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Anxious language learners can change their minds: Ideas and strategies from traditional psychology and positive psychology
... Studies that present learner anxiety as dependent on the teaching and learning environment represent a minority position (Cameron, 2022;Cao, 2011;Norton, 2013). In the majority of second and foreign language anxiety literature, learner anxiety is presented as an individual deficit (Dewaele, 2013(Dewaele, , 2017King & Smith, 2017;Oxford, 2017;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017). In such studies, the learning environment is rarely analysed, apart from offering brief general advice to create a supportive classroom environment (Dewaele, 2013;King & Smith, 2017;Thurman, 2018). ...
... More often, strategies for managing learner anxiety are divorced from TESOL pedagogy. Recommendations for teachers involve encouraging students to be responsible for their emotions by using relaxation techniques (Oxford, 2017;Woodrow, 2006); cognitive behavioural tools (King & Smith, 2017;Oxford, 2017); exposure therapy (Oxford, 2017); social skills training (Oxford, 2017); various positive psychology techniques such as 'letting go of grudges' (Oxford, 2017), 'a good attitude', optimistic thinking (Oxford, 2016), writing gratitude letters, altruism, positive visualisation and self-talk (Oxford, 2017;Thurman, 2018); and reinterpreting 'a physiological cue (i.e. increased heart rate before meeting a native speaker) to a positive, enthusiastic emotion' (Thurman, 2018, p. 4). ...
... More often, strategies for managing learner anxiety are divorced from TESOL pedagogy. Recommendations for teachers involve encouraging students to be responsible for their emotions by using relaxation techniques (Oxford, 2017;Woodrow, 2006); cognitive behavioural tools (King & Smith, 2017;Oxford, 2017); exposure therapy (Oxford, 2017); social skills training (Oxford, 2017); various positive psychology techniques such as 'letting go of grudges' (Oxford, 2017), 'a good attitude', optimistic thinking (Oxford, 2016), writing gratitude letters, altruism, positive visualisation and self-talk (Oxford, 2017;Thurman, 2018); and reinterpreting 'a physiological cue (i.e. increased heart rate before meeting a native speaker) to a positive, enthusiastic emotion' (Thurman, 2018, p. 4). ...
This paper reports the findings of a critical qualitative study on trauma-informed teaching of English as a second language (ESL) at Australian universities. Post-traumatic stress affects verbal learning, yet most ESL teachers do not receive training in trauma-informed teaching. The field has suffered from a dearth of empirical studies and absence of student voice. This study used a validated tool to measure the post-traumatic stress of 39 participants, including international students and former refugees. Twenty of these completed semi-structured interviews about the ESL learning environment, based on a framework of trauma-informed principles. Data were analysed using critical, qualitative methods through a trauma-informed lens. A major theme in the findings was the importance of ESL teachers' understanding of students. Within this theme, four sub-themes are explored: personal engagement and attention, acceptance and understanding of the learner role, understanding the lives of students outside the classroom and an understanding of students' cultures.
... Many other explanations for second language anxiety highlight individual or cultural pathologies rather than seeing it as an outcome of the learning environment. Second language anxiety is attributed to cultural traits (Woodrow, 2006), perfectionism (Dewaele, 2017), neuroticism (Dewaele, 2013;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017), "problematic beliefs about oneself" (King & Smith, 2017, p. 99), "negative assumptions and lack of social skills" (Oxford, 2017), low motivation and emotional intelligence (Oxford, 2017), construction of "counterproductive narratives" (Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017, p. 64) and limited "native language skills" (Sparks et al., 2000, p. 252). ...
... Many other explanations for second language anxiety highlight individual or cultural pathologies rather than seeing it as an outcome of the learning environment. Second language anxiety is attributed to cultural traits (Woodrow, 2006), perfectionism (Dewaele, 2017), neuroticism (Dewaele, 2013;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017), "problematic beliefs about oneself" (King & Smith, 2017, p. 99), "negative assumptions and lack of social skills" (Oxford, 2017), low motivation and emotional intelligence (Oxford, 2017), construction of "counterproductive narratives" (Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2017, p. 64) and limited "native language skills" (Sparks et al., 2000, p. 252). ...
... More often, strategies are divorced from TESOL pedagogy. Recommendations for teachers involve encouraging students to be responsible for their emotions by using relaxation techniques (Oxford, 2017;Woodrow, 2006); cognitive behavioural tools (King & Smith, 2017;Oxford, 2017); exposure therapy (Oxford, 2017); social skills training (Oxford, 2017); various positive psychology techniques such as "letting go of grudges" (Oxford, 2017), "a good attitude", optimistic thinking (Oxford, 2016), writing gratitude letters, altruism, positive visualisation and self-talk (Oxford, 2017;Thurman, 2018); and reinterpreting "a physiological cue (i.e. increased heart rate before meeting a native speaker) to a positive, enthusiastic emotion" (Thurman, 2018, p. 4). ...
Psychological trauma is prevalent worldwide, and post-traumatic stress is likely to be present in every second language classroom. It has been established that post-traumatic stress can negatively affect verbal learning, memory, concentration, and the speed of second language acquisition. However, very few empirical studies have been published on how the second language teaching environment minimises or exacerbates post-traumatic stress. Of those that do exist, student voice is minimal, a validated trauma screening instrument has not been used, and the focus is on refugee background students rather than international and immigrant students. There has also been a dearth of studies located in university-based English language centres.
The purpose of the present study was to fill these gaps in the literature. It aimed to investigate how adult students who have experienced post-traumatic stress responses perceived a positive English as a second or additional language (ESL) learning environment. Using a theoretical framework drawing on socio-environmental theories of trauma and critical pedagogies, this critical qualitative study had two stages of data collection. In Stage 1, 39 participants who were ESL students at one of three universities in south-east Queensland, Australia, completed a validated post-traumatic stress screening questionnaire. Subsequently, 20 of these participants were interviewed about their experiences of the ESL learning environment at their respective universities. The semi-structured interviews were based on trauma-informed learning principles identified in the literature review: A safe and secure environment; agency and choice; foregrounding of student identities; recognition of strengths; social belonging; and meaning.
Interview data were analysed with a critical thematic analysis through a trauma-informed lens. Four major themes emerged in the findings. These were: understanding and responsiveness by teachers; power, control, and hierarchies; transformative second language learning; and institutional supports.
Within the themes of understanding and responsiveness, the main findings were divided into the sub-themes of attunement and understanding; acceptance and understanding of the English language learner role; understanding students’ lives outside the classroom; and understanding and respect for students’ cultural backgrounds.
... Anxiety is a critical aspect of effect in language learning and plays an imperative role in SLA (Horwitz, 2016(Horwitz, , 2017Oxford, 2017;Gregersen, 2020;Sudina, 2021;Jiang and Papi, 2022;Pan et al., 2022). In general, foreign language anxiety (FLA) is defined as "a distinct complex construct of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of language learning process" (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). ...
... Gardner and MacIntyre examined the associations between anxiety and various measures of language achievement in French, and reported a higher negative correlation coefficient between anxiety and self-rated proficiency than that between anxiety and objective measures such as cloze test and word production. Gardner and MacIntyre pointed out that measures of anxiety were linked to learners' concerns about their perceived inadequacy, as evidenced in the close relationship between low-levels of anxiety and different types of positive emotions such as self-confidence (Clément, 1986), hope, optimism and agency (Oxford, 2017), which would probably have a greater influence on subjective self-ratings than on objective tests. Thus, different measures were recommended by Gardner and MacIntyre to assess learners' L2 achievement in exploring the role anxiety plays in SLA. ...
... Therefore, instructional strategies could be tailored to ease learners' anxiety about CFL learning and train them to develop self-regulating strategies for learning a foreign language online. A supportive and positive instructional approach can reduce learners' language learning anxiety (Young, 1991;Vogely, 1998;Oxford, 2017;Jin et al., 2021). If instructors are working in less developed countries, they should consider the local culture when taking targeted measures to address anxiety. ...
The impact of motivation, anxiety and learning strategies on the achievement of foreign language proficiency has been widely acknowledged in the context of traditional offline classroom settings. However, this issue has not been extensively documented in relation to online learning, which has become the predominant form of language learning during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. The current study was conducted to investigate the relative prediction of motivation, anxiety and learning strategies for second language achievement among 90 Thai adult learners of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL) who took online Chinese courses. The participants completed a questionnaire dealing with motivation, anxiety, learning strategies, and their Chinese proficiency was measured by self-report and a Chinese vocabulary size test. A series of hierarchical regression analyses revealed two major findings. First, anxiety emerged as the most stable factor for the participants' CFL achievement, followed by learning strategies and motivation. Second, motivation, anxiety and learning strategies only significantly predicted the participants' self-rated Chinese language proficiency, but not their performance on the Chinese vocabulary size test. The overall results indicate the relative importance of motivation, anxiety and learning strategies to Chinese language learning in the online environment and suggest different measures of CFL achievement may lead to different research findings. The general findings were of theoretical and pedagogical significance for understanding and addressing individual differences factors in online language learning.
... When experiencing anxiety or anxiety-related feelings, language learners have reported that they can feel their heart beat and this uncomfortable somatic reaction is distracting and detrimental to the learning process (Gregersen, et al., 2014;Horwitz et al., 1986;King, 2013;Oxford, 2018;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2018). Moreover, physiological responses (e.g., becoming aware of a racing heart) can trigger cognitive worry and vice-versa. ...
