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Wildlife supply chains in Madagascar from local collection to global export
Abstract
International trade in wildlife is a complex multi-billion dollar industry. To supply it, many animals are extracted from the wild, sourced from biodiversity-rich, developing countries. Whilst the trade has far-reaching implications for wildlife protection, there is limited information regarding the socio-economic implications in supply countries. Consequently, a better understanding of the costs and benefits of wildlife supply chains, for both livelihoods and conservation, is required to enhance wildlife trade management and inform its regulation. Using Madagascar as a case study, we used value chain analysis to explore the operation of legal wildlife trade on a national scale; we estimate the number of actors involved, the scale, value and profit distribution along the chain, and explore management options. We find that the supply of wildlife provided economic benefits to a number of actors, from local collectors, to intermediaries, exporters and national authorities. CITES-listed reptiles and amphibians comprised a substantial proportion of the quantity and value of live animal exports with a total minimum export value of 230,795USD per year. Sales prices of reptiles and amphibians increased over 100-fold between local collectors and exporters, with exporters capturing ~92% of final export price (or 57% when their costs are deducted). However, exporters shouldered the largest costs and financial risks. Local collectors obtained ~1.4% of the final sales price, and opportunities for poverty alleviation and incentives for sustainable management from the trade appear to be limited. Promoting collective management of species harvests at the local level may enhance conservation and livelihood benefits. However, this approach requires consideration of property rights and land-tenure systems. The complex and informal nature of some wildlife supply chains make the design and implementation of policy instruments aimed at enhancing conservation and livelihoods challenging. Nevertheless, value chain analysis provides a mechanism by which management actions can be more precisely targeted.
... T he legal, international transport of undomesticated vertebrates as pets (hereafter, pet trade) is widespread and growing (Bush et al. 2014, Lockwood et al. 2019, involving billions of dollars in trade and millions of animals each year (Karesh et al. 2007, Bush et al. 2014. The pet trade is therefore a key economic resource, particularly for local traders that depend on it for their income (e.g., Raghavan et al. 2013, Robinson et al. 2018. Pets also provide important social and human health benefits (McNicholas et al. 2005), even being considered as family members within some cultures (Lockwood et al. 2019). ...
... Past research suggests that the geographic locations for collector nodes are likely determined by the native range of the species and by which parts of their geographical range are the easiest for collectors to access, such as those closest to access roads (Ceballos andFitzgerald 2004, Gravuer et al. 2008). The strength of the links between the source and collector node categories-that is, how many animals are collected from the wild-is also influenced by customer demand and the resulting exporter demand (Robinson et al. 2018), by population density and the seasonal trends of the targeted species ...
... Likely geographic locations for aggregator nodes include areas in which target species are common-and therefore in which collection probability is higher-and areas in which transportation costs are lowest, such as regions with access roads and proximity to major cities (Rabemananjara et al. 2008). Some of the studies we reviewed also suggested that the link strength between different collectors and aggregators may be primarily influenced by the size of the exporters' business because aggregators typically aim to fill specific orders provided by exporters (Davenport 1996, Robinson et al. 2018). ...
The international trade in exotic vertebrate pets provides key social and economic benefits but also drives associated ecological, ethical, and human health impacts. However, despite its clear importance, we currently lack a full understanding of the structure of the pet trade, hampering efforts to optimize its benefits while mitigating its negative effects. In the present article, we represent and review the structure of the pet trade as a network composed of different market actors (nodes) and trade flows (links). We identify key data gaps in this network that, if filled, would enable network analyses to pinpoint targets for management. As a case study of how data-informed networks can realize this goal, we quantified spatial and temporal patterns in pets imported to the United States. Our framework and case study illustrate how network approaches can help to inform and manage the effects of the growing demand for exotic pets.
... Se requiere por parte de los funcionarios un mejor entendimiento de los costos y beneficios de las cadenas de suministro de carne silvestre, tanto para subsistencia como para conservación, para acrecentar el manejo del comercio e informar sobre las regulaciones. Promoviendo el manejo colectivo de la cosecha de especies a niveles locales mejora la conservación y los beneficios a las familias (Robinson et al., 2018). La participación de la población en esfuerzos de conservación es clave para el éxito de los mismos, el manejo colectivo del recurso garantiza que las normas sociales y la presión de grupo funcionen como mecanismos de control, evitando el abuso de la fauna por algunos de sus miembros en desmedro de la comunidad. ...
... les(Robinson et al., 2018). El ingreso generado por la fauna silvestre da cuenta de un 5,5% en la reducción de la proporción de personas viviendo bajo la línea de pobreza. ...
Hunting is an important subsistence activity in the Amazon. Wild meat is a source of food and income
for extended population sectors, being part of the local economies. Non sustainable extraction of wild
meat affects diverse species, even towards extinction. Supply and demand play a key role on the
extraction levels of wild meat, having prices a significant influence over hunting levels. Both the market
and law enforcement must operate together to guarantee sustainable extraction and wildlife
protection. It is urgent to design realistic and applicable wildlife management policies taking into
consideration social and economic aspects, monitoring and resource conservation promotion. The
objective of this review is to show the problems surrounding wild meat consumption in regions with
tropical forests, to highlight the market influence on extraction levels and to systematize information
for proper dissemination.
... Following collection, animals usually were transported to the exporting facilities via "taxi-brousse" (mini-bus) or airplane, depending on the locality of collection. Once at the exporter's facility they spent from a few days to many weeks before being shipped, most often to the United States, Europe, or Japan (Robinson et al. 2018a). ...
... Value chain analysis (VCA) conventionally examines 'vertical' interlinkages of a product's flow from producer to market, points of value-adding, and governance (Bolwig et al., 2010). Vertical VCA has been used for investigating the legal trade of several wildlife products, but not the systemic factors that drive producers to engage with illegal value chains when parallel legal alternatives exist (e.g., Boakye et al., 2016;Robinson et al., 2018). This broader system understanding is critical if VCA is to anticipate livelihood implications of changes in participation in illegal or legal value chains (Neilson & Shonk, 2014;Du Toit, 2004). ...
Both the characteristics of the value chains and the social-ecological context within which they exist are important to uncover motivations for engagement in legal and illegal value chains. Bêche-de-mer (dried sea cucumbers), shark fins, and fish maw (dried swim bladders) are valued products in the South Fly region of Papua New Guinea (PNG). We applied value chain analysis (VCA) to map the ‘vertical’ characteristics of trade and ‘horizontal’ contextual issues driving the trade. Vertical VCA showed that both legal and illegal value chains end in the same Asian cities, but using different routes. Prices offered by illegal middlemen to PNG fishers were significantly lower than those offered by legal buyers. Horizontal analysis showed five drivers (lack of information, obligatory dependencies to middlemen, kinship ties, need for cash, inaccessibility of legal markets) for accepting lower prices. We recommend interventions necessary to tackle these systemic drivers of illegal trade.
