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Retrieval Potentiates New Learning: A Theoretical and Meta-Analytic Review

DOI:10.1037/bul0000166
Authors:
Jason Chan at Iowa State University
Jason Chan
Christian A. Meissner at Iowa State University
Christian A. Meissner
Sara D Davis at University of North Florida
Sara D Davis
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A growing body of research has shown that retrieval can enhance future learning of new materials. In the present report, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature on this finding, which we term test-potentiated new learning. Our primary objectives were to: 1) produce an integrative review of the existing theoretical explanations, 2) summarize the extant empirical data with a meta-analysis, 3) evaluate the existing accounts with the meta-analytic results, and 4) highlight areas that deserve further investigations. Here, we identified four non-exclusive classes of theoretical accounts, including resource accounts, metacognitive accounts, context accounts, and integration accounts. Our quantitative review of the literature showed that testing reliably potentiates the future learning of new materials by increasing correct recall or by reducing erroneous intrusions, and several factors have a powerful impact on whether testing potentiates or impairs new learning. Results of a meta-regression analysis provide considerable support for the integration account. Lastly, we discuss areas of under-investigation and possible directions for future research.
Number of publications and magnitude as a function of publication year. The left ordinate and the gray-colored bars display the number of publications per year. The number of unpublished papers are estimated by the sets of studies that appear to belong together. The right ordinate and the data points with .95 CI error bars display the average effect size per publication year. The dotted horizontal line indicates an effect size of 0. Because data collection for the meta-analysis ended on April 15, 2016, we grouped studies that are in press at the time of writing into 2016.
Number of publications and magnitude as a function of publication year. The left ordinate and the gray-colored bars display the number of publications per year. The number of unpublished papers are estimated by the sets of studies that appear to belong together. The right ordinate and the data points with .95 CI error bars display the average effect size per publication year. The dotted horizontal line indicates an effect size of 0. Because data collection for the meta-analysis ended on April 15, 2016, we grouped studies that are in press at the time of writing into 2016.
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Paradigms used to investigate the influence of prior retrieval on subsequent learning of new information. Figure 1a shows the most commonly used design, in which participants study some original learning materials, complete an initial test on those materials, and then learn new materials. Figure 1b shows a variant of this design (the interleaved design) in which initial testing and new learning trials are intermixed inside a single block of trials. Figures 1c and 1d
Paradigms used to investigate the influence of prior retrieval on subsequent learning of new information. Figure 1a shows the most commonly used design, in which participants study some original learning materials, complete an initial test on those materials, and then learn new materials. Figure 1b shows a variant of this design (the interleaved design) in which initial testing and new learning trials are intermixed inside a single block of trials. Figures 1c and 1d
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A pirate plot displaying effect sizes as a function of study samples. Each data point represents the effect size of an individual study. Jitter was introduced to displace the data points horizontally to improve their visibility. The horizontal line within each set of data shows the mean effect size, and error bars display .95 CI.
A pirate plot displaying effect sizes as a function of study samples. Each data point represents the effect size of an individual study. Jitter was introduced to displace the data points horizontally to improve their visibility. The horizontal line within each set of data shows the mean effect size, and error bars display .95 CI.
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Effect of memory load on test-potentiated new learning. Figure 3a shows correct recall data based on the complete sample. Figure 3b shows intrusions data. Lighter lines indicate .95 CI.
Effect of memory load on test-potentiated new learning. Figure 3a shows correct recall data based on the complete sample. Figure 3b shows intrusions data. Lighter lines indicate .95 CI.
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Relation between retrieval practice performance and test-potentiated new learning based on correct recall data. When the entire set of studies were considered together, there was a positive association between the two variables as indicated by the dotted regression line (k = 78).
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Relation between retrieval practice performance and test-potentiated new learning based on correct recall data. When the entire set of studies were considered together, there was a positive association between the two variables as indicated by the dotted regression line (k = 78).