... While various physiological measures are used in psychological research (e.g., cortisol, blood pressure, skin conductance) (Ganster et al., 2018), there is justification for using HR as a stand-alone physiological measure in FL performance research. There are three main reasons for this: (a) fast HR is the most common reaction to phobic stimuli (Barlow, 2001;Couyoumdjian et al., 2016); (b) across multiple studies, language learners commonly self-report an increased HR as a reaction to or somatic symptom of anxiety in a FL environment (Gregersen, et al., 2014;Horwitz et al., 1986;King, 2013King, , 2014King & Smith, 2018;Oxford, 2018;Rolls, 2007;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2018); and (c) HR can be used to infer first-hand student learner experience with "good accuracy" (Giannakos et al., 2019, p. 9). ...
... We also predicted that HR response and the item relaxed would follow an inverse pattern (i.e., they would decrease pre-performance, they would increase postperformance, and they would increase over the three sessions). The rationale for this hypothesis is that across multiple studies, language learners commonly self-report an increased HR as a reaction to or somatic symptom of anxiety in a FL environment (King, 2013(King, , 2014King & Smith, 2018;Oxford, 2018;Şimşek & Dörnyei, 2018). Therefore, it is logical to predict that HR would decrease in an inverse pattern as students become more relaxed. ...
While psychologists often use a combination of physiological and self-reported data to examine the dynamic effects of stress on performance, the impact of affective states on Foreign Language (FL) speaking performance has almost exclusively been assessed using self-report methodology (e.g., questionnaires, interviews). In fact, studies that correlate physiological data with self-report measures in a classroom context are extremely rare due to both cost and logistical restraints. This study set out to address this gap in language learning research by employing Fitbit smart watches as a tool to unobtrusively collect heart rate (HR) response data. Participants in this study were undergraduate Japanese language students (5 males and 5 females, mean age = 19.7 years, SD = .95) at a private university in Japan. Over three sessions, students wore Fitbit smart watches and performed three different class-observed dialogs (with randomized partners and performance order) while seated at their desks. Students were also asked to report their affective state (to index their feelings in the moment) across three intervals within each class session: class start, pre-performance, and post-performance. Using multi-level modeling statistical analysis, elevated self-reported state feelings of distress and embarrassment were found to be significantly positively related with elevated HR response. To further understanding of how affective states unfold in classroom environments, researchers should consider both physiological and self-report measures. With advances in wearable technology, similar research designs to this study may become more commonplace.
... In the field of second language (L2) education, there is a long tradition of research that has examined learner motivation which shows that motivated learners tend to experience greater L2 learning success (Dörnyei, 1998(Dörnyei, , 2018. Theories of motivation, like Flow Theory, have begun to garner L2 researchers' attention and results from empirical studies show that language learning activities interact differentially with flow experiences (e.g., Aubrey, 2016Aubrey, , 2017Cho, 2018;Czimmermann & Piniel, 2016;Egbert, 2003;Oxford, 2017;Kirchhoff, 2011;Zuniga & Rueb, 2018). Within the field of task-based language teaching (TBLT), research has examined learners' perception toward several task variables, namely, task modality (Cho, 2018), task complexity (Kim, Jung & Tracy-Ventura, 2017), task types (Bao & Kirkebaek, 2013;Payant, 2019), and task difficulty (Un-udom & Patanasorn, 2020). ...
... With specific regard to L2 learning activities, flow has been described as a sign of "ultimate task engagement" (Philp & Duchesne, 2016, p. 59). It has indeed garnered the interest of L2 researchers aiming to examine how the completion of language learning activities interacts with motivation and engagement in the classroom (e.g., Aubrey, 2016Aubrey, , 2017Czimmermann & Piniel, 2016;Egbert, 2003;Kirchhoff, 2011;Oxford, 2017;Zuniga & Rueb, 2018). Some have proposed techniques for inciting flow in anxious students (e.g., Oxford, 2017), while others have attempted to observe flow dynamics in the classroom as learners engage in various types of L2 tasks. ...
... It has indeed garnered the interest of L2 researchers aiming to examine how the completion of language learning activities interacts with motivation and engagement in the classroom (e.g., Aubrey, 2016Aubrey, , 2017Czimmermann & Piniel, 2016;Egbert, 2003;Kirchhoff, 2011;Oxford, 2017;Zuniga & Rueb, 2018). Some have proposed techniques for inciting flow in anxious students (e.g., Oxford, 2017), while others have attempted to observe flow dynamics in the classroom as learners engage in various types of L2 tasks. Egbert (2003), for example, examined seven different language learning activities, finding the greatest flow intensity in an internet chat activity with native Spanish speakers. ...
The present study draws on Flow Theory to examine the relationship between task repetition and the quality of learners’ subjective experience during task execution. Flow is defined as a positive experiential state characterized by intense focus and involvement in meaningful and challenging, but doable tasks, which has been associated with enhanced self-confidence and task performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). While research shows that certain task characteristics interact differentially with the quality of flow experiences, no research has specifically examined such interaction with task repetition. Participants (n=24) were randomly assigned to a Task Repetition or a Procedural Repetition group. All participants first completed a two-way decision-making gap task in both the oral and written modalities and either repeated the identical task or a comparable task one week later. Data were collected with a flow perception questionnaire, completed immediately following each task. Results show that repetition positively influenced learners’ flow experience, but that modality was an important mediating factor.
... For instance, virtual reality, video chat, and voice chat, as employed in York et al.'s (2020) study, could reduce FLA. Another approach is the application of positive psychology MacIntyre et al., 2019), which offers various interventions to boost positive emotions while alleviating anxiety (Oxford, 2017a). For instance, positive self-talk, as employed in Toyama and Yamazaki's (2019) study, can help anxious L2 learners "feel more confident in learning the new language" (Oxford, 1990, p. 143). ...
... Use of strategies was frequently reported, but strategy interventions were highly heterogeneous. Some studies used Oxford (1990Oxford ( , 2011Oxford ( , 2017a affective strategies that target L2 learners who experience negative effects of anxiety. By teaching affective strategies, language teachers can help learners develop their emotion management capabilities (Oxford, 2015). ...
... Consistent with previous suggestions, affective strategy instruction improved FLA, as measured by the FLCAS (Bielak, 2018). Affective strategies (Oxford, 1990(Oxford, , 2011(Oxford, , 2017a target L2 learners who experience negative effects of anxiety and help them create positive emotions, beliefs, and attitudes and stay motivated (Oxford, 2011). By teaching affective strategies, language teachers can help learners develop their emotion management capabilities (Oxford, 2015). ...
Experimental studies have developed, conducted, and evaluated classroom interventions for foreign language anxiety (FLA) reduction. However, various characteristics of those classroom interventions make it difficult to synthesize the findings and apply them to practice. We conducted what is, to the best of our knowledge, the first systematic review on educational interventions for FLA. Six criteria were established for inclusion of studies. Using English keywords, we identified 854 potentially eligible studies through ProQuest and Scopus, 40 of which were finally included. All included studies were published from 2007 to 2020. The studies differed in type of intervention, duration of intervention, and scale to measure FLA. Our systematic review resulted in seven features of classroom interventions, categorized as student–student interactions, student-teacher interactions, self-management, and mood boosters; we also categorized interventions as either individual or interactional.
... Positive, organised, encouraging, and polite instructors are more likely to be valued by their pupils [29]. Positive teachers appreciate and recognise their pupils' achievements. ...
... As a result, instructors should be warm, amusing, and sympathetic, and they should endeavour to organise innovative and engaging classroom activities to fit the language levels and interests of their pupils [29]. Teachers' abilities and optimism, paired with exciting teaching activities, will serve to establish a good classroom environment, boost students' foreign language learning capacity, lower students' classroom anxiety, and, as a result, improve their academic performance [16]. ...
Adult and teenage second language learners are very interested in foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA). In language classes all across the world, foreign language anxiety (FLA) is a significant issue. It is especially directly tied to expressive abilities in a second language. There are many subjective and objective factors that affect foreign language performance. Anxiety in FLA is one of the emotional elements, and it is the key factor among the factors impacting students' second language learning. Based on previous research and scholarly papers, this study conducts a literature review to organise the pertinent material on anxiety in the foreign language classroom (FLC), including its definition, causes, and effects on students' learning and performance. Anxiety in the classroom when learning a foreign language typically results from oral activities and has a detrimental impact on language abilities including listening, reading, and writing. Moderate anxiety has been shown to occasionally boost positive learning motivation, but excessive worry is still harmful to learning. Therefore, teachers need to adopt appropriate strategies in dealing with FLCA. The key to lowering anxiety in the FLA is creating a friendly and encouraging classroom atmosphere and developing positive teacher-student connections. Overall, this paper endeavors to provide educators with insights into anxiety in the FLC and how to cope with this affective factor in their educational practices to promote better student learning and acquisition of foreign language skills. This topic has important social and educational implications on a global scale and deserves further research and study.
... These two emotions have been proved to be affective variables that learners experience frequently in classroom settings (Piniel and Albert 2018). Attempts have been made to identify the roles of FLCA (Oxford 2017;Sun and Teng 2021), sources of FLCA (Botes et al. 2020;Teimouri et al. 2019), and sources of FLE (Li et al. 2018). Although there is extensive research on FLCA and FLE in foreign language learning separately, it is crucial to examine both concurrently. ...
... 2 Literature review 2.1 FLCA and FLE FLCA has been conceptualized as learners' negative emotional reactions, feelings, and self-perceptions related to classroom learning during language learning process (Horwitz et al. 1986). Previous research attested to the potentially debilitating role of FLCA on EFL learning (e.g., Botes et al. 2020;Teimouri et al. 2019) and identified factors contributing to FLCA (e.g., Dewaele and Dewaele 2017;Oxford 2017). Though FLCA is a mainstay of EFL research, the introduction of positive psychology has initiated calls for researching positive emotions (Fredrickson 2001), in which FLE is a vital emotion receiving much attention. ...