... For example, when considering the financial impacts of zoonotic diseases alone, the monetary costs associated with pandemics (which potentially may be measured in trillions of dollars annually [37]) can far outweigh the financial benefits implied by the wildlife trade (which potentially may be measured in billions of dollars annually [38]). Furthermore, evidence suggests that too often only a relatively small proportion of the economic benefits of commercial wildlife trade reaches the poorest local communities [39], yet these beneficiaries (and other marginalised communities around the world [40]) are likely to bear the greatest economic burden and suffer the slowest economic recovery during fallout from a zoonotic disease outbreak [41,42]. ...
The Covid-19 outbreak has brought about fresh and intensified scrutiny of the wildlife trade, which substantively involves commerce in exotic pets. In response, major policy decisions involving trade bans have ensued, with calls for similar such action to be applied across the trade chain. Yet, these measures have been criticised, largely based on concerns that they risk exacerbating poverty, undermining human rights, damaging conservation incentives, and otherwise harming sustainable development and conservation efforts. Instead, many critics propose improved regulation of the status quo, with the intention of nurturing a legal, sustainable, safe, humane, and equitable wildlife trade. Herein, we provide a countering view that outlines how the risks presented by the wildlife trade are becoming increasingly recognised as being both manifold and severe; and raise concerns that the goal of a well-regulated wildlife trade is becoming increasingly exposed as a mirage. We conclude that while pursuing the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (with their focus on poverty alleviation, food security, public health, and conservation) is enduringly vital, a flourishing wildlife trade is not. Given that the exploitation of wildlife, including for the pet trade, has been identified as one of the dominant drivers of biodiversity loss, emergence of zoonotic infectious disease, animal suffering, and financial instability, perpetuating the concept of utilising a regulated wildlife trade as the default approach to protect people and planet is in urgent need of re-evaluation.
Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot, yet its wildlife is under immense threat from habitat loss and other anthropogenic pressures. To tackle this, Madagascar has implemented new environmental legislation, including rapid expansion of the protected area network. Many new protected areas permit sustainable extraction of natural resources by local communities, but little is known about how and why local people use biodiversity, particularly animal wildlife. We conducted a rapid appraisal of animal use by 236 households across Madagascar's rural Moramanga district to explore which wild faunal species are used by local people and for what purpose. Our results document a wide range of uses attributed to familiar wildlife groups, including lemurs, tenrecs, birds, geckos, chameleons, frogs and invertebrates. Uses include food, trade, medicine, and pest control among others. We conclude that conservation decisions concerning sustainable use in relation to livelihoods require an understanding of both the diversity of species used and the diversity of uses of species by local communities.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) regulates international legal trade to prevent the detrimental harvest of wildlife. We assess the volumes of threatened and non-threatened bird, mammal, amphibian, and reptile species in the CITES-managed trade and how this trade responded to category changes of species in the IUCN Red List between 2000 and 2018. In this period, over a thousand wild-sourced vertebrate species were commercially traded. Species of least conservation concern had the highest yearly trade volumes (excluding birds), whereas species in most Red List categories showed an overall decrease in trade reoccurrence and volume through time, with most species unlikely to reoccur in recent trade. Charismatic species with populations split-listed between Appendices I and II were traded in substantially lower yearly volumes when sourced from the more-threatened Appendix I populations. Species trade volumes did not systematically respond to changes in the Red List category, with 31.0% of species disappearing from trade before changing category and the majority of species revealing no difference in trade volumes from pre- to post-change. Just 2.7% (12/432) of species volumes declined and 2.1% (9/432) of volumes increased after a category change. Our findings highlight that non-threatened species dominate trade but reveal small numbers of highly threatened species in trade and a disconnect between species trade volumes and changing extinction risk. We highlight potential drawbacks in the current regulation of trade in listed species and urgently call for open and accessible assessments-non-detriment findings-robustly evidencing the sustainable use of threatened and non-threatened species alike.
La conservazione degli organismi e degli ecosistemi non può prescindere dall'interazione con l'elemento antropico, il quale è non solo causa principale di perdita della biodiversità, ma anche di salvaguardia. Questo doppio aspetto si può apprezzare soprattutto quando si affronta la richiesta e il possesso di animali da compagnia, il loro allevamento e il mercato che ne viene alimentato. In più occasioni il commercio di animali vivi, il cosiddetto pet-trade, viene additato come causa di vari problemi, che vanno dall'impatto sulla biodiversità, al degrado del benessere animale, all'introduzione di specie alloctone e alla diffusione di zoonosi. In Italia è stato recentemente approvato un disegno di legge (Legge n. 53 del 22/4/21), promosso dalla LAV, che ha come obiettivo il divieto della commercializzazione e della detenzione dei cosiddetti animali esotici. Senza entrare nel merito dell'etica del commercio e del mantenimento in cattività di animali (di cattura o derivati da allevamenti), la legge non specifica importanti aspetti applicativi e ignora risvolti economici della filiera, come ad esempio i negozi di acquari, le fiere di uccelli, anfibi e rettili o le catene di pet-shop. Spesso si tende anche a considerare complessivamente il mercato di animali senza fare distinzioni fra quello alimentare, compreso il bush-meat market degli animali selvatici, il mercato per la farmacopea tradizionale e l'oggettistica e quello degli animali da compagnia. Allo stesso tempo, l'attività di mantenimento in cattività anfibi e rettili-definita come erpetocoltura, erpetofilia, terraristica e terrariofilia-può anche essere uno strumento cruciale per acquisire informazioni della storia naturale di molte specie. Una conoscenza approfondita delle metodiche di allevamento in cattività-nota come husbandry science - è infatti fondamentale per ottenere informazioni sul comportamento di molte specie, soprattutto di quelle difficilmente osservabili in natura. In molti casi, gli appassionati sviluppano un'elevata professionalità e una notevole competenza. Le loro osservazioni possono essere utili nell'allevamento di specie in pericolo di estinzione. I dati raccolti dagli appassionati possono anche diventare un utile patrimonio scientifico: i giardini zoologici e gli acquari si rivolgono spesso a privati per beneficiare della loro esperienza e per poter allevare e riprodurre specie interessate da progetti di conservazione, che prevedono anche la reintroduzione in natura. Il commercio di anfibi e di rettili esotici per la cosiddetta terrariofilia rappresenta un'attività talora soggetta a critiche, soprattutto perché ritenuto una delle cause di estinzione e/o declino delle popolazioni selvatiche. Nondimeno, esso può anche rappresentare uno strumento per comprendere la storia naturale delle specie e per coadiuvare azioni di conservazione che contemplino l'allevamento in cattività. In questo articolo sono riportati alcuni casi-chiave che mostrano come il prelievo di esemplari possa talora contribuire alla diminuzione delle popolazioni in natura, in particolare quando l'habitat è già compromesso. Un ulteriore caso mostra come l'attività di allevamento amatoriale di appassionati di gechi contribuisca alla conoscenza dei parametri di riproduzione di molte specie.
