake, milk production and composition, conception rate, and embryo mortality in the subsequent lactation. Cows within each block were assigned to one of the three isoenergetic total mixed diets based on either whole flaxseed (FLA), Megalac® (MEG) or micronized soybeans (SOY). Diets were fed for ad libitum intake from 6 wk before calving to day 50 of pregnancy for pregnant cows, or 120 d postpartum for those not diagnosed pregnant after artificial insemination (AI). Diet had no effect on prepartum dry matter intake but postpartum intake was 9% higher for cows fed FLA than for those fed MEG or SOY. Milk production and fat concentration were similar among treatments. Conception rate at first AI was higher for cows fed FLA (54.3%) than for those fed SOY (26.9%). Conception rate at first AI was similar for cows fed FLA and MEG and it was similar for those fed MEG and SOY. Cows fed MEG tended to have higher embryo mortality than those fed FLA (41.7 vs. 10.5%, P = 0.06) and SOY (41.7 vs. 0%, P = 0.08) at first AI and there was no difference among treatments at second AI. Total embryo mortality was similar for cows fed FLA and SOY but cows fed MEG had higher total embryo mortality than those fed SOY (35.3 vs. 9.1%) and there was a trend (P = 0.07) when MEG was compared with FLA (35.3 vs. 9.5%). These data suggest that feeding flaxseed during the prepartum period has little effect on production in the subsequent lactation but could improve fertility of dairy cows.
Nine multiparous Holstein cows were used in three 3 × 3 Latin squares to investigate the effects of feeding unheated and micronised flaxseed on milk yield and milk fatty acid composition. Three diets were formulated to meet the nutrient requirement of dairy cows in early lactation: a control diet with no added flaxseed (NFS), an unheated flaxseed diet (UFS) and a micronised flaxseed diet (MFS). The level of flaxseed in UFS and MFS was 70 g kg−1 of the diet dry matter (DM). Feeding flaxseed to dairy cows had no effect on DM intake or milk yield. However, energy-corrected milk was higher (P < 0.05) for cows fed MFS than for those fed UFS or NFS. Supplemental flaxseed reduced (P < 0.05) the milk fat percentage without affecting the concentration of milk protein or milk lactose. However, the yield of milk components was not affected by feeding flaxseed. The concentrations of short-chain (C4:0 to C12:0) and medium-chain (C14:0 to C17:0) fatty acids were decreased (P < 0.05) while those of long-chain fatty acids (C18:0 to C18:3) were increased (P < 0.05) in the milk of cows fed UFS and MFS compared with cows fed NSF. Feeding flaxseed to dairy cows can alter the milk fatty acid composition, but only minor effects on milk fatty acid composition can be expected by feeding micronised versus unheated flaxseed. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry
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Mammals such as cattle, swine, sheep and humans are born with a highly variable number of ovarian follicles and oocytes in the ovaries that dwindle during ageing and are never replenished. This variation in the ovarian reserve is reflected in the numbers of antral follicles in the ovaries at all ages after birth. As numbers of follicles in ovaries are determined during gestation, the role of maternal nutrition and health during gestation (at time of ovarian development in their foetuses) has been investigated as factors that may impact oogonia proliferation and thus follicle numbers post‐natally. These studies have found that both nutrition and health impact numbers of follicles in their offspring. The idea that numbers of follicles and oocytes in ovaries impact fertility is a long‐held belief in reproductive biology. This has recently been tested in cattle, and it has been shown that cows with a relatively high number of antral follicles in ovaries have higher pregnancy rates, shorter calving to conception intervals and fewer artificial inseminations during the breeding season compared with cows with a lower number of follicles, and similarly, heifers with many follicles had higher pregnancy rates than those with fewer follicles. Studies summarized in this review highlight the importance of the maternal environment during gestation in determining the size of the ovarian reserve in their offspring and also the contribution of the ovarian reserve to subsequent fertility in cattle.
Changes in protein concentration in milk of dairy cows resulting from supplementation of diets with fat reported during the last two decades have been compiled, and the existing literature concerning dietary fat and milk protein reviewed. Data show that increasing fat content of diets has generally increased milk yields but decreased milk protein concentrations. The decrease in protein concentration has been hypothesized to be due to decreased glucose availability, development of insulin resistance, increased efficiency of milk production, or reduced plasma somatotropin. In this review, data are presented which attribute the decrease to a lack of increase in amino acids available to the mammary gland for protein synthesis as milk yield increases during fat supplementation.
The rate-limiting, hormone-regulated, enzymatic step in Steroidogenesis is the conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone by the cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme system (CSCC), which is located on the matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane. However, it has long been observed that hydrophilic cholesterol-like substrates capable of traversing the mitochondrial membranes are cleaved to pregnenolone by the CSCC in the absence of any hormone stimulation. Therefore, the true regulated step in the acute response of steroidogenic cells to hormone stimulation is the delivery of cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane and the CSCC. It has been known for greater than three decades that transfer of cholesterol requires de novo protein synthesis; however, prior to this time the regulatory protein(s) had yet to be identified conclusively. It is the purpose of this commentary to briefly review a number of the candidates that have been proposed as the acute regulatory protein. As such, we have summarized the available information that describes the roles of transcription, translation, and phosphorylation in this regulation, and have also reviewed the supporting cases that have been made for several of the proteins put forth as the acute regulator. We close with a comprehensive description of the Steroidogenic Acute Regulatory protein (StAR) that we and others have identified and characterized as a family of proteins that are synthesized and imported into the mitochondria in response to hormone stimulation, and for which strong evidence exists indicating that it is the long sought acute regulatory protein.