Despite the prevalence of emotion-centered studies in foreign language classrooms, there are scant studies focusing on one specific task, the oral presentation task. This research utilized questionnaires to measure 25 Chinese Business-English major sophomores’ Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA) and Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) in a group oral presentation task. It aimed to unveil the relationships between FLCA/FLE and oral presentation performance, and to dig out factors affecting FLCA and FLE in oral presentations through self-reflective journals. It was reported that most participants generally enjoyed delivering oral presentations rather than felt anxious. Participants exhibited better performance in the content of their presentations as opposed to the delivery manner. Unlike the limited influence of FLE on oral presentations, FLCA showed significant negative correlations with overall presentation performance, particularly in participants’ vocal delivery, enthusiasm, and eye contact. Qualitative data revealed that participants’ FLCA and FLE in oral presentations were predominantly influenced by personal and peer-related factors. Based on the major findings, pedagogical suggestions were put forward to enhance learners’ oral presentation skills and promote academic oracy in higher education.
... Past research has shown that negative emotional reactions can interfere with the thinking and learning process (MacIntyre, 2017), consequently diminishing the effectiveness of even the best teaching methods and materials (Arnold and Brown, 1999). In recent decades, empirically tested methods, such as deep breathing, relaxing, soothing music (Oxford, 1990), instilling a positive belief in L2 learning (Oxford, 2017;Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2019;MacIntyre et al., 2019), and computer-mediated communication (CMC, York et al., 2021) have been implemented to reduce FLA. However, the results remain debatable, and no consensus has been reached on what should be changed in L2 learning (Toyama and Yamazaki, 2021) to relieve FLA. ...
... Past research has shown that negative emotional reactions can interfere with the thinking and learning process (MacIntyre, 2017), consequently diminishing the effectiveness of even the best teaching methods and materials (Arnold and Brown, 1999). In recent decades, empirically tested methods, such as deep breathing, relaxing, soothing music (Oxford, 1990), instilling a positive belief in L2 learning (Oxford, 2017;Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2019;MacIntyre et al., 2019), and computer-mediated communication (CMC, York et al., 2021) have been implemented to reduce FLA. However, the results remain debatable, and no consensus has been reached on what should be changed in L2 learning (Toyama and Yamazaki, 2021) to relieve FLA. ...
This study aims to investigate the impact of using synchronized computer-mediated communication (SCMC) in a face-to-face (FTF) classroom on reducing foreign language anxiety (FLA) and enhancing the learning experience. Fifty Chinese college students participated in a learning activity under three modes: normal FTF classroom (the blank sample), pure SCMC, and hybrid SCMC (BYOD). Smartphones, PCs, open internet, and the bring-your-own-device (BYOD) concept were used for SCMC applications. After completing the learning activity, the students completed Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) questionnaires. The students were also asked to complete perceptual questionnaires to assess their interaction, anxiety, distraction from the internet, and class atmosphere in the three modes. The results showed that the hybrid SCMC (BYOD) resulted in better interaction than the normal FTF classroom mode (the blank sample), while pure SCMC showed no significant improvement. Both SCMC modes reduced FLA compared to the normal FTF classroom mode (the blank sample), but pure SCMC caused a noticeable increase in distraction from the internet and weakened the classroom atmosphere. In contrast, the hybrid SCMC (BYOD) mode slightly increased distraction and improved the classroom atmosphere.
... FLA has been found to negatively affect language learning (Arnold and Brown 1999;Oxford 2017;Woodrow 2006) despite scanty evidence suggesting a possible facilitative role of anxiety in language learning (e.g., Hewitt and Stephenson 2012). Compelling evidence has pointed to the negative effect of language anxiety on language achievement such as impeding the input, processing, and output during the learning process (MacIntyre 1999). ...
... 99). Hence, we could not rule out the possibility that the students' FLE may be associated with their positive feelings toward speaking English or positive English-related mindsets (see Dewaele and Alfawzan 2018;Oxford 2017), which could be further pursued in future research. ...
Despite the extensive research on willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC), foreign language anxiety (FLA), and foreign language enjoyment (FLE), few studies have tested the roles of these variables in predicting L2 learning outcomes. This line of inquiry is imperative, especially because the importance of L2 WTC primarily lies in its presumable role in enhancing L2 learning. This study examines how FLA, FLE, and L2 WTC predict English public speaking performance. Data were collected by administering a questionnaire that contained closed-ended and open-ended items to 132 Chinese university students who took an English public speaking course. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that FLE was the single significant predictor of L2 WTC and public speaking performance. Participants’ responses revealed a range of major categories underlying classroom episodes when they felt most enjoyable, most anxious, and most willing to communicate. Implications for future research and pedagogical practice are finally addressed.
... As "the primary human motive", emotion functions as an amplifier and prompts our behavior by giving us "intensity, urgency, and energy" (MacIntyre, 2002, p. 61). As such, emotion and cognition are interdependent (Oxford, 2017), leading some to talk about the emotional brain (Le Doux, 1998). Therefore, emotions, both positive, such as foreign language enjoyment, and negative, such as foreign language anxiety, are of paramount importance and affect the language learning and teaching process (Dewaele et al., 2022;Oxford, 2017;Shao et al., 2019). ...
... As such, emotion and cognition are interdependent (Oxford, 2017), leading some to talk about the emotional brain (Le Doux, 1998). Therefore, emotions, both positive, such as foreign language enjoyment, and negative, such as foreign language anxiety, are of paramount importance and affect the language learning and teaching process (Dewaele et al., 2022;Oxford, 2017;Shao et al., 2019). Yet, most second language acquisition (SLA) studies have explicitly or implicitly maintained a cognitive perspective over the past four decades. ...
Over the past decades, several studies have focused on the role of data-driven learning (DDL) in language teaching and learning. Nevertheless, research on DDL is still scarce from an emotional perspective. As exposure to authentic language and discovery learning through DDL leads to increased awareness of regular language patterns, it is important to see if it affects learners' emotions, i.e., foreign language anxiety and enjoyment. To address this gap, the current study adopted a quasi-experimental comparison group pretest-posttest design within a validating quantitative data triangulation model. Ninety-six English-major university students were divided equally into two groups, i.e., one comparison and one intervention group, and were later exposed to the placebo and treatment, respectively. The placebo was 12 1-h sessions of traditional explicit instruction on how to mark important points in academic English lectures by a competent teacher, whereas the treatment was 12 1-h sessions of concordancing on how to mark important points in academic English lectures with AntConc. Drawing on foreign language anxiety and enjoyment questionnaires and free-response surveys, the findings of the study showed that concordancing did not result in any statistically significant differences between students in their foreign language anxiety. On the other hand, students found following a DDL approach with concordancing less enjoyable than traditional explicit instruction by the teacher. Altogether, the results highlighted the crucial role of the teacher in creating a supportive and enjoyable learning environment, the students’ inclination towards teacher-centered classes, and their dependence on the teacher as the sole provider of information. The study has theoretical and pedagogical implications for language teaching and learning.
... Depending on what type of reason lies behind the foreign language anxiety, different treatments may be needed. According to Oxford (2017), one solution to the problem of being an anxious language learner is to reclaim agency, meaning that learners understand their feelings and use these to guide their thinking and take action to control their own learning. Agency is a central concept in the five-step method applied in the current study, as this method is about reclaiming agency through identifying success factors and obstacles and taking steps to make a change in one's own situation (Langeland & Horverak, 2021). ...
... Learners with language anxiety often feel a lack of agency. Yet, taking control of their own language learning process and applying a range of learning strategies may assist them in improving their feeling of agency, meaning their capacity to affect outcomes (Oxford, 2017). ...
Learning a foreign language is more difficult for some students than others, and particularly
speaking out loud in class may be a challenge. The aim of this study is to investigate the
potential of a systematic approach to facilitate mastery, motivation and a supportive language
learning environment, to limit foreign language anxiety. An intervention was carried out in
different language learning contexts, including English classes in Norway and Poland and
Spanish classes in Norway. The research material collected consists of student logs, student
evaluations and self-reported data from a validated questionnaire on foreign language anxiety.
The findings show that many students reported becoming more motivated and comfortable in
class and that the method helped them work with strategies to overcome problems. Selfreported questionnaire data suggest that in two of three contexts, the foreign language anxiety
level of the students decreased significantly during the intervention period. It may be difficult
to generalise based on the findings presented here as the sample from each context is limited,
the data is self-reported, the intervention period was limited and there is no control group. To
strengthen the study’s findings, triangulation of multiple data sources was used. To conclude,
the five-step method presented in this study may be a useful strategy to facilitate developing
motivation and creating a supportive learning environment in the language classroom.
However, more longitudinal and extensive studies are needed to investigate the potential of the
approach presented here further.
... Anxiety in L2 learning experienced by learners has been reported to have a negative effect on their oral performance in the L2 (Tóth, 2017;Young, 1986). Additionally, it may even inhibit the growth of intrinsic motivation for a task by negatively affecting the potential flow experience involved in it (Oxford, 2017). ...
... It provided us with the knowledge of the academic level-related variations in L2 anxiety and L2 self-confidence as criterion variables for the other three L2 motivational constructs. The results related to this research question mostly reconfirm findings of previous studies on the topic (e.g., Gkonou et al., 2017;Horwitz et al., 1986;MacIntyre, 2017;MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989Oxford, 2017;Tóth, 2017;Young, 1986). ...