Reptiles are among the most intensively harvested and traded species groups globally. The global trade of reptiles includes the trade of live reptiles as pets, as well as the trade of reptiles or their parts for use in traditional medicine, for reptile skins, or for human consumption. Reptiles have been widely used to treat a large variety of ailments, and medicinal use has been documented for at least 284 species. Reptiles are also an important food source, with the heaviest exploitation for this purpose in tropical and subtropical regions. In addition to the consumption of reptile meat for nutritional value, it is often intertwined with cultural beliefs, or consumed for medicinal purposes. The international trade of reptile skins is the largest trade in volume for all uses of reptile species and included 75 species from 2000 to 2017. However, the trade in live reptiles impacts significantly more species, with international trade documented for at least 642 taxa. Available data on the reptile trade may be unreliable due to frequently occurring discrepancies and a general lack of data on the volume and included species. Additionally, the reptile trade increases the risk of disease transmission globally, as well as the introduction of invasive species. All these factors have resulted in population declines across the globe. However, approximately 80% of the world’s population also relies on the use of natural resources for traditional medicine, food, or additional income. In order to effectively reduce the negative impacts of trade on reptiles, it is vital to address the underlying drivers of the trade.
Much of the global wildlife trade is sourced from biodiversity-rich developing countries. These often have high levels of poverty and habitat loss, particularly in rural areas where many depend on natural resources. However, wildlife collection may incentivize local people to conserve habitats that support their livelihoods. Here we examined the contribution of the commercial collection of live animals to rural livelihoods in Madagascar, one of the world’s most important biodiversity hotspots. Using questionnaires, we investigated the prevalence, profitability relative to other livelihood activities, and local importance of the trade, and its capacity to provide incentives for conservation. Thirteen percent of households were engaged in live animal collection in the study area (~5% trapped reptiles and amphibians and the remainder trapped invertebrates). This formed part of a diverse livelihood strategy, and was more profitable than other activities (in terms of returns per unit of effort), with median earnings of ~US$100 per season (~25% of Gross National Income per year). However, trapping was part-time, usually undertaken by poorer members of the community, and often perceived as opportunistic, risky, and financially unreliable. Further, trappers and nontrappers held similar perceptions regarding conservation, suggesting wildlife trade currently does not incentivize enhanced stewardship of traded species and their habitats. Our study brings together a range of methodologies to present the most comprehensive insights into livelihoods and conservation in poor rural communities involved in the commercial collection of live animals to supply international trade. This improved understanding of the wider socioeconomic dimensions of wildlife trade can inform policy and management interventions for both the threats and opportunities associated with global trade in biodiversity both in Madagascar and more generally.
Pangolins (Pholidota: Manidae) are frequently hunted as a source of bushmeat in Ghana. However, no information exists with regards to the level of trade of pangolins outside of major bushmeat market surveys in Ghana. The aim of this study was to determine the level of trade among other stakeholders in the bushmeat commodity chain for pangolins in Ghana. Data were collected from 153 stakeholders using semi-structured interviews and direct observation between September 2013 and January 2014. A total of 341 pangolins were recorded to have been traded in this study period. The white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) represented 82 % and the black-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tetradactyla) 18 % of the observed pangolins traded by the stakeholders. Chopbar operators accounted for the highest retailer sales to consumers. The number of pangolins traded was negatively correlated to the distance between settlements and protected forest regions. The levels of pangolin trade were previously underestimated in Ghana as the pangolin bushmeat commodity chain does not form the supply chain to the major bushmeat markets where most surveys were undertaken. The Wildlife Conservation Act of 1971 (LI 685) that prohibits the hunting of pangolins can be regarded as ineffective and not serving as a deterrent to poaching.
Biological invasions are a key component of human-induced global change. The continuing increase in global wildlife trade has raised concerns about the parallel increase in the number of new invasive species. However, the factors that link the wildlife trade to the biological invasion process are still poorly understood. Moreover, there are analytical challenges in researching the role of global wildlife trade in biological invasions, particularly issues related to the under-reporting of introduced and established populations in areas with reduced sampling effort. In this work, we use high-quality data on the international trade in Nearctic turtles (1999-2009) coupled with a statistical modelling framework, which explicitly accounts for detection, to investigate the factors that influence the introduction (release, or escape into the wild) of globally traded Nearctic turtles and the establishment success (self-sustaining exotic populations) of slider turtles (Trachemys scripta), the most frequently traded turtle species. We found that the introduction of a species was influenced by the total number of turtles exported to a jurisdiction and the age at maturity of the species, while the establishment success of slider turtles was best associated with the propagule number (number of release events), and the number of native turtles in the jurisdiction of introduction. These results indicate both a direct and indirect association between the wildlife trade and the introduction of turtles and establishment success of slider turtles, respectively. Our results highlight the existence of gaps in the number of globally recorded introduction events and established populations of slider turtles, although the expected bias is low. We emphasize the importance of researching independently the factors that affect the different stages of the invasion pathway. Critically, we observe that the number of traded individuals might not always be an adequate proxy for propagule pressure and establishment success.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
This article examines the rise in militarized approaches towards conservation, as part of a new ‘war for biodiversity’. This is a defining moment in the international politics of conservation and needs further examination. The claims that rhinos and elephants are under threat from highly organized criminal gangs of poachers shapes and determines conservation practice on the ground. Indeed, a central focus of the 2014 London Declaration on the Illegal Wildlife Trade is the strengthening of law enforcement, and recent policy statements by the US government and the Clinton Global Initiative also draw the link between poaching, global security and the need for greater levels of enforcement. Such statements and initiatives contribute substantially to the growing sense of a war for biodiversity. This article offers a critique of that argument, essentially by asking how we define poachers, and if militarized approaches mean conservationists are becoming more willing to engage in coercive, repressive policies that are ultimately counterproductive. Further, this article examines how the new war for biodiversity is justified and promoted by referring to wider debates about intervention in a post-Cold War era; notably that the international community has a responsibility towards wildlife, especially endangered species, and that military forms of intervention may be required to save them.
Information on the extent of bushmeat hunting is needed to assess the likely impact on hunted species, to provide information on the opportunity cost to local people of conservation, and to judge the efficacy of interventions at reducing pressure. However, where hunting is illegal, or socially unacceptable, respondents may not answer honestly to direct questions about hunting or consumption of bushmeat. We adapted a specialized method for investigating sensitive behaviours (the randomized response technique, RRT) and questioned 1,851 people in Madagascar about their consumption of six species, using either RRT or direct questions. For most species at most sites RRT and direct questions returned similar estimates of the proportion of the population who had consumed bushmeat in the previous year. However, RRT resulted in significantly higher estimates of bushmeat consumption in communities surrounding a protected area, where conservation activities made such questions sensitive. RRT has been predominately used in Europe and the USA; we demonstrate that it can provide a valuable approach for studying rule-breaking among people with poor literacy in low income countries. Between 12 and 33% of people across our sites had eaten brown lemur (Eulemur spp.), and 12–29% had eaten sifaka (Propithecus spp.) in the previous year. These results add to the growing body of evidence that hunting of protected species in Madagascar is a serious problem requiring urgent action. Conservation interventions to tackle bushmeat hunting will make questions about hunting or consumption more sensitive, increasing the need for researchers to use appropriate approaches for asking sensitive questions.