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... By definition, pre-instruction testing effects could be regarded as forms of test-potentiated learning. More recently, a growing body of literature has also demonstrated that taking tests can improve subsequent learning of new materials, a phenomenon known as test-potentiated new learning or the forward testing effect (for reviews see Chan et al., 2018;Pastötter & Bauml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018; see also Boustani & Shanks, 2022). It has been suggested that the pre-instruction testing effect constitutes an example of test-potentiated new learning (e.g., Chan et al., 2018), although unlike most studies in the literature on that phenomenon, pre-instruction testing does not entail a study opportunity prior to an initial test and does not typically involving practice testing on information that is markedly different from subsequently studied information. ...
... More recently, a growing body of literature has also demonstrated that taking tests can improve subsequent learning of new materials, a phenomenon known as test-potentiated new learning or the forward testing effect (for reviews see Chan et al., 2018;Pastötter & Bauml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018; see also Boustani & Shanks, 2022). It has been suggested that the pre-instruction testing effect constitutes an example of test-potentiated new learning (e.g., Chan et al., 2018), although unlike most studies in the literature on that phenomenon, pre-instruction testing does not entail a study opportunity prior to an initial test and does not typically involving practice testing on information that is markedly different from subsequently studied information. ...
... A host of theoretical explanations has been proffered for test-potentiated learning and test-potentiated new learning (for discussions see Chan et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2018). The explanations that are arguably most applicable to pre-instruction testing involve learners adopting more optimal encoding or retrieval strategies after practice testing. ...
Prequestioning and Pretesting Effects: a Review of Empirical Research, Theoretical Perspectives, and Implications for Educational Practice
Article
Full-text available
Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.
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... By definition, preinstruction testing effects could be regarded as forms of test-potentiated learning. More recently, a growing body of literature has also demonstrated that taking tests can improve subsequent learning of new materials, a phenomenon known as test-potentiated new learning or the forward testing effect (for reviews see Chan et al., 2018;Pastötter & Bauml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018; see also Boustani & Shanks, 2022). It has been suggested that the pre-instruction testing effect constitutes an example of test-potentiated new learning (e.g., Chan et al., 2018), although unlike most studies in the literature on that phenomenon, pre-instruction testing does not entail a study opportunity prior to an initial test and does not typically involving practice testing on information that is markedly different from subsequently studied information. ...
... More recently, a growing body of literature has also demonstrated that taking tests can improve subsequent learning of new materials, a phenomenon known as test-potentiated new learning or the forward testing effect (for reviews see Chan et al., 2018;Pastötter & Bauml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018; see also Boustani & Shanks, 2022). It has been suggested that the pre-instruction testing effect constitutes an example of test-potentiated new learning (e.g., Chan et al., 2018), although unlike most studies in the literature on that phenomenon, pre-instruction testing does not entail a study opportunity prior to an initial test and does not typically involving practice testing on information that is markedly different from subsequently studied information. ...
... A host of theoretical explanations have been proffered for test-potentiated learning and test-potentiated new learning (for discussions see Chan et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2018). The explanations that are arguably most applicable to pre-instruction testing involve learners adopting more optimal encoding or retrieval strategies after practice testing. ...
Pan & Carpenter (2023) Prequestioning and Pretesting Effects: A Review of Empirical Research, Theoretical Perspectives, and Applications
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Aug 2023
Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, in various settings, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, metacognitive factors, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.
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... However, by the end of the century, interest in prequestions waned considerably until their resurgence in the mid-to-late 2000s. Attention towards the PE coincided with a broader rise in interest in other educationally relevant memory phenomena, including retrieval practice, distributed learning, and metacognition (see Bjork et al., 2013;Chan et al., 2018;Dunlosky et al., 2013;McDermott, 2021;Metcalfe, 2009;Pashler et al., 2007). To preview, prequestions are believed to promote learning by enhancing students' encoding of the study material. ...
... To draw an analogy from the visual attention domain, prequestion is similar to performing visual search in a complex environment, whereas pretesting is similar to attending to a single stimulus at a time. 1 This review only investigated the learning benefits of prequestions. Readers interested in the pretesting effect are directed to the meta-analytic review by Chan et al. (2018) and the qualitative review by Kornell and Vaughn (2016). ...