Second language (L2) attitude and motivation-related studies focusing on differences caused by age have mostly highlighted the temporal dimension of L2 attitude and motivation. Age-related L2 motivation studies have also been gainfully employed at comparisons between L2 learners of different age groups recruited from different L2 learning environments. Such studies have not, however, attempted an analysis of the L2 attitudinal and motivational differences that may exist among L2 learners within a closer age range, e.g., 18 to 25 years. This article presents the findings of an L2 attitude and motivation survey, using a modified version of Dӧrnyei et al. (2006) and Ryan (2005), conducted among secondary, undergraduate, and postgraduate English as a second language (ESL) learners (N210) in India. It primarily presents a comparative analysis of the L2 attitudinal and motivational constructs of integrativeness, instrumentality, cultural interest, linguistic self-confidence, and L2 anxiety attested in the sample. Additionally, it offers a description of the correlation between the five L2 attitudinal and motivational constructs concerning the different ESL groups. As the ESL learners across the academic levels demonstrated ESL motivation more on the side of instrumentality, they also reported linguistic self-confidence more in the familiar environment of an L2 classroom than outside of it. Since better motivational strategies enhance learner dedication to the learning of a certain L2, an elaborated understanding of the specific differences in L2 attitude and motivation within this important age range should help design more useful and effective L2 pedagogical methods.
... There is evidence highlighting the crucial role of TEI not only among the L1 users (Pekaar et al., 2020), but also among learners of a second or foreign language by enabling them to set up their communicative goals (Dewaele et al., 2008) and control their communicative anxiety (Dewaele et al., 2008;Li and Xu, 2019). Research has indicated that learners with high TEI experience more foreign language enjoyment (FLE) (Li and Xu, 2019;Li, 2020;Resnik and Dewaele, 2020;Li et al., 2021), are more confident in managing their own feeling (Oxford, 2017), and comprehend the emotions of their interlocutors (Oxford, 2017;Alqarni and Dewaele, 2020) better than those with low TEI. ...
... There is evidence highlighting the crucial role of TEI not only among the L1 users (Pekaar et al., 2020), but also among learners of a second or foreign language by enabling them to set up their communicative goals (Dewaele et al., 2008) and control their communicative anxiety (Dewaele et al., 2008;Li and Xu, 2019). Research has indicated that learners with high TEI experience more foreign language enjoyment (FLE) (Li and Xu, 2019;Li, 2020;Resnik and Dewaele, 2020;Li et al., 2021), are more confident in managing their own feeling (Oxford, 2017), and comprehend the emotions of their interlocutors (Oxford, 2017;Alqarni and Dewaele, 2020) better than those with low TEI. ...
The present study assessed the developmental dynamics of trait emotional intelligence (TEI) and its subdomains during English as a foreign language (EFL) learning in a longitudinal study. A sample of 309 EFL learners (217 females, 92 males) was used to assess the trajectories of the global factor of TEI and the parallel development of the TEI subdomains over 1 year in the context of the EFL classroom using parallel process modeling (PPM) and factor of curve modeling (FCM). Additionally, emotion perception (EP) was used as a distal outcome to investigate how growth parameters, including intercept and slope factors in a TEI-FCM, influence the distal outcome of EP. The results revealed that there was sufficient inter-individual variation and intra-individual trends within each subdomain and a significant increase over time across the four subdomains. Additionally, concerning the covariances within and among the subdomains of TEI, the PPM results revealed moderate to high associations between the intercept and slope growth factors within and between these subdomains. Finally, regarding the direct association of the global growth factors (intercept and slope) of TEI on EP, the results indicated that the intercept and slope of global TEI were associated with EP (γ0 = 1.127, p < 0.001; γ1 = 0.321, p < 0.001). Specifically, the intercepts and slopes of emotionality and sociability turned out to be significantly linked to EP (γ03 = 1.311, p < 0.001; γ13 = 0.684, p < 0.001; γ04 = 0.497, p < 0.001; γ14 = 0.127, p < 0.001). These results suggest the dynamicity of TEI during learning a foreign language are discussed in this study in light of the potential variables associated with TEI and its related literature.
... learners will be able to experience higher levels of enjoyment (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014;Oxford, 2017). Dewaele et al., (2019a) pointed out to the crucial role by FLE in achieving a successful L2 classroom learning experience. ...
... Participants of the current study report fear of failure as a source of anxiety. In this regard, Oxford (2017) suggests teachers should take initiative to strengthen an anxious learner's ability by helping them focus and visualize a positive or interesting fact of the language activity or text, and removing any negative thoughts of failing or difficulty. Teachers should also aid them in releasing any emotional icebergs and grudges they may still hold. ...
The current study was motivated by recent interest in the effect of positive and negative emotions in the context of foreign language learning resulting from the rise of the positive psychology movement (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016; MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014). It examines the construct of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and its relationship with foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) among a group of 487 English as a foreign language (EFL) students (340 females, 147 males) enrolled in public universities in Saudi Arabia. A measure of FLE based on Likert scale ratings of ten items (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), and a measure of FLCA based on eight items extracted from the FLCAS (Horwitz et al., 1986) were used. Male and female students had the same levels of FLE and FLCA. Correlation analysis showed that the relationship between students' FLE and FLCA was significantly negative. Qualitative analysis of the participants' learning experiences revealed the causes of FLCA and FLE among Saudi EFL learners.
... learners will be able to experience higher levels of enjoyment (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014;Oxford, 2017). Dewaele et al., (2019a) pointed out to the crucial role by FLE in achieving a successful L2 classroom learning experience. ...
... Participants of the current study report fear of failure as a source of anxiety. In this regard, Oxford (2017) suggests teachers should take initiative to strengthen an anxious learner's ability by helping them focus and visualize a positive or interesting fact of the language activity or text, and removing any negative thoughts of failing or difficulty. Teachers should also aid them in releasing any emotional icebergs and grudges they may still hold. ...
The current study was motivated by recent interest in the effect of positive and negative emotions in the context of foreign language learning resulting from the rise of the positive psychology movement (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016; MacIntyre & Mercer, 2014). It examines the construct of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and its relationship with foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) among a group of 487 English as a foreign language (EFL) students (340 females, 147 males) enrolled in public universities in Saudi Arabia. A measure of FLE based on Likert scale ratings of ten items (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), and a measure of FLCA based on eight items extracted from the FLCAS (Horwitz et al., 1986) were used. Male and female students had the same levels of FLE and FLCA. Correlation analysis showed that the relationship between students' FLE and FLCA was significantly negative. Qualitative analysis of the participants' learning experiences revealed the causes of FLCA and FLE among Saudi EFL learners.
... A theoretical and practical chapter by Oxford (2017a) was "Anxious Language Learners Can Change Their Minds: Ideas and Strategies from Traditional Psychology and Positive Psychology." This intensive chapter demonstrated that traditional psychology and positive psychology can work together to address learner anxiety. ...
This article systematically reviews the quantity and quality of Rebecca L. Oxford's publications over five decades of research and publication in language education and related fields. The first section portrays Oxford's contributions in four thematic areas: language learning strategies, language teaching, psychology, and peace. For each theme, many of Oxford's publications and ideas are presented. The second section is an overview of her career achievements, such as books published, courses taught, and academic honors. The third and the fourth sections present the systematic review. Specifically, the third section explains in detail the methodology used by Panahi and Mohebbi for their systematic review of Oxford's work, while the fourth section presents results of the systematic review across 338 of her works (journal articles, book chapters, and books). Oxford's personal response is the last section. 1 Introduction Rebecca L. Oxford's achievements in research and publication over her 50-year career can be categorized according to four key themes: language learning strategies, language teaching, psychology, and peace. In each of these areas, Oxford has influenced the field of foreign and second language education and related fields. The quality and quantity of her work have attracted the attention of other scholars, who have expanded upon her work with their own
... Emotions exacerbating negative experiences include fear of negative evaluation and misunderstanding [25], comparison with peers [26], fear of mistakes and being embarrassed in class [27], perfectionism [28], and boredom with the teaching style [5]. Negative emotions can, however, facilitate focus, resilience, and adaptation and might be the strongest predictors of FL success [29]. ...
Although the mother tongue policy in Eritrea aims to promote positive language learning trajectories for students, the transition to English as a medium of instruction from the start of junior education remains emotionally demanding for students until the end of tertiary education. Through in-depth qualitative interviews, this study investigates the emotional experiences of sophomore students in English language education (ELE) and seeks the sources of emotions that facilitate or debilitate English language development. Drawing on an ecological perspective, the findings highlight how students’ positive, ambivalent, and negative emotions were evoked by the conditions that informed their identities and ideal selves. This study aims to understand what activates students’ emotions and informs their visualisation of their ideal selves within the ecosystem of English language education. Overall, this study highlights the importance of creating a network of supportive emotional affordances, despite the constraints of the ecosystem, to enhance students’ emotional mindfulness to transform negative emotions into positive emotional experiences to attain their ideal selves.
... Previous research affirms that anxiety may cause language learners to experience reduced cognitive skills, self-confidence, personal agency, control, and willingness to communicate (Oxford, 2017). Several studies including a recent meta-analysis confirm a strong negative relationship between FLA and language learning outcomes (Aida, 1994;Botes et al., 2020;Chen & Chang, 2004;Price, 1991;Trang, 2012), and particularly this relationship among Thai learners (Chantha et al., 2018;Santikarn, 2020;Tanielian, 2014). ...
The objective of this research is to identify the underlying components of English language learners’ anxiety in online learning during the COVID-19 and to verify the coherence of the component model with the empirical data. A total of 408 Thai EFL university students, who were selected via a simple random sampling method, were assessed with the Online World Languages Anxiety Scale (OWLAS). An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were conducted using LISREL 8.80 to verify the factor structure of Online English Language Anxiety (OELA). The results of the EFA indicate six emerged underlying components: 1) use of English skills online, 2) negative feelings in online learning, 3) positive feelings in online learning, 4) online interaction, 5) cross-linguistic interference, and 6) attitudes to self and English classes. Considering the indices, the model was fit with the empirical data, with X2 = 1115.24, df = 625, p-value = 0.048, X2/df = 1.784, GFI = 0.96, AGFI = 0.97, CFI = 0.99, SRMR = 0.043, RMSEA = 0.045. Factor loading values of each index were between 0.50-0.88. The indicators that had the highest weight value or most significantly influenced students’ OELA were ‘attitudes to self and English classes’ and the least was ‘cross-linguistic interference’.
