A Model for Effective Online Instructional Design

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A Model for Effective Online Instructional Design
Li-Ling Chen
California State University at East Bay, USA
Abstract
With the ever-increasing popularity of online
instruction in education or e-learning in corporate
training, there is a strong need for developing an
effective instructional design model to facilitate the
development and delivery of online learning
environments. A poor-designed online course often
confuses online students, loses their focus, and
makes them feel frustrated. Online students will not
know where to start, what to do, when to
communicate, and how to learn if an online course is
not well-designed. Thus, developing a pedagogically
effective instructional design model is essential now
more than ever as more and more learning moves to
virtual classrooms.
1. Introduction
In the past decade, online instruction continues to
grow rapidly. With the popularity of online
instruction in education, there is a strong need for a
pedagogically effective instructional design model
for online education to facilitate the development and
delivery of engaging online learning environments.
A poorly designed online course often makes
students get lost, loses their interests, and feels
distressed. If an online course is not well-designed,
students will not know where to start, what to do,
when to communicate, and how to learn. The status
will become even worse if a student is still learning
how to operate the technology aspects of an online
course. With unclear instruction, ambiguous
organization, and inefficient applications, the focus
of online learners will be on technology, not on
learning which creates more obstacles for online
learners.
Instructional design (ID) also called instructional
systematic design (ISD) is “the practice of creating
instructional experiences which make the acquisition
of knowledge and skill more efficient, effective, and
appealing" [10]. An effective ISD model benefits
both instructors and learners. An instructional design
serves as a framework and also a tool that provides
guidance for the structure and organization of a
course design. With systematic guidance, it helps to
lead learners to focus on a topic quickly and to
remove distractions, yet it still allows learners to take
control of their learning. It also helps instructors to
organize contents, to sequence instruction
effectively, to assist and support learners, and to
promote engaging, meaningful, and active learning.
Therefore, it is essential now more than ever as more
and more learning shifts to online.
The purpose of this paper is to address principles
of effective online instructional design and then to
propose a stand-alone online ID model, particularly
relevant for online course development with the
consideration of learning theories and pedagogical
philosophy. The proposed ISD model in this paper
will effectively guide an online instructor and
educator to better design a quality online course
which promotes and enhances online students’ focus
on active and engaging learning.
2. Literature review
The review of literature will start from reviewing
the two most frequently mentioned traditional ISD
models, ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation, and Evaluation) and Dick, Carey,
and Carey’s model. Then, the literature review will
examine the current five ISD models or standards
that are mostly cited and applied for designing and
developing an online or a hybrid class.
2.1 Traditional ISD models
Instructional design models have some history in
education and thus many instructional design models
exist yet few are specific to course design for online
teaching and learning. The two most frequently cited
traditional ID models are the ADDIE model [6] and
Dick, Carey, and Carey’s model [3]. The ADDIE
model offers five universal course design principles:
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,
and Evaluation (ADDIE).
Like all ID models, both pros and cons have been
claimed with ADDIE. Its advantages include:
providing structured guidance for design, serving as
a valuable checklist to ensure a solid course design,
and including a great focus on implementation and
evaluation. The disadvantages of ADDIE include
that the analysis step is not being broad enough in
the design process; the model is too linear and not
flexible; and it does not encourage inspiration [9].
Sequentially similar to the ADDIE model, Dick,
Carey, and Carey’s ISD model is more specific and
rigid to each instructional step [3]. Their model
focuses on real-world settings, considers learners’
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needs, assesses learners’ prior knowledge levels, and
integrates learning and performance context into the
design. The model is well accepted and respected in
higher education and business settings because it is
well-researched and it relies heavily on theoretical
principles of learning.
Although Dick, Carey, and Carey claim that their
ISD model is also applicable to online instructional
design, many educators criticize that their model is
“rigid, cumbersome, driven by predetermined
objectives, thus incompatible with learner-
determined objectives. The model is also instructor-
focused, assumes the learner is a consumer of
content and materials, and not active in the learning
process” [7].
Apparently, both ADDIE and Dick, Carey, and
Carey’s models provide a great guidance for
designing instruction. At the same time, critics of
the models also indicate that they are too linear and
inflexible. Their designing process is also driven by
predetermined instructional objectives which are
contradictory to learner-centered learning with
learner-determined objectives.