Madagascar is one of the richest countries when it comes to natural and mineral resources. As is the case in many tropi-cal countries, however, this wealth is bluntly coupled with an ever increasing poverty, where more than 92 % of the 21 mil-lion inhabitants are living below $US2 a day. Madagascar has received international aid and conservation interests for years, as part of which, millions of dollars have been donated to the country, but with very little to show for it (Horning 2008). When Madagascar appeared to hit rock bottom in 2009, a political coup d'état took place which led to the international donor community curtailing financial support (Randrianja 2012). During the following years, the transitional government did not receive the international support that the previous government had benefitted from. Here we will analyze the pattern of two cases of natural resource governance, both coinciding with a political event. Case 1 pertains to rosewood: Since 2009, illegal logging and exporting of rosewood has reached unprecedented levels in Madagascar (Schuurman and Lowry 2009, Innes 2010, Randriamalala and Liu 2010) affecting the entire east coast, with highest intensity of pillage in the national parks of Masoala and Marojejy. In 2011, reportedly over 500,000 tons of rosewood were in stocks; discussions among experts at the global table revolved around a solution finding to best deal with these stocks (Randriamalala et al. 2011). However, the issue then went mysteriously silent to a remarkable degree for almost two years. In the meantime, the African Union supported by the interna-tional community pushed the current government to organize presidential elections with a first round on 25 October 2013, and the second and final round scheduled for 20 December 2013. Coincidently, in mid 2013 the World Bank requested a "Study to Assess the Options of Disposal of the Illicit Stocks of Rosewood and Ebony" 1 issued 31 July 2013 with a deadline for the expressions of interest fixed at 13 August 2013. During the last year, a new phenomenon has emerged: inventoried rosewood logs have slowly but regularly been ferreted out of the depots they were stored in. During the early months of 2013, traffickers from Maroantsetra visited the Masoala peninsula and generously offered 1 million MGA per household to turn a blind eye regarding any rosewood. Simul-taneously, large vessels positioned just too far to be seen from any shore, were collecting logs transferred to them at night in smaller boats. Encouraged by the incredulous ineptitude on the part of the local legal authorities, this process has been ongoing, even during daylight hours, with the 'mother ships' eventually even clearly visible from the shores. The timber stocks in the known depots have almost been completely cleared out by now. At the end of September 2013 a petition was suddenly circulated by EIA (Environmental Investigation Agency) bearing the message "Urgent Sign -on To Stop Madagascar Illegal Sale of Massive Stockpiles of Rosewood and Ebony" that many people and international and national NGOs have signed 2 . Interestingly, the concerns revolved around the estimated value of stocks, whether they were worth US$5 billion or only US$600 million. The question which goes begging is, why is the World Bank suddenly trying to find a legal solution for the stocks, when they de facto have already been removed from Madagascar and transported to Asia? We propose the following hypotheses as some food for thought: (i) There is insufficient information to assess the quantity and value of the remaining stocks. If any stock does indeed remain, it does represent a threat to the natural resources, and in principle, conservation NGOs cannot support the legalizing of the sale of such stocks. This implies that in the past, the legalizing and therefore selling of timber held in stocks represented a threat to the remaining precious trees, i.e., it has led to further illegal logging (Randriamalala and Liu 2010). (ii) The stockpiled timber has already steadily and consistently been exported to China: the government, the conservation community, and the public are all cognizant of this. There is a complex financial arrangement proposed by the international funding agencies and promoters of democracy, to appease all the parties involved in the case of dealing in illegally-felled rosewood 3 . Hypothesis 1 appears naïve and almost unrealistic, given that the case is well known by all the parties involved. Hypoth-esis 2 requires a deeper understanding of the financial, legal, and institutional mechanisms involved, since international funding agencies and the World Bank are not allowed to support an illegitimate government (i.e., one which assumed power through a coup d'état). The question which remains alludes to a problem which may be described as "wicked", for lack of a better prescriptive (cf. Rittel and Webber 1973): how can someone make more money from a product which has already been sold? We will try to shed some light by performing a reductio ad absurdum, which entails a step -by -step hypothetical appeas-ing of every party or individual involved in the rosewood traf-ficking process. To begin with, we ask the question: where do the interests of the various actors, really lie? This may be answered as follows: (i) Some, such as international funding agencies and NGOs seek a 'green' image. (ii) Others wish to be seen as promoters of democracy (western countries). (iii) Some are in a position of being in dire need of funding: they include certain NGOs and the Malagasy government. (iv) Some are lenders of money: these are the funding agencies and foreign governments. (v) There are some seeking to launder money, i.e., timber sellers and buyers. To 'green -wash' the illegally -sourced logs, necessitates the issuance of a CITES permit, something which could be lobbied for by NGOs, who would then receive money from the funding agencies, officially to help them protect the wildlife. On the other hand, timber traders and buyers would thereby legalize their business, and push for the supporting of the required democratic process, i.e., the ongoing elections. Therefore, the value of the legalized stocks of wood would lie in its 'greening -up' of the buyers' profiles, and allow some
Many claims have been made concerning the use of NTFPs as part of development and conservation strategies. Important amongst these is that because NTFPs play an important part in household incomes they can be used to raise the perceived value of forests and thus provide incentives for
more sustainable use of the forest estate. However, migrant communities living around forest margins have often been perceived as groups of people most likely to take advantage of the free goods provided by forests in a way that degrades the forest environment as short term benefits are maximised
over long-term sustainability. Empirical evidence from the forest zone of south-west Cameroon suggests that for many migrant communities NTFPs are not a significant part (no more than 6%) of household total income and that poorer groups seek diverse livelihood strategies that are not predicated
on natural resource use. Whilst richer groups may continue to rely on sources of income from the forest and NTFPs may make up to 15% of household income, for rich and poor alike the value derived from NTFPs is generated by secondary forest and forest fallow rather than less disturbed forest
that has been the focus of conservation interest. The view is put forward that forest managers and international donors interested in conservation and development need to reassess the potential contribution of NTFPs in poverty alleviation strategies, and acknowledge that forest conservation
priorities of local communities require policies and management systems focused on 'sustainable systems for production of livelihood benefits' rather than protectionist approaches to areas traditionally defined as valuable forest.
Lake Victoria is the world's second largest freshwater body and home to one of the most dramatic speciation of indigenous cichlids in the world. Bordered by Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in East Africa, the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) provides food, water and livelihoods for over 30 million people around its shores, with 10 million engaged in the fisheries sector. The Colonial Era introduction of the invasive Nile perch (Lates niloticus) in the 1950's, combined with the introduction of industrialized fish processing in the 1980's, transformed fishing throughout the Basin. The introduction and commercial harvesting of the Nile perch, subsequent human population growth, and the looming problems of climate change continue to compromise the health of this important fishery. This paper applies a global commodity chain framework with an ethnographic approach to the case of the export-oriented Nile perch from the Kenyan island of Mfangano in July 2007. Unless otherwise noted, all price and empirical data are based on interviews, market surveys, and participant observation conducted by the author in Kenya in June, July, and August of 2007. In 2007, prices paid to local Kenyan fishermen, boat owners, and agents represent 24% of the total value from the fishery (∼ 3% to each fisherman, 14% to boat owners and 4% to agents); prices paid to processors represent 36% of the value, and 39% of the value accrues to international seafood wholesalers and retailers.