... Yet another individual difference that teachers can influence is anxiety. Oxford (2017) argues that removing learners' negative assumptions and increasing their own responsibility for L2 learning lead to positive psychology which in turn affects L2 learning behaviors. Similar to WTC, anxiety is relevant to classroom interaction because if students are anxious, they may not participate in communicative activities (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014). ...
... Another implication is that teachers and students can cooperate to create a classroom with less anxiety (e.g., Young 1991) and more enjoyment (e.g., Dewaele and MacIntyre 2016;Dewaele et al. 2019;Dewaele et al. 2018). First, FL teachers who are friendly, organized, flexible, competent, and enthusiastic about FL will boost their learners' FL enjoyment (e.g., Dewaele et al. 2019;Dewaele et al. 2018;Oxford 2016Oxford , 2017. It has also been shown that FL learners' enjoyment can be positively influenced by the introduction of novel, challenging, and student-centered activities in the classroom that match students' levels and interests and encourage the use of the target language (Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014;Dewaele et al. 2019). ...
The current study examines the influence of experience, reading and writing anxieties, and self-assessed proficiency on foreign language anxiety in the context of learning Chinese as a foreign language. Data were collected using questionnaires from 93 learners of Chinese and analyzed using correlational and multiple regression methods. Results indicated that learners at level 200 (i.e., intermediate low/mid) were more anxious compared to those at level 400 (i.e., advanced low/mid). Foreign language anxiety, foreign language reading anxiety, and foreign language writing anxiety were significantly correlated with each other. Foreign language reading anxiety, foreign language writing anxiety, and self-assessed proficiency (listening and reading) were shown to significantly predict foreign language anxiety in the context of L2 Chinese.
... In his study, Dewaele et al. (2008) reported that trait EI had reduced language anxiety and found that participants with low trait EI lacked the abilities to judge progress, achieve goals, and steer the conversation, when necessary. It also indicates that participants scoring high EI are competent in managing stress and perceive emotions to a greater extent (Oxford, 2017). On this account, Wang (2005) stated that 'when students' emotional needs are met, then students, in turn, concentrate on learning the language' (p. ...
Trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) is learners’ self-perceived emotion and recognizes the inherent natural emotional experience whereas English self-efficacy (ESE) is the understanding of context-specific English language use to communicate with others. Together these socio-affective cognitive beliefs can impact English language learners (ELLs) abilities. This significant relationship is developed on the notion of learners as social subjects and their cognitive processes which will reshape their interactive learning experiences. The present study investigated the relationship between Pakistani tertiary-level ELLs’ trait EI and ESE with ELLs’ English language achievement (ELA). The study employed a quantitative correlational research design involving a nonprobability homogenous convenience sampling technique. Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire and Questionnaire of English Self-efficacy (QESE) were administered to collect data from 357 (Male = 127, Female = 230) undergraduate ELLs. Descriptive statistics, correlation, and regression analysis were run using SPSS version-22 (2013) to draw results. The results revealed a statistically insignificant relationship between the trait EI and English language achievement. QESE was also negatively correlated with English language achievement.
... Dörnyei (2005) was the person who drew attention to this concept in language learning research. Oxford (2017) and Bai (2018) believe that self-regulation can be beneficial in fostering competence in English language learning. Cheng (2011) indicated that using self-regulation strategies can be influential on the learners' performance. ...
... declared that learners' language learning enjoyment is significantly affected by their hope. They also stated that higher proficient students are more engaged, and their enjoyment and hope levels increase during education; while learners with low levels of language proficiency tend to have higher levels of apprehension and desperation [85]. provided a variety of approaches, including the use of humor and enjoyable tasks that instructors can employ to lessen communication apprehension and to develop learners' hope and optimism [3]. ...
Positive psychology has recently drawn the attention of many investigators. Three positive constructs, including hope, grit, foreign language enjoyment, and their relationships among foreign language learners, have been reviewed. The positive and significant correlation between learners' enjoyment and grit has been substantiated in earlier studies. However, more investigations are required to investigate the relationship between grittiness, and hope as well as foreign language enjoyment. Moreover, this review provides some pedagogical implications to promote language learning quality and improve the language educational system. Some suggestions for further research are specified to expand the current studies on the relationships between the above-mentioned positive emotional constructs and learners’ academic achievement, academic performance, and language skills.
... However, according to the recent empirical studies on coping strategies, one of the widely used coping strategies anxious language learners use to alleviate the level anxiety and its consequences is the avoidance behavior such as denial, giving up, wishful thinking and avoiding talking to native speakers (Oxford, 2017). Other common coping strategies used by the students mentioned in other studies are: positive thinking, relaxation techniques, and perseverance (Woodrow, 2011;Young, 1991). ...
Anxiety has been considered one of the main obstacles in second language learning in instruction-based contexts. During the last few decades, many scholars have tried to shed light on different aspects of this phenomenon. This literature review clarifies previous scholarly works and covers some of the most significant empirical studies conducted in this field. The purpose of this literature review is to review various aspects of foreign language anxiety, its corresponding theoretical frameworks and models, causes, consequences, gender differences, class modalities (face-to-face and online) and lastly, implications for educators. Foreign language anxiety is a significant barrier that hinders the learning of a foreign language. Acknowledging different aspects of foreign language anxiety and the ways it affects the learning process, helps the educators adopt the best approach to providing the students with the most appropriate techniques to mitigate the anxiety level.
... And the impact of the changes experienced by students during the COVID-19 pandemic risks causing mental health problems. Mental health problems that are increasing during this pandemic are stress, anxiety, and even depression (6). This pandemic causes stress and anxiety related to changes in the lecture process and daily life for students. ...
Aims: Distance learning is currently a medium and learning resource that maximizes modern internet-based technology and communication and is carried out online and focuses on individuals or groups and student activities remotely without face-to-face, the interaction of material delivery and assignments is completely done online. Students' activities in distance learning currently require that normal sleeping hours be switched to doing many tasks. The term is also known as chronotype, and it refers to a variety of human control over biological circadian rhythms that include the morning, night, and intermediate types. However, not all students are prepared to participate in distance learning. Students' perceptions of distance learning during an uncertain period of time cause fatigue, stress, or anxiety. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of using five-finger hypnosis relaxation educational videos on decreasing anxiety levels in the chronotype of students. Design: Pre-Experimental Design Type One Group Pretest-Posttest Methdos: The method used in this study is a pre-experiment design ypene-group pretest-posttest. The total number of respondents was 37 students who were during distance learning using the simple random sampling technique. Data collection used a questionnaire of The Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale was used to measure anxiety levels before and after the intervention, and the Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaire was used to determine the type chronotype (MEQ). Data analysis using Paired Sample T Test. Results: The results of statistical tests showed the majority of respondents (64.9 %) experienced mild anxiety prior to receiving the intervention, while 1 student experienced severe anxiety (2.%5). Furthermore, after receiving the intervention, the majority of the respondents experienced mild anxiety, with as many as 26 students (70.3 %) no longer experiencing severe anxiety. The intervention group has a positive mean difference in Anxiety Levels of 1.36, indicating that there is a tendency to decrease anxiety levels after the intervention with an average decrease of 1.36. Based on the p-value = 0.011, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the anxiety level of the intervention group before and after the intervention (where p 0.05) with a t count = 2.689 (t count > t table (df 36 = 1.687094) with a positive value (+) indicates that the anxiety level score before the intervention is higher than the anxiety level score after the intervention. This means that the five finger hypnosis technique intervention is in reducing anxiety levels. Conclusions: Five finger hypnosis therapy with video by providing comfort and relaxation is very effective for reducing anxiety levels. This activity is also intended to divert attention and can lower blood pressure, breathing, the tension in the muscles, metabolic rate, and pulse.
... Terapi hipnosis lima jari bisa digunakan pada semua kategori usia sehingga bisa diaplikasikan pada orang yang sedang mengalami kecemasan baik itu tingkat ringan, sedang maupun berat sebagai alternatif non famakologi [15] tetapi jika mempunyai tingkat kecemasan panik, lebih disarankan untuk langsung didampingi dengan ahlinya [16,17]. ...