2.2 Online instructional design models
Although distance education has been existing for
a long time, the history of online instruction or e-
learning has just started in early 1990’s. Thus, there
are few online instructional design models, theories,
and standards exist. Literature review reveals that
there are five instructional design models, theories,
and standards relevant to online instruction or e-
learning design. They are: (1) Alonso, Lopez,
Manrique, and Vines’ E-Learning instructional
model, (2) the Instructional Design Model for Online
Learning (IDOL), (3) Roblyer’s online and blended
learning design theory, (4) the online instruction
rubric by Quality Online Learning and Teaching
(QOLT), and (5) Quality Matters (QM) Publisher
Rubric. Each of the model or rubric will be
described and reviewed below.
In 2005, Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, and Vines
proposed a web-based e-learning education model
with a blended learning approach [1]. They describe
their model is “a psychopedagogical instructional
model based on content structure, the latest research
into information processing psychology and social
contructivism, and define a blended approach to the
learning process” (p. 217). They claimed that the
purpose of their model is “for learners to be engaged
by the e-learning contents to the extent that they get
to understand things that they did not comprehend
before. This will make them ready to practice and
take action to perform new activities.” (p. 222).
In their model, there are seven main steps:
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation,
Execution, Evaluation, and Review (See Figure 1.).
Apparently, their model was built upon ADDIE
model with the addition of two phases, Execution
and Review.
Figure 1. Alonso, Lopez, Manrique, and Vines’ e-
learning instructional model with a blended learning
approach
This IDOL model, designed and proposed by
Siragusa, Dixon, and Dixon [12], gears toward
online course design in higher education with three
proposed main steps: analysis, strategy, and
evaluation. One can tell that the model derives from
the two above-mentioned traditional instructional
design models, ADDIE and Dick, Carey and Carey’s
model. It presents 24 pedagogical considerations
when designing an online learning. The main
drawback of the model for online design is that it is
only recommended for use alongside with other ID
models and is inefficient to use alone for designing
an online course.
Roblyer’s instructional design model was
proposed in his book, entitled “Introduction to
Systematic Instructional Design for Traditional,
Online, and Blended Environments” published in
2015 [10]. His theory also draws from ADDIE and
Dick, Carey, and Carey’s model. Besides the
traditional instructional design process, he proposes
how to organize traditional, online, and blended
learning environments. Strictly speaking, it is not an
online instructional design model but just
suggestions and considerations for online
instructional design.
The rubric for online instruction by QOLT was
first released in 2010 [11]. It is a state-wide program
developed by the California State University System.
It provides a framework for online course design and
delivery and it also serves as a means for supporting
in developing online instruction. According to QOLT
[11], the rubric can be used for designing online
learning in two ways: “1. as a course "self-
evaluation" tool - advising instructors how to revise
an existing course to the Rubric for Online
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Instruction. 2. As a way to design a new course for
the online environment, following the rubric as a
road map.” Although the rubric provides a great
checklist to design online courses, it overlooks the
actual implementation and evaluation of an online
instruction.
Quality Matters Publisher Rubric [8] was created
by Quality Matters (QM), a non-profit organization
dedicated to assure the quality of online and blended
instruction. There are two sets of rubric: one for
higher education and the other one for K-12
education. The rubric was created to address the need
of design standards for higher education and K-12
educational settings to guide the design of online and
blended instruction. The QM rubric is also a great
guide for designing online courses. Like QOLT
rubric, the actual delivery, implementation, and
assessment of an online instruction are not
addressed.
3. A pedagogically effective model for
online instructional design
Based on the literature review, we can find that
there are some basic principles for designing and
developing an effective online course. The basic
principles can be theorized and diagramed as an
online course design model (See Figure 2.). There
are five main principles or steps in the model:
Identify, Choose, Create, Engage, and Evaluate
(ICCEE). The unique characteristic in the model is
that all main steps and their associated sub-steps
majorly follow a sequential order, yet they can be in
circular order as well. By following the model, an
online instructor can maximize the efficiency of
designing an online course.
Figure 2. Online instructional design model
Step 1: Identify. Because the nature of an online
course is very different from a traditional face to face
course and a hybrid course, identifying a course
format becomes essential in the initial process when
designing an online course. Course formats range
from totally face-to-face class to blended courses
with small portion of online components, to high
portion of online components, or to an entirely online
class. An online instructor needs to identify which
course format that he/she would like to adopt for
instruction first. The course format identification
will help the instructor to better identify instructional
objectives.