In many parts of Africa, local communities have depended on, and managed, wildlife as a key resource since the Stone Age. Over the last twenty years, this subsistence strategy has evolved into a development strategy that has become increasingly formalised as "community-based natural resource management" (CBNRM), combining rural development, local empowerment, and nature conservation. Led by new ideas about the merits of decentralized, collective resource governance regimes, and creative field experiments such as Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE, these community-based approaches evolved in a wide range of ecological, political, and social contexts across Africa. This review provides an unprecedented pan-African synthesis of CBNRM, drawing on multiple authors and a wide range of documented experiences from Southern, Eastern, Western and Central Africa. The review discusses the degree to which CBNRM has met poverty alleviation, economic development and nature conservation objectives. In its concluding chapter, the report suggests a way forward for strengthening CBNRM and addressing key challenges in the years ahead. The views expressed in this study do not necessarily represent those of the institutions involved.
This paper characterizes the charcoal value chain in Uganda, focusing on production and trade in three districts in the west central region of the country. Data come from surveys of 407 charcoal value chain participants undertaken in 2008. The surveys included 171 charcoal-producing households and 236 non-producer participants including agents, traders, transporters and retailers. Linear regression models are used to study overall profits and per-unit marketing margins along the value chain and to test several hypotheses regarding the importance of location, human and social capital, and asset ownership on observed economic returns and scale of activity. Evidence suggests the greatest overall returns to participation in the charcoal value chain are found among traders. Returns are positively correlated with the scale of activity. Controlling for a participant's role in the charcoal trade, his or her characteristics, and available assets, we find little or no evidence of differences in economic returns among districts, despite widespread popular views of differences in available supply of charcoal. Location of production relative to major markets, and location-specific levels of monitoring and enforcement are not strongly correlated with observed outcomes.
Tropical deforestation is a key contributor to species extinction and climate change, yet the extent of tropical forests and their rate of destruction and degradation through fragmentation remain poorly known. Madagascar's forests are among the most biologically rich and unique in the world but, in spite of longstanding concern about their destruction, past estimates of forest cover and deforestation have varied widely. Analysis of aerial photographs (c. 1953) and Landsat images (c. 1973, c. 1990 and c. 2000) indicates that forest cover decreased by almost 40% from the 1950s to c. 2000, with a reduction in 'core forest' > 1 km from a non-forest edge of almost 80%. This forest destruction and degradation threaten thousands of species with extinction. Country-wide coverage of high-resolution validated forest cover and deforestation data enables the precise monitoring of trends in habitat extent and fragmentation critical for assessment of species' conservation status.
Discussions of sustainable use have become polarized. Welfarists oppose all use that involves killing animals. Among conservationists polarization arises in part from failure to distinguish between different ideas nestled under the umbrella term of ‘sustainable use’. These include direct use as an imperative or choice, the ideal of keeping any use within biologically sustainable limits, and use as a possible conservation strategy that can create positive incentives, which are key where land could otherwise be converted to biodiversity-unfriendly practices. People will continue to use wild living resources, which increasing human populations could further deplete. In response the conservation community can follow one of two approaches. On the one hand, it can try to stop use through the establishment of strictly protected areas and by enforcing legislation, although many would question the ethical position of imposing such an approach. On the other hand, it can work to introduce the wider management systems needed to deliver sustainable use and, if possible, incentive-driven conservation. Because most rural populations will continue using wild living resources in human-dominated landscapes, sustainable use and incentive-driven conservation should both be at the centre of the conservation agenda this century. Both species- and ecosystem-based management are likely to have a role in sustainable use. However, current enthusiasm for the ecosystem approach may throw up unexpected consequences, making the search for sustainability even more polarized. Nevertheless, direct use of species cannot provide sufficient incentives to ensure the continued delivery of ecosystem services, which need to be fully incorporated in the global accounting system.
Human activities are causing Earth's sixth major extinction event-an accelerating decline of the world's stocks of biological diversity at rates 100 to 1,000 times pre-human levels. Historically, low-impact intrusion into species habitats arose from local demands for food, fuel and living space. However, in today's increasingly globalized economy, international trade chains accelerate habitat degradation far removed from the place of consumption. Although adverse effects of economic prosperity and economic inequality have been confirmed, the importance of international trade as a driver of threats to species is poorly understood. Here we show that a significant number of species are threatened as a result of international trade along complex routes, and that, in particular, consumers in developed countries cause threats to species through their demand of commodities that are ultimately produced in developing countries. We linked 25,000 Animalia species threat records from the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List to more than 15,000 commodities produced in 187 countries and evaluated more than 5 billion supply chains in terms of their biodiversity impacts. Excluding invasive species, we found that 30% of global species threats are due to international trade. In many developed countries, the consumption of imported coffee, tea, sugar, textiles, fish and other manufactured items causes a biodiversity footprint that is larger abroad than at home. Our results emphasize the importance of examining biodiversity loss as a global systemic phenomenon, instead of looking at the degrading or polluting producers in isolation. We anticipate that our findings will facilitate better regulation, sustainable supply-chain certification and consumer product labelling.
By their very definition, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) originate in hinterlands and link to final consumers through value chains. This paper quantifies four value chains of the highly valuable agarwood sourced in Lao People's Democratic Republic, by looking at the actors involved and the different stages from harvesting to retail, and incorporates both legal and illegal activities. Data were collected in a national harvest and trade study, an international market survey of Arab markets, and by interviews with key informants. The results show a huge global retail value estimated between USD 666 and 2300 million, of which Lao agarwood accounts for about 2%, i.e., USD 33 million. The export value to Laos is estimated at approx. USD 14 million, with a quantity of wood and wood-equivalents of 931 t. Patterns and domains of value-addition and -appropriation are discussed along with responses in the value chain to over-harvesting and signs of resource scarcity.
The global trade in chameleons from 1977 to 2001 is reviewed using the compiled import data for chameleons from the CITES database. African countries accounted for 96% of reported exports, with Madagascar, Tanzanaia and Togo dominating the trade, while the USA dominated the import market with 69% of individuals. Chamaeleo senegalensis accounted for 25% of exports; only eight of the other 96 exported species each contributed more than 3% of the total 845,000 recorded exports. High exports in the late 1970s declined, with the exit of Kenya from the trade, to approximately 3000 individuals in 1982, before rising again to record exports of 81,000 individuals in 2001. Reported captive bred and ranched individuals form a small but increasing contribution to the trade. Contributions of individual countries to the changing pattern of trade are discussed in relation to governance issues. While national and international legislation has been successful in regulating the reported exports from the dominant exporting nations in the 1990s, the continuing rise in demand has led to that demand being satisfied by an increase in exports from other countries and, in particular, Uganda, Benin, Mozambique, Yemen and Comoros.