... As described earlier in this proposal, the prequestion effect is distinct from the pretesting effect in that the former requires participants to discover the answers to prequestions among irrelevant material, whereas the latter does not (e.g., Grimaldi & Karpicke, 2012;Hays et al., 2013;Knight et al., 2012;Vaughn et al., 2017). A meta-analysis of the pretesting effect has already been reported elsewhere (Chan et al., 2018). 4. ...
Guessing as a learning intervention: A meta-analytic review of the prequestion effect
Article
Full text available at https://rdcu.be/dkCHf <> Giving students test questions before they have learned the correct answers (i.e., prequestions) enhances learning. However, existing research has provided conflicting evidence on whether the benefits of prequestions are specific to the initially tested material or if they generalize to new, nontested material. In this review, we summarize the literature on the prequestion effect, describe the attention-based account underlying this effect, report a meta-analysis of the magnitude of the specific and general effects, and explore theoretically and empirically relevant moderator variables that influence the size and direction of the prequestion effect. This preregistered meta-analysis demonstrated a moderate specific effect (g = 0.54, k = 97) but a virtually nonexistent general effect (g = 0.04, k = 91). Overall, the attention-based account received support from some theoretically relevant moderator analyses. Future researchers are encouraged to conduct theoretically motivated studies to help clarify the mechanisms that underlie the attention-enhancing effects of prequestions and to explore the benefits of prequestions in educational domains to establish the extent to which these effects translate into the classroom.
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... Although testing has been widely-viewed as an assessment of learning, it has also been established as an assessment for learning (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a;Yang et al., 2021). Specifically, numerous studies observed that, by comparison with many other strategies (e.g., restudying, note-taking, concept-mapping, self-explaining), testing can not only more effectively consolidate long-term retention of studied information, a phenomenon termed the backward testing effect (for reviews, see Roediger & Karpicke, 2006a;Rowland, 2014), but also more effectively facilitate subsequent learning of new information, known as the forward testing effect (for reviews, see Chan et al., 2018;Pastötter & Bäuml, 2014;Shanks et al., 2023;Yang et al., 2018b). Roediger and Karpicke (2006b) provided a clear demonstration of the backward testing effect. ...
... Overall, the beneficial effects of testing on learning are substantial in both laboratory and classroom contexts, and practice testing can be utilized as an effective instrument to enhance learning. The cognitive underpinnings of the testing effect are beyond the scope of the current article, and interested readers can consult recent reviews (e.g., Adesope et al., 2017;Chan et al., 2018;Pan & Rickard, 2018;Shanks et al., 2023;Yang et al., 2018bYang et al., , 2021. ...
... Although dozens of literature and meta-analytic reviews have assessed the effects of testing on learning and academic performance (e.g., Adesope et al., 2017;Carpenter et al., 2022;Chan et al., 2018;Pan & Rickard, 2018;Shanks et al., 2023;Yang et al., 2018bYang et al., , 2021, to our knowledge no reviews (either narrative or metaanalytic) have been conducted to evaluate the research base of the effect of practice tests on TA. The current review aims to fill this important gap. ...
Do Practice Tests (Quizzes) Reduce or Provoke Test Anxiety? A Meta-Analytic Review
Article
Full-text available
Practice testing is a powerful tool to consolidate long-term retention of studied information, facilitate subsequent learning of new information, and foster knowledge transfer. However, practitioners frequently express the concern that tests are anxiety-inducing and that their employment in the classroom should be minimized. The current review integrates results across 24 studies (i.e., 25 effects based on 3,374 participants) to determine the effect of practice tests (quizzes) on test anxiety (TA) and explore potential moderators of the effect. The results show strong Bayesian evidence (BF10 > 25,000) that practice tests appreciably reduce TA to a medium extent (Hedges’ g = -0.52), with minimal evidence of publication bias. Easy practice tests tend to be more effective in mitigating TA than difficult ones. These findings support a recommendation for instructors to incorporate quizzes into their curriculum. However, instructors should be aware that quizzes themselves may be more stressful than other learning activities. Methods to make quizzes less stressful and more enjoyable are discussed. Research on the effect of practice tests on TA is still in its infancy, and future research directions are highlighted.