Latar belakang: Penyakit hipertensi adalah salah satu penyakit utama kesehatan masyarakat di negara maju maupun negara berkembang. Angka kejadian hipertensi terus mengalami peningkatan dan diprediksi pada tahun 2025 mencapai sekitar 29% orang dengan usia dewasa di seluruh dunia. Hampir seluruh penderita hipertensi mengalami ansietas, memperlihatkan gejala somatis (timbul gejala pada tubuh) dan rasa gugup atau ketakutan. Ansietas merupakan rasa takut yang tidak jelas disertai dengan perasaan ketidakpastian, ketidakberdayaan, merasa terisolasi, dan ketidaknyamanan. Salah satu bentuk psikoterapi yang dapat diterapkan pada pasien yang mengalami ansietas pada penderita hipertensi adalah terapi hipnotis lima jari. Hal ini didasarkan pada teori bahwa tanda dan gejala fisiologis akan berhubungan dengan interaksi antara pikiran, perilaku dan emosi. Tujuan: Program Pengabdian Masyarakat ini bertujuan untuk memberikan pelatihan hipnotis lima jari pada anggota Aisyiyah Desa Rawalo Kecamatan Rawalo Kabupaten Banyumas sebagai upaya penurunan ansietas pada pederita hipertensi. Metode: Metode yang digunakan adalah intervensi sosialisasi dengan pengukuran skor pre-test dan pos-ttest tingkat ansietas serta melakukan pengukuran tekanan darah. Data dianalisis menggunakan paired T test. Hasil: Didapatkan hasil yang signifikan baik pada tingkat ansietas maupun nilai tekanan darah yang ada pada penderita hipertensi (p= 0,011). Kesimpulan: Pelatihan hipnotis lima jari dapat menurunkan ansietas pada penderita hipertensi. Kata Kunci : hipertensi, penyuluhan, terapi hipnotis lima jari, tingkat ansietas ________________________________________________________________________________________ Background: Hypertension is one of the main diseases in public health in both developed and developing countries. The incidence of hypertension continues to increase and it is predicted that in 2025 there will be around 29% of adults worldwide who have hypertension. Almost all patients with hypertension experience anxiety and show somatic symptoms (symptoms appear in the body) and nervousness or fear. Where anxiety is a fear that is not clear accompanied by feelings of uncertainty, helplessness, isolation, and discomfort. One form of psychotherapy that can be applied to patients who experience anxiety patients with hypertension is five-finger hypnosis therapy based on the theory that physiological signs and symptoms will be related to the interaction between thoughts, behavior, and emotions. Objective: This Community Service Program aims to provide five-finger hypnosis training to Aisyiyah members, Rawalo Village, Rawalo District, Banyumas Regency regarding efforts to reduce anxiety using Five Finger Hypnotic Therapy. Method: The method used is counseling with pretest and posttest questionnaires of anxiety levels and measuring blood pressure. Data were analyzed using Paired T-test. Result: Significant results were obtained both on the level of anxiety and the value of blood pressure in patients with hypertension (p=0,011). Conclusion: Five-finger hypnosis training can reduce anxiety in hypertensive patients. Keywords: hypertension, counseling, five-finger hypnotic therapy, anxiety level
... In foreign language classes, some students may display dry throat [1], clammy hands, tiredness [2], the avoidance of direct eye contact with their teachers [3,4], and the avoidance of interactions during class [5]. All these negative behaviors and symptoms shown in the foreign language class are physical signs of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)-the concept introduced by Horwitz et al. in 1986. ...
Background
Numerous studies have established that foreign language anxiety (FLA) has a significant impact on learners’ language acquisition and performance. FLA is a unique form of anxiety that occurs in response to a certain circumstance. Even though a growing amount of research has extended to the examination of skill-based anxiety in specific, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, little used corresponding skilled-based FLA scales to assess learners’ skill-based FLA at one group of learners. To fill a void in this line of research, the study aimed to explore learners’ primary FLA by comparing their four language skill-specific FLAs with four different skill-based FLA scales. Additionally, we wished to investigate the variables that influence learners’ FLA.
Methods
All participants in the study were first-year medical students. Individual instructors delivered and collected a total of 1023 questionnaires using an open questionnaire platform during normal English lessons in the mid-semester. SPSS 24.0 (Statistical Package for Social Science 24 version) was used to analyze all statistics. Internal validity tests were undertaken on each scale to ascertain the component structure of certain modified scales. The study employed the independent sample t-test and a statistical description to investigate students’ major FLA and its variables.
Results
With a mean value of 106.863, the predominant FLA arouses from English listening anxiety. English reading anxiety was the lowest, with a mean score of 62.726. Male and female students both demonstrated the greatest degree of FLA in English listening and the least anxiety in English reading. However, their mean difference was not statistically significant (t = 1.220). By comparing the mean scores for four skill-based FLAs across language proficiency groups, it became clear that the scores for the medium were much higher than the average, with average scores of ESA: 91.988, ELA: 106.864, EWA: 74.157, ERA: 62.726, respectively, and the higher-level group scored lower than the average. Students’ prior English learning achievements are negatively connected with their FLA, with r values of −.207 (ELA), −.143 (EWA), and − .204 (ERA). The self-evaluation of students’ English listening, writing, and reading abilities was considerably adversely connected with FLA, but the self-evaluation of their English-speaking abilities was favorably correlated with FLA.
Conclusion
A comparison of students’ FLA revealed that the primary skill-based FLA is related to English listening anxiety. Regardless of gender or language proficiency level, FLA was mainly driven by foreign language listening anxiety in all individuals. Prior language achievement and students’ self-evaluation are associated with their FLA.
... There may be useful learning that could be drawn from the global literatures looking at classroom pedagogy and language learning, particularly around the role of emotions and related strategies and interventions (Hargreaves 2015;Oxford 2017;Toyama and Yamazaki 2021). Since this paper responds to an observed problem with silence and reluctance to participate, the focus has been on negative emotions, but there is interesting evidence that fostering positive emotions can play an influential role in language learning contexts (Dewaele et al. 2019;MacIntyre, Gregerson, and Mercer 2019). ...
In contexts where schooling is delivered through a language of instruction (LoI) that is unfamiliar to learners, it has repeatedly been observed that students are reluctant to speak, passive, or even silent. This is commonly attributed to lack of understanding of the language in use in the classroom. Although this is, undoubtedly, an important part of the explanation, this paper presents findings from a thematic analysis of lesson observations, interviews, and ethnographic field-notes from two secondary schools in Tanzania to argue that we should also be paying much closer attention to the socio-emotional environment. Specifically, this paper demonstrates the prevalence of feelings of fear and shame in students’ experiences of learning and how these emotions contributed to students’ silence. However, it also shows that the impact of these emotions was not the same for all students. Informal classroom ‘rules’ were found to govern how different groups of students were expected to behave in response to questions from teachers, meaning that the risks of speaking English were greater for some students than others. As such, the prevalence of fear and shame is argued to compound existing inequalities amongst students, thus hindering progress towards equitable, inclusive and safe education for all.
... Besides, one of the main triggers of FLA is the fear of other"s negative evaluation (Aydın, 2008). In addition, studies indicate that FLA may be caused by many internal (Cheng, 2002;Liu & Jackson, 2008;Mak, 2011;Dewaele, 2017) and external (Liu, 2006;Mak, 2011;Oxford, 2017) factors. FLA can be extremely harmful to the language learning process (MacIntyre, 2017). ...
The relationship between foreign language anxiety (FLA) and English as a foreign language (EFL) learners" performance is constantly being examined through experimental and theoretical studies. The aim of this study is to examine the association between FLA and EFL performance through meta-analysis. As a result of an extensive literature review, 69 studies from fourteen countries (N= 23.150) were identified as eligible to be included in the analysis process. The overall correlation between FLA and EFL performance was calculated as-.61. In terms of moderator variables, the results revealed that while grade level and country in which studies were conducted did not have an effect on the association between FLA and EFL performance, type of anxiety was found to have a moderator effect. It was observed that listening, test, speaking, reading, and writing anxiety affected EFL learning performance respectively from the most to the least. Finally, publication year and sample size were found to have a significant effect on the association between FLA and EFL performance through meta-regression analysis. Based on the findings, it is concluded that in order to increase EFL learners" performances, their foreign language anxiety should be decreased.
... The research on the FLCA has consistently reported its debilitating impact on language learning (Horwitz, 2001;Horwitz, 2000); and most recent large-scale meta-analyses show significant moderate negative correlations between FLCA and achievement in foreign language learning (Botes, Dewaele & Greiff, 2020;Teimouri, Goetze & Plonsky, 2019). It is further stated that anxiety may cause language learners to experience reduced cognitive skills, self-confidence, personal agency, control, willingness to communicate and ability to express and recognize emotions (Oxford, 2017). FLCA has also been found to the strongest negative predictor of willingness to communicate in a foreign language (Dewaele, 2019), and one of the strongest predictors of success/failure in foreign language learning (MacIntyre, 1999). ...
... Educators should be sociable, humorous, and caring, and attempt to establish innovative and stimulating classroom tasks that connect learners' language levels and well-being (Oxford, 2017;Dewaele et al., 2019). The abilities and optimism of the educator together with efficient and encouraging teaching tasks may support building and constructing a positive atmosphere in the classroom and increasing students' engagement, which, in sequence, will bring about better presentation (Yu et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2021). ...
It has been documented that grit plays an indispensable role in the process of language learning and teaching. It is postulated that gritty people are more able to become involved in classroom practice and remain motivated even in light of challenges; however, what remains vague is the interplay of grit, well-being, and classroom enjoyment. To this end, 335 male and female Chinese EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners who were studying English in 28 universities took part in this study. They completed three questionnaires including the grit scale questionnaire (Grit-S), foreign language enjoyment scale, and PERMA well-being scale. The Pearson coefficient of correlation was run to investigate the first research question of the study while, after checking the preliminary assumptions, for the second research question a multiple regression analysis was used. The findings of the study demonstrated that there is a positive relationship between learners' grit and enjoyment, and high degrees of enjoyment were interrelated to high degrees of grit. The findings of the study also signified that grit significantly predicted students' well-being and was also a predictor of classroom enjoyment. Finally, some implications and recommendations have been offered for language teaching stakeholders in educational settings.
... In addition, a same 60 percent in cognitive scaffolding group and a slightly higher percentage in metacognitive scaffolding group (70 percent) viewed the strategies as pleasant. This finding might be partially justified considering the earlier studies' recommendation that delivering a high quality instruction in the form of scaffolding creates caring and positive environments that enhance the academic development of all students (Raphael et al., 2008) and shapes lifelong attitudes (Oxford, 2016). On this basis, even when the cognitive benefits of the scaffolding procedures are not proved to be noticeable, the positive attitudinal benefits of the assistance offered through scaffolding procedures help the ultimate increased development potentiality of the learners. ...