Initiatives certifying that producers of goods and services adhere to defined environmental and social-welfare production standards are increasingly popular. According to proponents, these initiatives create financial incentives for producers to improve their environmental, social, and economic performance. We reviewed the evidence on whether these initiatives have such benefits. We identified peer-reviewed, ex post, producer-level studies in economic sectors in which certification is particularly prevalent (bananas, coffee, fish products, forest products, and tourism operations), classified these studies on the basis of whether their design and methods likely generated credible results, summarized findings from the studies with credible results, and considered how these findings might guide future research. We found 46 relevant studies, most of which focused on coffee and forest products and examined fair-trade and Forest Stewardship Council certification. The methods used in 11 studies likely generated credible results. Of these 11 studies, nine examined the economic effects and two the environmental effects of certification. The results of four of the 11 studies, all of which examined economic effects, showed that certification has producer-level benefits. Hence, the evidence to support the hypothesis that certification benefits the environment or producers is limited. More evidence could be generated by incorporating rigorous, independent evaluation into the design and implementation of projects promoting certification.
Although deforestation rates in the tropics are reportedly slowing, the loss of both forest area and forest quality remains a significant issue for many countries. This is particularly true of Madagascar, where recent government instability has enabled a significant increase in the incidence of illegal logging of Dalbergia species from National Parks such as Marojejy and Masoala. The logs are exported with relative ease as export permits are being made available. While attempts have been made to improve the management of tropical forests, in 2005, the International Tropical Timber Organization considered that only 7 % of tropical production forests were being managed sustainably. Given the challenges associated with halting illegal logging at source, emphasis has shifted to the control of the trade in forest products. The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species provides a mechanism to restrict such trade, but the Madagascan Dalbergia species are not listed. In the USA, the recent amendments to the ‘Lacey Act’ could provide a significant disincentive to the import of illegally logged wood products, but it remains to be seen whether this Act can be enforced effectively.
Mining appears to represent an important threat to conservation efforts in Madagascar. Expanding mining activities on the island have the potential to provide revenue for development and conservation efforts, but also pose a potential threat to conservation efforts on the island due to the spatial distribution and extent of mining concessions and the environmental impacts that mines often cause. By measuring the extent of overlap of permitted mining concessions with protected areas, potential protected areas, and mining - exclusion zones on the island, we assessed potential effects of mining on terrestrial conservation and evaluated the success of the governing institutions in limiting that impact. Permitted mining areas in 2006 overlapped with protected areas, potential protected areas, and mining - exclusion zones on the island. Mining concession areas overlapped with 33 % of surface area planned for protection in 2005, 21 % of surface area planned for protection in 2006, and 12 % of the surface area from which mining was to be legally excluded. Total permitted area and area of overlap with conservation areas increased between 2005 and 2006 despite efforts in 2004 to limit such overlap. Changes in the mining permitting and regulation could improve prospects for limiting the impact of mining on biodiversity conservation on the island.
The magnitude of the international wildlife trade is immense, with estimates of billions of live animals and animal products traded globally each year ( 1 , 2 ). This trade has facilitated the introduction of species to new regions, where they compete with native species for resources, alter ecosystems, damage infrastructure, and destroy crops ( 1 , 3 ). It has also led to the introduction of pathogens that threaten public health, agricultural production, and biodiversity ( 1 , 4 ).
The global trade in wildlife provides disease transmission mechanisms that not only cause human disease outbreaks but also threaten livestock, international trade, rural livelihoods, native wildlife populations, and the health of ecosystems. Outbreaks resulting from wildlife trade have caused hundreds of billions of dollars of economic damage globally. Rather than attempting to eradicate pathogens or the wild species that may harbor them, a practical approach would include decreasing the contact rate among species, including humans, at the interface created by the wildlife trade. Since wildlife marketing functions as a system of scale-free networks with major hubs, these points provide control opportunities to maximize the effects of regulatory efforts.
A thoroughly revised text based on a report commissioned by the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA). The main purposes are: to discuss from an economic perspective the causes of environmental degradation; to provide a conceptual framework for the organisation of information in order to enhance environmental decision-making; to provide an overview of economic methods that can assist in the valuation of environmental cost and benefit; and to give examples of applications of the theoretical methods described, the main emphasis is on project level analysis. Discusses distortions in the economic system and the need for economic analysis; general equilibrium analysis and national accounting; economic analysis of environmental consequences; and global case studies concerned with consequences pertaining to the physical environment - land, air, water, and vegetation. It is hoped that these links between theory and empirical illustrations will show the practical usefulness, and also the difficulties, of applying economics to environmental problems. -from Authors
Protected areas (PAs) are our principal conservation strategy and are evolving rapidly, but we know little about the real-world management and governance of new forms. We review the evolution of Madagascar's PA system from 2003 to 2016 based on our experience as practitioners involved. During this period PA coverage quadrupled and the network of strict, centrally-governed protected areas expanded to include sites characterized by: i) multiple-use management models in which sustainable extractive natural resource uses are permitted, ii) shared governance arrangements involving non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and local community associations, and iii) a management emphasis on livelihood-based approaches and social safeguards. We discuss the principal challenges for the effectiveness of the expanded system and detail management/policy responses. These include i) enhancing stakeholder participation, ii) ensuring financial sustainability, iii) enforcing rules, iv) ensuring the ecological sustainability of PAs faced with permitted resource extraction, v) reducing the natural resource dependence of local communities through transformative livelihood change, and vi) developing longterm visions to reconcile the differing objectives of conservation NGOs and other stakeholders. In general PAs have had limited effectiveness in reducing deforestation and other threats, which may be related to their rapid establishment processes and the complexity of management towards multiple objectives, coupled with insufficient resources. While Madagascar's achievements provide a basis for conserving the country's biodiversity, the challenge faced by its protected areas will continue to grow.
The endemic Madagascar spider tortoise Pyxis arachnoides, listed as 'Vulnerable' on the IUCN Red List and included on CITES Appendix II, faces threats of habitat destruction, hunting for human consumption and collection for the exotic pet market. This study reviews all available data and literature concerning the export of this species to supply the exotic pet market. CITES has recorded movements for 3984 individuals since 1980, with a considerable increases in movements since 1998. Ninety nine percent of individuals reported were recorded as being non-captive bred specimens and 97 % were listed for 'trade' purposes, with 74% of these exported specimens sent to USA or Japan. During 2000, Madagascar exceeded its CITES export quota for the species. Problems exist with CITES reporting for P. arachnoides by both importing and exporting nations, with 66.6% of individuals failing to be reported correctly. Seizures of illegally transported specimens are few with only 50 such specimens officially recorded by CITES, and none officially recorded by TRAFFIC. Smuggling, however, is believed to almost certainly occur. Madagascar's failure in the CITES reporting system is thought to be attributed to corruption and more recently, national political instability, but improvements and conservation initiatives in recent years have been made. Over-collection for the lucrative exotic pet trade could seriously threaten the long-term survival of this species, and education and capacity building are required at both the collection and consumption ends of the industry in order to increase its chances of long-term survival.