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... A pesquisa em memória humana tem demonstrado que recuperar uma informação da memória, comparada a diferentes condições-controle, melhora sua retenção em longo prazo e facilita a aprendizagem subsequente de novas informações (Chan, Meissner, & Davis, 2018;Rowland, 2014). Essa técnica, denominada de prática de recuperação (PR), tem recebido crescente interesse por parte de psicólogos cognitivos. ...
... Essa técnica, denominada de prática de recuperação (PR), tem recebido crescente interesse por parte de psicólogos cognitivos. Tal interesse é justificável, uma vez que a PR produz efeitos robustos (Chan et al., 2018;Rowland, 2014), podendo contribuir como técnica de aprendizagem tanto em contextos educacionais (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) quanto em contextos clínicos (Lima, Cavendish, Deus, & Buratto, 2020). ...
... Segundo, seu uso permite sintetizar e organizar o conhecimento sobre um dado tema (Cumming, 2005). Essa organização permite o estabelecimento da confiabilidade de um achado, o contraste de hipóteses concorrentes sobre um fenômeno e a indicação de áreas com poucas pesquisas e que merecem maior atenção em estudos futuros (para exemplos, ver Chan et al., 2018;Rowland, 2014). ...
Metanálises em Psicologia: Uma Introdução Conceitual e Prática
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2023
Metanálise consiste em um conjunto de técnicas estatísticas que visa integrar os resultados de dois ou mais estudos primários. Ela permite produzir estimativas pontuais e intervalares de algum parâmetro populacional, geralmente uma medida de tamanho de efeito. Este artigo tem como objetivo apresentar conceitos fundamentais sobre metanálise e suas aplicações para psicólogos e estudantes de psicologia. O artigo: (1) introduz a lógica da metanálise, seus potenciais e as críticas a ela endereçadas; (2) apresenta dois modelos de metanálise comumente usados por pesquisadores; e (3) aborda dois tópicos importantes para a interpretação correta dos resultados: heterogeneidade e análise de subgrupos. Um exemplo fictício ilustra os conceitos ao longo do artigo. Os Materiais Suplementares contêm equações dos modelos apresentados no texto, resultados comentados de uma síntese metanalítica, código na linguagem R para reproduzir resultados e figuras desse artigo e uma breve lista comentada de fontes adicionais sobre metanálise.
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... The testing effect (TE) is a phenomenon in which testing, compared to restudying or other controls, enhances memory for the original information (Chan et al., 2018;Mulligan et al., 2020;Rickard and Pan, 2017;Rowland, 2014;Sundqvist et al., 2017). Interest in the TE stems partly from its application to education as retrieval practice has been shown to increase an individual's learning in classroom settings (Greving & Richter, 2018;Trumbo et al., 2021). ...
... Interest in the TE stems partly from its application to education as retrieval practice has been shown to increase an individual's learning in classroom settings (Greving & Richter, 2018;Trumbo et al., 2021). The TE has been demonstrated across a wide range of materials (Yang et al., 2018), as well as across a wide range of participants (Chan et al., 2018). The forward testing effect (FTE) is a variation of the TE in which attempted retrieval of originally studied material enhances learning and memory of new material (Chan et al., 2018;Cho et al., 2017;Pastötter and Bäuml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018). ...
... The TE has been demonstrated across a wide range of materials (Yang et al., 2018), as well as across a wide range of participants (Chan et al., 2018). The forward testing effect (FTE) is a variation of the TE in which attempted retrieval of originally studied material enhances learning and memory of new material (Chan et al., 2018;Cho et al., 2017;Pastötter and Bäuml, 2014;Yang et al., 2018). The FTE may also be referred to as test-potentiated new learning (TPNL, Chan et al., 2018). ...