After a course format is set, an instructor can
move the step to identify instructional objectives.
When identifying instructional objectives for online
courses, online instructors should consider questions,
such as what are the terminal objectives for the
online or blended course? Are the terminal objectives
mandated by the institution that the online course
will be offered? Is there any flexibility that the
instructor can create his/her terminal objectives for
the learners?
When terminal objectives or course objectives are
set, instructors should identify their learners’ needs
and characteristics. With the understanding of the
needs and characteristics of the learners, online
instructors can better identify technologies to
maximize their students’ learning. For example,
instructors can better choose a technology tool to
incorporate into their online course design if they
know their student’s prior experience of technology
use. Another example is an online instructor can
chose a delivery system that complies with Section
508 if there are students with disabilities in his/her
online class.
Then, online instructors have to identify and
analyze the learning context. Different from
traditional teaching which classrooms or computer
labs are the main learning contexts, online learning
context for online instruction focuses on web-based
online learning environments. It is very essential for
online instructors to provide a comfortable, safe, and
collegial online learning environment for their online
learners.
After appropriate technologies have been
identified to use for delivering an online course, an
online instructor can now move to identify
appropriate pedagogical strategies. In this stage,
online instructors can ask themselves what learning
and teaching approaches that he/she would like to
apply, behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
project-based learning, or student-centered learning?
Step 2: Choose. After identifying appropriate
necessary formats and elements for an online
instruction, then an online instructor can begin to
choose. At this stage, online instructors choose
content organization layout which is a way to
organize their online course contents and materials,
linear or nonlinear. Choosing content organization
format is essential in this step as it influences
students’ first impression of the online courses as
well as their access to and navigation of the course
contents. Poorly organized online course contents
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will confuse its learners, and make them lose
patience to navigate around.
After content organization layout has been
chosen, online instructors need to choose effective
technology tools to facilitate various online
activities. For example, online discussion is one of
the major activities for online learning, online
instructors need to choose effective technology tools
to facilitate online interaction and communication. A
user friendly online discussion tool will ease
students’ anxiety as well as promote a more dynamic
online discussion. For content presentation, online
instructors can choose technology that is familiar to
students or easy to use to present information to
students.
In this planning stage, online instructors will
have to choose appropriate resources to help their
learners learn or enhance their learning. The
resources can include both curriculum related
resources, technical support resources, and
university-based mentoring supporting resources.
Step 3: Create. The third step is to create or to
develop. At this step, online instructors start building
and creating intuitive course path or flow, create
instructional methods and materials for content
presentation, assignment, and assessment, create
interactive communication methods, and create
supporting materials for students.
To build and create intuitive course path or flow,
online instructors can work with their institutionally
designated instructional designer to sketch or story
board about the course site architecture in a learning
management system. At this stage, online instructors
have to decide whether they would like to display
their course contents in a linear or hierarchical way.
They also have to decide how to cluster their course
contents in order to enhance their students’ learning.
After course site architecture has been decided,
online instructors can move to create and develop
materials for instructional content presentation,
assignments, and assessment. Creating and
developing instructional materials require a logical
plan and organization. For course contents involving
multimedia, online instructors can work
collaboratively with professional staff in faculty
support offices to make sure audio, video, and
graphics all work smoothly and comply with
accessibility regulation. Assignment submission and
assessment feedback also need to create logically and
transparently so that online students can track their
progress for improvement.
When instructional materials, assignments, and
assessment methods have all been in place, online
instructors have to focus on how to create and
facilitate interactive communication methods. The
establishment of an interactive communication or
building a robust online learning community is one
of the major keys in determining the success of an
online instruction. In this stage, applying a social
media technology usually will help in facilitating
dynamic communication.
Step 4: Engage. According to a research report,
online learning tends to have a high drop-out rate [2],
[4], how to retain and engage online learners
becomes essential. According to Willging and
Johnson [13], the factors which cause online students
to drop out from online courses include isolation,
disconnectedness, and technological problems.