Studies have documented the significance of scaffolding as a sociocultural theory driven type of assistance for the development of English as foreign language (EFL) learners’ language skills in general; however, the comparative efficacy of various cognitive and/or metacognitive scaffolding procedures for EFL learners’ listening comprehension development and progress has received scant attention. As a partial attempt in this regard, this study investigated the comparative efficacy of cognitive and metacognitive scaffolding strategies for EFL learners’ listening comprehension development. For this purpose, 90 intermediate level EFL learners aged 15 to 20 were selected to participate in this study. The participants’ actual proficiency level was assessed using a sample TOEFL Junior Standard test and relatively homogeneous classes of nearly 15 learners were formed and randomly assigned to two experimental conditions and a control one. The listening section of TOEFL Junior standard test was used as the pre- and posttest. While the learners in both experimental conditions worked in groups of three or four learners on some listening comprehension tasks, the participants of the first experimental condition received cognitive scaffolding strategies, and the second experimental group members were treated using metacognitive scaffolding strategies, the control group members received teacher-fronted non-scaffolding instruction. In addition to a listening comprehension posttest, a semi-structured interview was given to a number of participants of each experimental condition to explore their attitudes towards given scaffolding strategies. The analyses verified that metacognitive scaffolding strategies had a significant superior effect on EFL learners’ listening development compared to cognitive scaffolding strategies and non-scaffolding instruction. Furthermore, the analyses revealed that the EFL learners were generally more pleased with the metacognitive scaffolding procedures and viewed them as instructive, innovative, and effective for finding problems, better comprehension and increased readiness.
... Teacher training in the application of positive psychology (e.g. Oxford, 2017) should be emphasized by language program departments and curriculum developers for the purpose of instruction and material development. ...
This book analyzes the construct of advanced proficiency in second language learning by bringing together empirical research from numerous linguistic domains and methodological traditions. Focusing on the dynamic nature of language use, the volume explores diverse manifestations of high-level second language Spanish, including performance on standardized proficiency assessments, acquisition of late-acquired linguistic structures, sophisticated language use in context, and individual differences. Chapters relate empirical findings to current definitions of advancedness, challenging scholars and practitioners to re-consider existing conceptualizations, and propose possible directions for future research and teaching with second language speakers of Spanish. By addressing larger issues in the field of second language learning, the volume is a valuable reference for language teachers, scholars, professionals and students with an interest in second language acquisition generally, and second language Spanish, more specifically.
... This can have a detrimental effect on the success of a student in a high stakes test environment, where admission to schools or programs is dependent on grades or exam scores. Encouraging findings have been made throughout the years, with both teacher and learner strategies developed to reduce the presence of FLCA in learners (Oxford, 2017). Thus, continued research on the reduction and management of FLCA as well as the acknowledgement of its presence in the foreign language learning process should remain a focus point in the pedagogy of individual differences in language learning. ...
Foreign language learners experience a unique type of anxiety during the language learning process: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA). This situation-specific anxiety is frequently examined alongside academic achievement in foreign language courses. The present meta-analysis examined the relationship between FLCA measured through the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and five forms of academic achievement: general academic achievement and four competency-specific outcome scores (reading-, writing-, listening-, and speaking academic achievement). A total of k = 99 effect sizes were analysed with an overall sample size of N = 14128 in a random-effects model with Pearson correlation coefficients. A moderate negative correlation was found between FLCA and all categories of academic achievement (e.g., general academic achievement: r =-.39; k = 59; N = 12585). The results of this meta-analysis confirm the negative association between FLCA and academic achievement in foreign language courses.
The recent introduction of positive psychology (PP) to second language acquisition (SLA) has led to increased interest in researching the relationship between language learning and various positive emotions. Despite this, the concept of learner altruistic teaching has been relatively understudied, compared to other PP aspects. In particular, studies on learner altruistic teaching and English reading comprehension skill have been notably absent. To address this gap, this intervention study aimed to investigate whether learners’ altruistic teaching had a significant effect on their English reading comprehension skill. The study used a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design with a comparison group pretest–posttest experimental design. It involved 116 Iranian learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The study included three internet-based Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL iBT) reading sections, reflective frames, and semi-structured interviews. The results of independent-samples t-tests and repeated-measures ANOVAs suggested that altruistic teaching had an instructional effect on learners’ English reading comprehension skill. Additionally, the results of the qualitative data pointed to several themes, including enjoyment, responsibility for one another, intimacy, engagement, motivation, success, and self-appreciation in learners. Altogether, the study suggested that learners’ altruistic teaching can significantly enhance their English reading comprehension skill by creating a sense of enjoyment, responsibility, intimacy, engagement, motivation, success, and self-appreciation among learners. The article concludes by discussing the theoretical and pedagogical implications of the study. Finally, it offers suggestions for further research and highlights limitations.
The existing literature generally acknowledges that students receive more feedback and detail when video feedback is used, but how writing feedback practices, in particular video feedback, influence learner affective factors is still a gap to be filled. Being grounded on the process writing theory and the social constructivist theory, this 14-week research investigated (i) the effect of video-based collaborative peer feedback (VCPF) on English as a foreign language (EFL) students’ writing motivation, anxiety, and enjoyment, (ii) students’ preference of using surface- and meaning-level feedback while providing VCPF, and (iii) their perception of using VCPF. The findings show that the use of VCPF increases learners’ writing motivation and enjoyment and decreases their anxiety. Although both types of feedback are preferred, learners mostly focus on conceptual academic skills (e.g., idea development, analysis, and synthesis). VCPF is considered a useful and an enjoyable application, which enables learners to provide more constructive recommendations and comments, rather than simply itemizing mistakes. This research advocates that VCPF is clear, informative and constructive, time saving, and more enjoyable. The results imply that VCPF is an effective method and is, therefore, eligible for classroom practice and for future research.
Introduction
This study delves into the intricate synergy between teacher mindfulness and the quality of teacher-student relationships, with a specific and deliberate focus on the mediating influence of emotional intelligence. The way teachers engage with their students not only impacts the learning outcomes but also contributes significantly to the overall classroom atmosphere. Understanding the underlying mechanisms that drive these relationships is crucial for educators and policymakers alike. This research seeks to shed light on these critical dynamics.
Methods
To investigate this multifaceted interplay, a participant pool of 369 Chinese English teachers was assembled. The research employed a comprehensive approach to data collection, utilizing self-report questionnaires completed by the instructors. Structural equation modeling, a robust statistical technique, was employed to rigorously analyze the collected data.
Results
The data analysis unveiled a robust and direct association between teacher mindfulness and the quality of teacher-student relationships. Beyond this primary link, a noteworthy revelation emerged: emotional intelligence, as measured through our analysis, was identified as a pivotal mediating factor in this relationship. This finding highlights the intricate web of emotions, awareness, and interpersonal interactions that underpin effective teaching and positive teacher-student relationships.
Discussion
These significant findings underscore the critical roles of teacher mindfulness and emotional intelligence in shaping the educational landscape. The implications of this study reach far beyond academia, extending to the development of tailored educational interventions and support strategies.
Language anxiety plays a key role in language learners’ silent behaviors in class (King, 2013). Given its public nature and emphasis on interaction within it, the classroom context plays a significant role in the production of language anxiety. Anxious people are more likely to negatively appraise situations, affecting their behavior. That is, it is not just the subject content that causes anxiety, it is also the cognitive processes that occur from being in the classroom environment (Clark & Wells, 1995; Horwitz et al., 2010). King (2014) found that anxious language learners’ thoughts often contain feared predictions about the social costs of speaking in the classroom and worries about how peers might negatively evaluate performance. These fears about external factors contribute to learners becoming inhibited and using silence to avoid the discomfort of speaking. Also, while anxious learners tend to have content-specific concerns, for example, making mistakes, self-focused thoughts are often intensified by contextual factors, such as interacting with peers (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002). This article looks at the relationship between language anxiety and silent behavior from a cognitive-behavioral perspective, emphasizing how the dynamic interplay between an individual learner and the classroom context can result in even the most motivated and proficient learners missing opportunities to develop their language skills through target-language interaction.
Many Chinese undergraduate students report feeling anxious in college, particularly in English classes. Parenting styles make a profound impact on students’ learning behaviors and emotions due to many factors. Thus, the current study is about to what extent could parenting styles predict foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA). The participants were 247 college students whose native language was Chinese. The FLCA levels among Chinese undergraduate students were moderately high, and there was no discernible difference in anxiety levels between males and girls. Parents of participants with varying levels of education did not show preferences for parenting styles. The results of the multiple regression model pointed out that parenting styles were significantly and positively correlated with linguistic anxiety in the classroom. According to the findings, warmth and monitoring, both have a positive and significant correlation to FLCA, and students who experienced rejecting-neglecting parenting were less likely to develop FLCA than children who experienced authoritative, authoritarian, or permissive parenting. Three monitoring measures were the next best predictors of FLCA after the acceptance variable of warmth variables. The Iceberg Metaphor indicates that the students’ yearning for acceptance led to their expectation that they would only be accepted if they were perfect, which in turn exposed the students’ sentiments of anxiety and their emotions in class. Future research should validate these findings and investigate the causes underlying students’ language anxiety.
Deutschland ist ein Einwanderungsland und Integration dementsprechend ein Thema, das an Aktualität nicht verliert. Wodurch Integration zustande kommt und was sie ausmacht, ist und bleibt jedoch unklar. Sprachkenntnisse sind ein Bestandteil der erfolgreichen Integration und stellen das wohl wichtigste Mittel der mündigen Partizipation am Staate dar. Integrationskurse bilden ein bedeutendes Instrument zur Teilhabe am Staat – nicht nur für Neuzuwander*innen, die vornehmlich im Fokus dieser Kurse stehen, sondern auch für diejenigen Altzuwander*innen, die, obwohl sie z. T. seit Jahren und Jahrzehnten in Deutschland leben, dennoch über nur unzureichende Sprachkenntnisse verfügen.