Covert retrieval yields a forward testing effect across levels of successive list similarity
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2023
Two experiments determined whether metamemory judgments invoking covert retrieval practice for a list of unrelated paired associate words led to the facilitation of learning a subsequent list. Three types of relation between successive lists were compared: negative transfer (A-B, A-D); a control for item-specific proactive interference (A-B, C-D); and repetition (A-B, A-B). Experiment 1 showed that the benefit of retrieval practice relative to restudying was equivalent for overt and covert retrieval in the negative transfer paradigm (A-B, A-D). Both types of retrieval minimized intrusions of first list responses in the cued recall of the second list. Experiment 2 showed that memory enhancement following covert retrieval was equivalent for new (C-D) and repeated (A-B) lists. The results are consistent with theories of the forward testing effect (FTE) that assume retrieval practice insulates subsequent learning from proactive interference and provides self-assessment feedback that may lead to more efficient encoding in future learning. Challenges in accounting for the impact of a substantial number of moderators of the FTE are reviewed.
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... Crucially, pretesting even promotes memory if, on study trials, the cue-target pairs are presented as long -e.g., 10 s -as the summed guess and presentation duration on pretest trials -e.g., 5 s guess duration and 5 s presentation duration (e.g., Kornell et al., 2009). While not yet investigated as extensively as the testing effect, the pretesting effect also has been observed in both lab-based studies and educational settings across a variety of study materials, including weak associates, videos, trivia questions, and foreign language learning (for reviews, see Chan et al., 2018;Kornell & Vaughn, 2016). ...
Repeated guessing attempts during acquisition can promote subsequent recall performance
Article
Taking a pretest before to-be-learned material is studied can improve long-term retention of the material relative to material that was initially only studied. Using weakly associated word pairs (Experiments 1 and 3), Swahili-German word pairs (Experiment 2), and prose passages (Experiment 4) as study material, the present study examined whether this pretesting effect is modulated in size when pretests are repeatedly administered during acquisition. All four experiments consistently showed the typical pretesting effect, with enhanced recall after a single guessing attempt relative to the study-only baseline. Critically, the pretesting effect increased in size when multiple guessing attempts were made during acquisition, regardless of whether the duration of the pretesting phase increased with the number of guesses (Experiments 1, 2, and 4) or was held constant (Experiment 3). The results of Experiment 4 also indicate that neither a single guessing attempt nor multiple guessing attempts easily induce the transfer of learning to previously studied but untested information. Together, the findings demonstrate that additional guesses can promote access to the pretested target material on the final test, suggesting that in educational contexts, extensive pretesting during acquisition may serve as an effective learning strategy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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Interpolated retrieval retroactively increases recall and promotes cross-episode memory interdependence
Article
Retrieving existing memories before new learning can lead to retroactive facilitation. Three experiments examined whether interpolated retrieval is associated with retroactive facilitation and memory interdependence that reflects integrative encoding. Participants studied two lists of cue–response word pairs that repeated across lists (A–B, A–B), appeared in list 1 (A–B, —), or included the same cues with changed responses in each list (A–B, A–C). For A–B, A–C pairs, the tasks interpolated between lists required recall of list 1 (B) responses (with or without feedback) or restudy of complete list 1 (A–B) pairs. In list 2, participants only studied pairs (experiment 1) or studied pairs, attempted to detect changed (C) responses, and attempted to recall list 1 responses for detected changes (experiments 2 and 3). On a final cued recall test, participants attempted to recall list 1 responses, indicated whether responses changed between lists, and if so, attempted to recall list 2 responses. Interpolated retrieval was associated with subsequent retroactive facilitation and greater memory interdependence for B and C responses. These correlational findings are compatible with the view that retrieval retroactively facilitates memories, promotes coactivation of existing memories and new learning, and enables integrative encoding that veridically binds information across episodes.