The effect on lamb muscle of five dietary supplements high in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was measured. The supplements were linseed oil, fish oil, protected lipid (high in linoleic acid (C18:2 n-6) and α-linolenic acid (C18:3 n-3)), fish oil/marine algae (1:1), and protected lipid/marine algae (1:1). Eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n-3) were found in the highest amounts in the meat from lambs fed diets containing algae. Meat from lambs fed protected lipid had the highest levels of C18:2 n-6 and C18:3 n-3, due to the effectiveness of the protection system. In grilled meat from these animals, volatile compounds derived from n-3 fatty acids were highest in the meat from the lambs fed the fish oil/algae diet, whereas compounds derived from n-6 fatty acids were highest in the meat from the lambs fed the protected lipid diet.
The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of supplementing milk replacer (MR) with NeoTec4 (Provimi North America, Brookville, OH), a commercially available blend of butyric acid, coconut oil, and flax oil, on calf growth, efficiency, and indices of immune function. In trial 1a, 48 male Holstein calves were fed either a control MR that contained only animal fat or the same MR with NeoTec4 (treatment) along with free-choice starter. The MR (28.7% crude protein, 15.6% fat) was fed at an average of 1 kg of dry matter (DM)/d. In trial 1b, weaned calves from trial 1a were all fed dry starter for 28 d without NeoTec4 (phase 1), and then half the calves were fed NeoTec4 for 28 d (phase 2). In trial 2, 40 male Holstein calves were fed a control MR with lard, coconut oil, and soy lecithin or the same MR supplemented with NeoTec4 (treatment). The MR (22.8% crude protein, 18.9% fat) was fed at an average of 1 kg of DM/d; no starter was fed. In trial 1a, NeoTec4 improved average daily gain, feed intake, and feed efficiency, reduced the number of days that calves experienced scours, and reduced the medical treatments for clostridium sickness. In trials 1a and 2, NeoTec4 altered the inflammatory response to vaccination with Pasteurella at 5 wk of age and to challenge with Salmonella toxin at less than 2 wk of age (fed NeoTec4 for 6 d), as observed by reduced hyperthermia and hypophagia, and altered the tumor necrosis factor-α response. In addition, NeoTec4 enhanced the response in IL-4 and globular protein estimates postchallenge and enhanced titers for bovine viral diarrhea and respiratory parainfluenza-3. Postchallenge serum concentrations of albumin were lower and urea nitrogen concentrations were greater in control calves than in calves fed NeoTec4. In trial 1b, performance did not differ during the first 28 d when no calves received NeoTec4, but calves receiving NeoTec4 in the second 28 d had greater average daily gain and feed efficiency. We conclude that supplementation of MR with NeoTec4 alters some immune and inflammatory responses, including increasing titers to bovine viral diarrhea and respiratory parainfluenza-3 vaccinations, reduces scours, reduces medical treatments for clostridium sickness, and improves growth rates and feed efficiency.
Fetal long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) supply during pregnancy is of major importance, particularly with respect to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) that is an important component of the nervous system cell membranes. Growing evidence points to direct effects of DHA status on visual and cognitive outcomes in the offspring. Furthermore, DHA supply in pregnancy reduces the risk of preterm delivery. Because of limited fetal capacity to synthesize LC-PUFA, the fetus depends on LC-PUFA transfer across the placenta. Molecular mechanisms of placental LC-PUFA uptake and transport are not fully understood, but it has been clearly demonstrated that there is a preferential DHA transfer. Thus, the placenta is of pivotal importance for the selective channeling of DHA from maternal diet and body stores to the fetus. Several studies have associated various fatty acid transport and binding proteins (FATP) with the preferential DHA transfer, but also the importance of the different lipolytic enzymes has been shown. Although the exact mechanisms and the interaction of these factors remains elusive, recent studies have shed more light on the processes involved, and this review summarizes the current understanding of molecular mechanisms of LC-PUFA transport across the placenta and the impact on pregnancy outcome and fetal development.
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Cattle are fed moderate amounts of long chain fatty acids (FA) with the objective to enhance lactation and growth; however, recent interest on lipid feeding to cows has focused on reproduction, immunity and health. Increasing the caloric density of the ration by fat feeding has generally improved measures of cow reproduction, but when milk yield and body weight losses were increased by fat supplementation, positive effects on reproduction were not always observed. Feeding fat has influenced reproduction by altering the size of the dominant follicle, hastening the interval to first postpartum ovulation in beef cows, increasing progesterone concentrations during the luteal phase of the oestrous cycle, modulating uterine prostaglandin (PG) synthesis, and improving oocyte and embryo quality and developmental competence. Some of these effects were altered by the type of FA fed. The polyunsaturated FA of the n‐6 and n‐3 families seem to have the most remarkable effects on reproductive responses of cattle, but it is not completely clear whether these effects are mediated only by them or by other potential intermediates produced during rumen biohydrogenation. Generally, feeding fat sources rich in n‐6 FA during late gestation and early lactation enhanced follicle growth, uterine PG secretion, embryo quality and pregnancy in cows. Similarly, feeding n‐3 FA during lactation suppressed uterine PG release, and improved embryo quality and maintenance of pregnancy. Future research ought to focus on methods to improve the delivery of specific FA and adequately powered studies should be designed to critically evaluate their effects on establishment and maintenance of pregnancy in cattle.