Monday, May 3, 2010; A04 As consumers and businesses have begun to seek green products in recent years, environmental certification has become an increasingly crowded --and contested --field. About 600 labels worldwide --80 in the United States --are issued by companies and nonprofit organizations that offer a promise of environmentally friendly qualities, according to a new survey by the World Resources Institute, Duke University and the environmental analyst Big Room Inc. They cover almost every category imaginable --from textiles to tea and tourism, from forest products to food. The labels say whether shade-grown organic coffee is "Bird Friendly" (courtesy of the Smithsonian Institution's Migratory Bird Center) or Gibson guitars were made without harming tropical forests (thanks to the Rainforest Alliance). But because certification is a self-regulated industry, the integrity of these labels varies wildly. The best certification systems have brought increased accountability to markets that used to be largely unregulated. Many others make environmental claims that cannot be proved, prompting the Federal Trade Commission to file charges against some manufacturers. Eco-certifications, as many consultants and activists call them, cover about 15 percent of the bananas traded in the world, 12 percent of wild fisheries, 10 percent of global forestry products and 7 percent of the global coffee market. Four out of the five top tea companies worldwide have agreed to buy tea from Rainforest Alliance-certified farms. Oxfam and the United Farm Workers are working on a certification system for fruits, vegetables and flowers that would address consumers' concerns about the environment, food safety and workers' rights. "These kinds of certification systems have definitely moved from the avant-garde, and are seen at the very least as an up-market, premium product," said Steve Rochlin, senior partner at AccountAbility, an international sustainability consulting firm. "What these need to do is to double, treble, quadruple --at least --the amount of certified product they have out in the market in the next five years, to replace what we would normally buy on the grocery store shelves." But the money at stake over which group's certification standards become the norm has made these systems a battlefield, delaying their widespread implementation in some cases.
To avoid the risk of misapplying conservation effort the correct diagnosis of the agent causing a population to decline requires scientific approaches. The radiated tortoise Geocheloneradiata, endemic to southern Madagascar, is heavily harvested for food and for the pet trade. Fearing overexploitation, the tortoise was protected under Malagasy law and placed on Appendix I of CITES, yet scientific evidence that the radiated tortoise is declining, and that exploitation is the agent driving any decline, is lacking. Interviews with tortoise harvesters, a comparison of the size of the tortoise's range through time, and estimates of tortoise abundance at 14 sites under different levels of harvest intensity were used to seek evidence of overexploitation. In the first study to attempt to quantify the size of the illegal harvest of radiated tortoises, we estimated that up to 45,000 adult radiated tortoises are harvested each year. The species is declining, with its range having contracted by one-fifth over the last 25 years. Three pieces of evidence strongly suggest that overexploitation is driving this decline. Firstly, commercial harvesters reported travelling increasingly far, up to 200 km, to find sufficient densities of tortoises. Secondly, tortoises were either absent or at very low abundance at sites subject to commercial harvesting, but in remote, unharvested regions, tortoises persisted at densities of up to 2,500 km−2. Thirdly, tortoise abundance increased significantly with distance from urban centres of high demand for tortoise meat. If current rates of harvesting continue, the radiated tortoise will go extinct in the wild.
Wildlife farming is a contentious conservation measure. In Louisiana alligator farming has generated significant conservation gains. This case study is used to test several assumptions employed in debates about wildlife farming. These include whether farming ‘floods’ the market to depress prices and deter poaching, whether it encourages wild harvest and whether it can compete against wild harvest. Data from over three decades is used to model harvest behaviour with OLS and SUR models. This shows strong separation between the market between farmed and wild alligator skins. Immense rises in farmed output have not caused prices to collapse, however poaching has collapsed. This highlights that farming can have important non-price effects on poaching. Assumptions that are commonly used to debate wildlife farming are not supported in this example. Such assumptions, including open-access of the wildlife, inert and exogenous wildlife managers and excluding indirect benefits of wildlife farming tend to bias policy away from farming. Using these assumptions makes it harder to identify cases where wildlife farming could assist conservation objectives.
The bushmeat trade is perceived as a major threat to wild animal populations in the tropics. Little is known of how the trade is organized, however, or of the actors involved in it, impeding the development of effective conservation policy. We investigated the structure and operation of a bushmeat commodity chain in West Africa that supplies a typical urban market, the city of Takoradi in southwestern Ghana. Data were collected from January through February 2000, describing 2430 bushmeat transactions encompassing 17 different taxa from 70 different actors, through a combination of direct observation and semistructured interviews. Five different types of actor traded along the commodity chain: commercial hunters, farmer hunters, wholesalers, market traders, and chopbar (cafe) owners. Bushmeat was traded freely among all these actors, although the primary trade route for terrestrial mammals was from commercial hunters via wholesalers to chopbars. In contrast, invertebrates were only traded by farmer hunters, market traders, and chopbars. Wholesalers captured the largest per capita share of the market (4% of all sales were handled by each wholesaler), whereas the most important vendors were chopbars, which as a group made 85% of all bushmeat sales to the public. Variation in the price of bushmeat was largely explained by transport costs and taste preferences. Transport costs were most significant for hunters and greatest on long journeys involving large loads. Nevertheless, hunters obtained the greatest income per kilogram of bushmeat sold of all actor groups. Our results suggest that there is no single best entry point along the bushmeat commodity chain for conservation intervention. On the contrary, the successful monitoring and management of the bushmeat trade is likely to require a multiactor approach that encompasses most or all actor groups.
Resumen: El comercio de carne silvestre es una amenaza mayor para poblaciones de animales silvestre en los trópicos. Sin embargo, se conoce poco de cómo esta organizado o de los actores involucrados, lo que impide el desarrollo de una política de conservación efectiva. Investigamos la estructura y operación de una cadena de producción de carne silvestre en África Occidental que abastece un mercado urbano típico: la ciudad de Takoradi en el suroeste de Ghana. Se recolectaron datos, de enero a febrero 2000, describiendo 2430 transacciones de carne silvestre comprendiendo 17 taxa diferentes y 70 actores diferentes, por medio de una combinación de observación directa y entrevistas semiestructuradas. En la cadena de comercialización participaron cinco diferentes tipos de actor: cazadores comerciales, cazadores campesinos, mayoristas, comerciantes de mercado y propietarios de cafés. La carne silvestre se comercializó libremente entre todos estos actores, aunque la ruta primaria de comercio para mamíferos terrestres fue de cazadores comerciales a cafés, vía mayoristas. En contraste, los invertebrados fueron comercializados sólo por cazadores campesinos, comerciantes de mercado y cafés. Los mayoristas capturaron la mayor ganancia per capita del mercado (4% de todas las ventas fueron manejadas por cada mayorista), mientras que los cafés fueron los vendedores más importantes, que como grupo realizaron 85% de todas las ventas de carne silvestre al público. La variación en el precio de la carne silvestre se explicó principalmente por los costos de transporte y preferencia de sabor. Los costos de transporte fueron más significativos para cazadores y mayores en viajes largos con cargas grandes. Sin embargo, los cazadores obtuvieron el mayor ingreso por kilogramo de carne. Nuestros resultados sugieren que, a lo largo de toda la cadena de producción, no hay un solo punto de entrada para la intervención de conservación. Por el contrario, el monitoreo y manejo exitoso del comercio de carne silvestre requiere de una aproximación que comprenda a la mayoría de o todos los grupos actores.