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The forward testing effect after a 1‐day delay across dissimilar video lessons
Article
  • Jun 2023
Being tested on previously learned material has been shown to enhance the learning of subsequently encountered material (i.e., the forward testing effect). Some cognitive theories predict that the magnitude of the forward testing effect is not dependent on the content in the previously learned and to‐be‐learned material (content‐general theories), while other theories predict that it does depends on the similarity (content‐specific theories). To adjudicate between these broad theories, participants viewed one of four lessons that were similar or dissimilar on two dimensions, academic domain and presentation structure, relative to a second lesson. After the first lesson, participants were either tested or restudied the material. Then they viewed the second lesson and were tested on the material. Results showed an overall forward testing effect across all four lessons, and the magnitude of the effect was not significantly different between the lessons, providing support for content‐general theories of the forward testing effect.
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Does blatantly contradictory information reduce the misinformation effect? A Registered Report replication of Loftus (1979)
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
Purpose: Loftus (1979, Reactions to blatantly contradictory infor- mation) demonstrated that participants who received a piece of blatantly contradictory information were not susceptible to it (the boundary condition effect). In addition, participants who had received the blatant misinformation were also less susceptible to the more subtle pieces of misinformation compared to the participants who did not receive the blatant misinformation (the inoculation effect). Researchers often cited this finding as evidence for the idea that detecting a piece of blatant misinformation is similar to being given a warning. However, to our knowledge, the inoculation effect has not been replicated. Methods: Experiment 1 was a direct replication. Participants either encountered four pieces of nonblatant misinforma- tion (subtle condition) or the same four pieces of nonblatant misinformation and an additional piece of blatant misinfor- mation (blatant condition). Experiment 2 was a conceptual replication in which we also manipulated the presence or ab- sence of initial testing. Furthermore, we presented the slides as a video and presented four neutral and four misleading details in the narrative. Results: In two high-powered experiments, we failed to replicate both the inoculation effect and the boundary condition effect. Using a multi-verse analysis approach, we failed to observe a significant advantage from the inclusion of a piece of blatant misinformation in most (but not all) analyses. Conclusion: We conclude that encountering a piece of blatant misinformation was not sufficient to inoculate witnesses
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The Dark Side of Interpolated Testing: Frequent Switching Between Retrieval and Encoding Impairs New Learning
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2017
General Audience Summary New learning must be scaffolded onto previously learned concepts, and some research has shown that recalling previously learned information (i.e., retrieval practice) can aid later learning of new concepts. However, other research has found the opposite effect. Here, we examined when and why retrieval practice can enhance or impede new learning. We hypothesized that retrieval practice is harmful to new learning when learners must frequently switch between retrieving old materials and learning new ones. We asked participants to remember two sets of materials that were associated with the same concept, and found that retrieving materials from the first set enhanced learning of the new set when retrieval practice and new learning occurred in separate phases of the experiment. However, when retrieval practice and new learning were intermixed in a single phase of the experiment, retrieval (as opposed to reviewing previously learned concepts) impaired new learning. We suggest that retrieval uses different mental processes than those necessary for learning new information, and frequently switching between these processes can interfere with new learning. We conclude by recommending that instructions provide in-class quiz questions at the beginning or end of a class to minimize these interfering effects of retrieval, while still reaping its benefits.
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Retrieval-Enhanced Suggestibility: A Retrospective and a New Investigation
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2017
Eyewitnesses are often repeatedly interviewed about the same crime, and they might be exposed to misleading information between these interviews. Taking a memory test before being exposed to misinformation can ironically increase the likelihood that an eyewitness would fall prey to the misinformation effect-a finding termed Retrieval-Enhanced Suggestibility (RES). In this paper, we outline the motivation behind the original research on RES, summarize the theoretical explanations that have been used to explain this finding, and provide a review of the extant empirical findings. We then report the results of two new experiments that examined whether participants, upon being informed that they had provided inconsistent responses during the prior recall tests, could overcome the RES effect during a final recognition test in which the correct event detail and the misinformation were offered as response options. The results showed that RES persisted in this recognition test, and the level of inconsistencies shown by participants during the prior recall tests predicted their final recognition performance, such that more inconsistent witnesses were also more error-prone during the final recognition test-but this relation was stronger for misinformation-induced inconsistencies than for spontaneously-produced inconsistencies.