In der vorliegenden Studie wird der Forschungsfrage nachgegangen, ob Fossilisierungen durch den Besuch eines (etwa) 9-monatigen speziell darauf ausgelegten Unterrichts aufgehalten bzw. behoben werden können. Dabei liegt der Fokus auf syntaktischen und verbalmorphologischen Strukturen innerhalb der Interlanguage von DaZ-Lerner*innen, während andere sprachliche Phänomene sowie die Weiterentwicklung in Bereichen wie Autonomes Lernen, Medienkompetenz, Allgemeinbildung etc. davon ausgeschlossen bleiben. Forschungsgegenstand sind hierbei Kompetenz- und Performanzerscheinungen der Interlanguage von DaZ-Lerner*innen eines Integrationskurses. Erkennbar gemacht werden diese anhand von Grammatikalitätsurteilen, Aufgabenblättern zur schriftsprachlichen Äußerung und themenzentrierten Partner*innen- bzw. Kleingruppeninterviews. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit liegt darin, aufzuzeigen, ob Defossilisierung möglich ist.
This paper investigated a research area worthy of greater attention: foreign language classroom anxiety (hereafter FLCA) and enjoyment (hereafter FLE) of older adults learning English as a foreign language in Chinese Universities of the Third Age. Understanding the largely overlooked emotional involvement of older language learners contributes to sustaining their motivation in lifelong learning for more remarkable personal growth and successes. Based on the survey of 587 Chinese older learners of English between the age of 50 and 80, paired sample t-test showed that more FLE was reported than FLCA. The results of Welch’s ANOVA suggested that those who were better educated had less FLCA and those who believed themselves healthier had more FLE. The language performance evaluation (i.e. relative standing in class and English mastery) affects both FLE and FLCA. Further interviews with 34 older participants revealed three major sources of FLE, including the language use in life situations, the favorable attitude toward FL learning in the cognitive, aesthetic cultural and pragmatic aspects and the social interactions in the U3As. FLCA occurs when the language performance is perceived as dissatisfying and when aspects of mental health (e.g. worsening memory) impede effective learning. Although FLCA and FLE had only a very weak correlation, Chinese older adult learners commented on a shared belief that anxiety usually precedes and subsequently enhances enjoyment in learning, indicating a sign of emotional resilience later in life. This paper demonstrates a need for understanding the emotions in language learning across life stages and socio-cultural contexts.
Effective learning strategies have been proven to be advantageous to lower learners’ foreign language anxiety (FLA) and improve their language proficiency. However, many studies have devoted to students’ learning strategies but ignored the important role of teachers in reducing FLA. In addition, the effectiveness of the FLA-reducing strategies proposed by these studies has rarely been verified in natural classroom environment. The present study was conducted to explore the systematic effects of the teaching strategies on FLA after constructing a 34-item observation instrument Teaching Strategies Intervention Scale (TSIS), and investigated the changes of 306 English as a foreign language (EFL) graduate students’ English learning anxiety levels influenced by the anxiety-reducing teaching strategies in China. Results showed that the student participants’ communication anxiety, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation except for anxiety about English class in the experimental group were alleviated significantly after the teaching intervention. More specifically, findings indicated that test anxiety was the variable most affected by the teaching strategies, while the teaching strategies employed in this study were found effective and feasible. Finally, EFL teachers played a critical role in alleviating students’ FLA. Pedagogical implications of the findings are provided.
This book syntheses cutting-edge research on the role of individual differences (IDs) in the field of SLA and in computer assisted language learning. It also outlines the theoretical and methodological issues at the heart of this research, presents empirical findings and charts future directions of this research. Pawlak and Kruk provide an overview of the latest theoretical developments in research on IDs in SLA as well as methodological considerations that are crucial when researching individual variation, with special emphasis on data-collection procedures that are most prominent in CALL. The book goes on to summarize and explore a body of empirical evidence concerning the role of individual difference factors in CALL, singling out existing gaps, methodological problems and areas in need of further investigation. Finally, the authors provide a guide on how empirical investigations of individual difference factors in CALL can be improved by incorporating the latest developments from the broader field of SLA. This book will be of great interest to postgraduates and scholars in the domain of applied linguistics and second language education who are interested in CALL, as well as those studying and undertaking research in second language learning and teaching.
The global Covid-19 pandemic that hit educational contexts worldwide transformed our regular educational practices and some tasks such as peer revision, a staple in many additional language (AL) writing courses (Hyland & Hyland, 2019), were put aside. As teachers have become more familiar with many new technologies since the start of the pandemic, there is a need to implement peer revision tasks and to understand learners' experiences in this process. The aims of the present study were to examine AL learners’ subjective experience through flow theory as they engage in peer revision tasks with two components: an individual peer feedback component with a follow-up shared feedback component. Flow, a positive experiential state characterized by focus and involvement in challenging yet doable tasks, has been associated with enhanced self-confidence and task performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Participants of French as an AL (n = 18) engaged in two peer revision tasks (PR) which included both an individual (I-PR) and a follow-up sharing component (S-PR). Flow perception questionnaires were completed immediately following each task. Findings provide empirical evidence that despite being physically isolated and having limited experience with online technologies, learners experienced flow, especially during the S-PR but that technology familiarity and familiarity with peer revision procedures as a result of repeating the procedure mediated flow experiences.
Learner journals, diaries, and logs have been used in a variety of learning contexts, including foreign language learning. This paper investigates how diary writing can be used in the EFL classroom to encourage students to express their identities through the language they are learning; it is also a way of supporting them in their quest for greater autonomy, with a view to exploring the interconnections between learner autonomy, learner self (L2 self), and learner emotions. More specifically, it will be shown how reflective writing – in the form of online diaries – can offer learners an important tool to explore their thoughts and emotions and reflect on their identity as learners and users of English. Moreover, diaries are a qualitative research tool for teachers and scholars, who can examine metacognitive and affective aspects of language learning. The paper reports a study conducted within a university English Language course, in which the students were encouraged to keep a reflective online diary throughout a semester. The analysis of their personal and expressive writing has shed light on their need to speak as themselves, not just as language learners, and to explore their emotions, both positive and negative. A final questionnaire has revealed that the students were generally positive about the activity, highlighting its usefulness in terms of learner autonomy, self-awareness, and self-regulation.
In China, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of older adults who are engaged in learning English as a second/foreign language (hereafter L2) in their post-retirement life, aiming to accrue presumed physical, social and psychological benefits. However, although reasons for older adults to participate in learning activities in general have been extensively researched, such research rarely focusses on an L2 and related emotional aspects. This study investigates the L2 motivation of Chinese older adults and the relationships between their motivation and emotion. Research on this theme is urgently needed. There is limited research in the field of adult learning in education that focuses on the particularities behind the choice of learning English as a subject or set of skills or which discusses how the learning motivation might change dynamically in the process. This shortage of studies might, admittedly, be addressed within the rapidly expanding field of L2 motivation studies, but only in a partial manner. This is because the findings of L2 motivation studies are predominantly based on younger learners rather than on retired older adults who may display distinctive learning features. Further, the links between L2 motivation and a fuller spectrum of emotions have only recently attracted attention from scholars, and these links merit further investigation. Within a mixed methods design, this study collected quantitative and metaphor data through 718 questionnaires distributed in 10 Universities of the Third Age in China, before conducting 34 in-depth interviews with older adult learners of English. Structural Equation Modelling is used in the quantitative analysis to describe the dimensions of L2 motivation and to evaluate hypothesized causal relationships between dimensions of motivation and eight selected types of emotions. The metaphor and interview data enriched the quantitative results to give more nuanced descriptions of participants’ experience. The results showed that L2 motivation later in life can be structurally different from motivation in earlier stages of life and from motivation for learning in other cultural contexts. Among these older Chinese adults learning English, both the remembered past and anticipated future combine work to motivate participants to join and continue learning English in language courses. In particular, the expectations of L2 learning constructed from early schooling and socialization can be re-evoked and re-aligned with the situations at hand to influence participants’ learning behaviour. Further, some types of emotions were found to overlap or interact with learner motivation in unique ways. These shared patterns found in older adult learners’ motivation and emotion suggest a culture of learning which is important to understand how to learn an L2 successfully in later life and specifically how to teach English and other L2s to Chinese older adults.
The regulation of language learners’ emotions by affective, or emotion-regulation strategies has received limited research attention. This gap is being filled among others by researchers who have developed and are applying a new research tool called Managing Your Emotions for Language Learning (MYE). It is based on the vignette methodology to investigate both positive and negative language learner emotions, emotion-regulation strategies that language learners employ, and language teachers’ interpersonal learner-directed emotion-regulation strategies used in a range of familiar language learning situations. In this study teachers’ interpersonal emotion-regulation strategies and their learner- and teacher-perceived effectiveness were investigated by means of MYE ( n = 64: English-major learners) and semi-structured interviews with learners ( n = 16) and teachers ( n = 9). The results revealed a rich context- and participant-dependent list of language teachers’ interpersonal emotion-regulation strategies, the frequency of which was perceived differently by language learners and teachers, who, however, agreed on their good effectiveness. The strategies belonging to the categories of ‘cognitive change’, ‘situation modification’ and ‘competence enhancement’ were used the most often, but some gaps in teachers’ strategic repertoires were also identified. Pedagogy-wise, MYE seemed to be suitable for closing the gap between learners’ and teachers’ perspectives on teachers’ learner-directed emotion-regulation strategy use. Teachers and their pedagogical practice would benefit from training in the area of emotion-regulation strategies and support of educational authorities.
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