Therefore, in the implementation stage for an online
course, online instructors should focus on the process
of how to carry out the online learning. Casimiro [2]
proposed five conditions that could have supported
the engagement of online student: nature of
discussion questions, the mitigating factors for the
level of student response, learning community,
student characteristics, and teacher facilitation. He
furthermore claims that “of these five, the nature of
discussion questions, quality of student response, and
learning community appeared to be the best to
promote cognitive engagement” (P. 441). According
to the author’s conclusion, online instructors can
engage students from three perspectives: academic,
social, and emotion. To engage learners
academically in an online class, online instructors
could provide prompt feedback for students’
performance in their assignments and projects as
well as their questions regarding technological
issues. Providing immediate feedback for students’
questions will ease out student’s worry and keep
students stay in their online class. Offering prompt
and just-in-time feedback for students’ assignments
and projects allows learners to track their progress
and keep on task.
Student’s feeling of isolation in an online class is
another influential drop-out factor and it can also be
detrimental for student’s learning. Building a
positive online learning community is the key to
solve the problem. Online instructors can apply
various technology tools to facilitate and promote the
establishment of online learning environment. The
tools include: traditional text-based discussion
boards, forums, multimedia-based discussion boards,
such as VoiceThread, wiki, or course texting
functions, such as Remind, to establish an online
learning community. To make sure the learning
community is comfortable, safe, and positive, online
instructors should set online netiquette guidelines for
their learners before the class starts. While
implementing or delivering an online class, online
instructors should facilitate and monitor their online
discourse in all discussion platforms constantly.
To engage online learners emotionally, online
instructors can apply some instructional strategies to
increase student’s confidence level. When students
feel confidence in an online class, they will have a
better chance to succeed. Strategies to increase
student’s confidence in an online class include:
providing extra credit, offering visual or musical aid,
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and so on. “A picture is more than 1000 words.”
Providing visual or musical aid can help students,
especially for the second language learners, to
comprehend the new materials easier. This includes
assessments that require online learners to
demonstrate mastery.
Step 5: Evaluate. The final step in this model is
evaluation. Student assessment should be holistic and
formative. Online instructors can evaluate students’
performance with multiple strategies, such as
projects, presentation, assignments, test,
communication posts, etc. Students’ performance in
an online class should also be evaluated
progressively and periodically. Online instructors
should also evaluate the effectiveness of their
instructional methods and materials by checking with
their online students either via survey, questionnaire,
interview, online observations, or others.
4. Discussion
There are several advantages of applying the five
principles proposed in this model for online course
design. First, the model is built upon with
considerations from traditional ID models as well as
currently existing online ID models. Furthermore,
both pedagogical approaches and learning theories
are also taken into account.
Second, it is well-designed by outlining
conceptual framework for online instruction. The
researcher has received state wide recognitions and
awards for her outstanding online course design and
teaching and also has accessed to numerous
exemplary online courses. To develop the model, she
and her research team had listed essential elements
of the theoretical framework for online instruction
based on the examination of various online courses.
They reviewed online courses, made tables and
charts to compare ID theories and elements that were
used for the online course design.
Third, the model is flexible. Online instructors
can tailor the instructional sub-steps in the model to
meet their own specific online teaching needs. In
addition, online instructors can go back to previous
steps to revise their course design and contents if
they deem a need.
Fourth, the model is learner-centered. According
to the model, online instructors have to identify their
learner’s needs, prior knowledge, characteristics, and
learning context in order to provide appropriate
instruction that matches their students’ learning
needs. The model considers the importance of
engaging learners from academically, socially, and
emotionally which has not been taken into account in
any of the existing five ISD models related to online
instruction.
The proposed ICCEE (Identify, Choose, Create,
Engage, and Evaluate) model is still in its infancy.
Although the researcher has adopted, tested out, and
proved the effectiveness of the model in her online
instruction, it is suggested that more empirical
researches can be done.
5. Conclusion
The proposed ICCEE model can provide online
educators or instructors an effective guidance and
checklist when designing online course materials. A
proper implementation of the model can support
online student’s engagement, involvement,
motivation, and focus on learning. The five basic
principles are in a both linear and circular process.
That is, online instructors can return back to any
previous step to modify their instructional design
while they develop or deliver online instruction. The
end goal of the online instructional design model is
to assist online instructors to better design online
courses or lessons, to facilitate online students
focusing on their learning, and to promote active
teaching and learning.
6. References
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[9] Quinn, C., (2010). The great ADDIE debate.
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