Poaching tigers, primarily for their bones, has become the latest threat to the persistence of wild tiger populations throughout the world. Anecdotal information indicates the seriousness of this new threat. It is important, however, to provide a quantitative analysis of poaching as a basis for strong policy action. We therefore created a tiger simulation model to explore the effects of realistic levels of poaching on population viability. The model is an individually based, stochastic spatial model that is based on the extensive data set from Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. We found that as poaching continues over time, the probability of population extinction increases sigmoidally; a critical zone exists in which a small, incremental increase in poaching greatly increases the probability of extinction. The implication is that poaching may not at first be seen as a threat but could suddenly become one. Moreover, even if poaching is effectively stopped, tiger populations will still be vulnerable and could go extinct due to demographic and environmental stochasticity. Our model also shows that poaching reduces genetic variability, which could further reduce population viability due to inbreeding depression. The longer poaching is allowed to continue, the more vulnerable a population will be to these stochastic events. At currently reported rates of poaching our analysis indicates that many wild tiger populations will be extirpated during the latter half of the 1990s.
Trade in wildlife resources is permitted and regulated by national and international governance. Focussing on the trade in chameleons from Madagascar, our objective was to investigate the consequences of changes in governance on the number of individuals and species traded together with the prices paid to collectors, intermediaries and exporters. As a result of the liberalisation of export controls in 1988, exports of chameleons grew exponentially at an average rate of 62% per annum, the trade in Calumma spp. increasing at 91% per annum. The intervention of CITES in 1994, as a result of concerns over the trade, capped official exports at approximately 20,000 per annum and also restricted the trade to four species of Furcifer. The consequence of the CITES intervention was a shift in the species exported from a mix of Calumma harvested in the east and Furcifer harvested in the west to a trade in Furcifer alone, alongside an increase in the number of Furcifer exports. Consequently there was a shift in the distribution of local benefits gained from the trade away from the rainforests in the east, the centre of conservation concern. At the same time there was also a fall in the prices paid to collectors and intermediaries involved in the trade and a widening of the gap with the prices paid to exporters. The creation of an Experimental Management Programme within Madagascar to address the concerns of CITES in 1998/1999 and lobby for some expansion of the trade, led to an initial fall in the number of chameleons traded. Failure to achieve the latter objective has more recently led to an increase in the number of species traded and a further widening of the prices paid to collectors and exporters. These results highlight the need to consider carefully the consequences of changes in governance on the wildlife trade if conservation and local people are to benefit from the trade in wildlife resources.
Research on the interactions between human behaviour and ecological systems tends to focus on the direct effects of human activities on ecosystems, such as biodiversity loss. There is also increasing research effort directed towards ecosystem services. However, interventions to control people's use of the environment alter the incentives that natural resource users face, and therefore their decisions about resource use. The indirect effects of conservation interventions on biodiversity, modulated through human decision-making, are poorly studied but are likely to be significant and potentially counterintuitive. This is particularly so where people are dependent on multiple natural resources for their livelihoods, when both poverty and biodiversity loss are acute. An inter-disciplinary approach is required to quantify these interactions, with an understanding of human decision-making at its core; otherwise, predictions about the impacts of conservation policies may be highly misleading.
Conservationists are far from able to assist all species under threat, if only for lack of funding. This places a premium on priorities: how can we support the most species at the least cost? One way is to identify 'biodiversity hotspots' where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat. As many as 44% of all species of vascular plants and 35% of all species in four vertebrate groups are confined to 25 hotspots comprising only 1.4% of the land surface of the Earth. This opens the way for a 'silver bullet' strategy on the part of conservation planners, focusing on these hotspots in proportion to their share of the world's species at risk.
Nature is the international weekly journal of science: a magazine style journal that publishes full-length research papers in all disciplines of science, as well as News and Views, reviews, news, features, commentaries, web focuses and more, covering all branches of science and how science impacts upon all aspects of society and life.
Devil's claw is the common name for two species in the genus Harpagophytum. Their root extracts contain the iridoid glycoside, harpagoside, which has been found to be effective in the treatment of degenerative rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, tendonitis, kidney inflammation, and heart disease. Most of the world's supply comes from Namibia, with lesser amounts from South Africa and Botswana. In 2002, the peak year of export, 1018 tonnes of dried tubers were exported from southern Africa, representing the harvest of millions of plants. In 2001, sales in Germany were estimated at 30 M euros, accounting for 74% of the prescriptions for rheumatism. Harvest has improved income levels in marginalized communities but it has also raised questions of sustainability. In 2000, recommendations were made to the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) to add devil's claw to Appendix II. In 2004, the proposal was formally withdrawn due to the efforts of the range states to address sustainability issues. Replacing wild collection with cultivation has generated a debate on the positive and negative effects on harvester income and rural farmers. Successful cultivation efforts have involved micropropagation techniques and growing the plant without water or fertilizers. The governments of the main range states are working with local communities to develop policies and regulations to protect the species and to determine a sustainable harvest.
Informal institutions governing the use of wild species are present in many societies. A system of prohibitions known as fady is central to Malagasy culture. We examined whether fady that relate to the use of natural resources in the eastern rainforests of Madagascar play an important conservation role. Prohibitions ranged from strict taboos in which a species or area was forbidden by the ancestors to social norms that concerned acceptable behavior when harvesting wild species. Strict taboos offered real protection to threatened species, such as the lemur Propithecus edwardsi and the carnivore Cryptoprocta ferox. Taboos also reduced pressure on some economically important endemic species by preventing their sale or limiting the harvest season. Despite their value for conservation, the taboos did not appear to originate from attempts to sustainably manage resources. Nevertheless, social norms, in which the sanction was social disapproval rather than supernatural retribution, encouraged sustainable harvesting practices for tenrecs (Tenrec ecudatus) and pandans (Pandanus spp.). Unfortunately, the social norms concerning methods of harvesting pandans appeared to be breaking down in villages surrounding Ranomafana National Park, and we suggest that the imposition of external conservation rules is weakening traditional management. Informal institutions are important to conservation because they suggest ways of improving cultural understanding and conservation communication. Food taboos influence societal preferences, which affect the wider demand for a species. Most important, where capacity to enforce external conservation rules is limited, informal institutions may provide the only effective regulations. Informal institutions should receive greater attention from conservation biologists so that local people's conservation roles can be acknowledged fairly and so that potential synergies with conservation objectives can be realized.
The trade of ornamental fish from the Philippines
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OneKind Welcomes Exotic Pet Trade Debate
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Madagascar's Reptile Trade Dynamic: The Case of Tortoises, Geckos and Chameleons
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Malagasy poison frogs in the pet trade: a survey of levels of exploitation of species in the genus Mantella
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Is it time for another Marine Aquarium Council
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Literature Review: The Benefits of Wild Caught Ornamental Aquatic Organisms
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Making a killing or making a living: wildlife trade, trade controls, and rural livelihoods
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