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Testing Prepares Students to Learn Better: The Forward Effect of Testing in Category Learning
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2017
The forward effect of testing occurs when testing on previously studied information facilitates subsequent learning. The present research investigated whether interim testing on initially studied materials enhances the learning of new materials in category learning and examined the metacognitive judgments of such learning. Across the 4 experiments, participants learned the painting styles of various artists, which were divided into 2 separate sections (Sections A and B). They were given an interim test or not on the studied paintings of Section A before moving on to study the paintings of different artists in Section B, and then were given a final test on Section B where participants had to transfer what they had previously learned to new exemplars of the studied artists in Section B. In all experiments, transfer performance on Section B was greater when the participants were given an interim test versus no test. The beneficial effect of interim testing was obtained when the final test was presented in cued-recall (Experiments 1 and 2) and multiple-choice (Experiments 3 and 4) formats. Experiments 3 and 4 also indicated that the forward effect of testing was not due to re-exposure to previously studied items but the testing itself. However, the metacognitive measures provided by the participants did not reflect their actual performance, suggesting that the participants were unaware about the beneficial effects of interim testing. Interim testing appears to prepare students to learn better, facilitating not only learning of specific instances but also generalization of that learning.
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Reduced Interference From Memory Testing: A Postretrieval Monitoring Account
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2017
Initial learning can interfere with subsequent learning (proactive interference [PI]), but recent work indicates initial testing can reduce PI. Here, we tested 2 alternative hypotheses of this effect: Does testing reduce PI by constraining retrieval to the target list, or by facilitating a postretrieval monitoring process? Participants first studied 4 lists of unrelated words. The study-only group performed a distractor task following each list, whereas the tested group recalled each list. After these initial lists, both groups studied and were tested on a final list. Replicating prior work, the tested group recalled more of the final list items and had fewer prior-list intrusions than the study-only group (i.e., initial testing reduced subsequent PI). To test the 2-alternative hypotheses, Experiment 1 used a modified recall test for the final list, whereby participants were asked to recall the final list of words and also report any items from prior lists that inadvertently came to mind. Contrary to the constrained retrieval hypothesis, initial testing did not reduce the number of prior list items that came to mind, but consistent with the postretrieval monitoring hypothesis, testing increased the likelihood that the intrusions would be correctly attributed to prior lists. Experiments 2 and 3 further tested the postretrieval monitoring hypothesis by testing the final list twice. According to the hypothesis, testing all of the lists should render prior testing nondiagnostic of list membership, thereby impairing retrieval monitoring in the test group and minimizing its ability to reduce PI. This prediction was confirmed.
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The Role of Episodic Context in Retrieval Practice Effects
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2017
The episodic context account of retrieval-based learning proposes that retrieval enhances subsequent retention because people must think back to and reinstate a prior learning context. Three experiments directly tested this central assumption of the context account. Subjects studied word lists and then either restudied the words under intentional learning conditions or made list discrimination judgments by indicating which list each word had occurred in originally. Subjects in both conditions experienced all items for the same amount of time, but subjects in the list discrimination condition were required to retrieve details about the original episodic context in which the words had occurred. Making initial list discrimination judgments consistently enhanced subsequent free recall relative to restudying the words. Analyses of recall organization and retrieval strategies on the final test showed that retrieval practice enhanced temporal organization during final recall. Semantic encoding tasks also enhanced retention relative to restudying but did so by promoting semantic organization and semantically based retrieval strategies during final recall. The results support the episodic context account of retrieval-based learning. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Testing potentiates new learning across a retention interval and a lag: A strategy change perspective
Article
  • May 2018
Practicing retrieval on previously studied materials can potentiate subsequent learning of new materials. In four experiments, we investigated the influence of retention interval and lag on this test-potentiated new learning (TPNL) effect. Participants studied four word lists and either practiced retrieval, restudied, or completed math problems following Lists 1–3. Memory performance on List 4 provided an estimate of new learning. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants were tested on List 4 after either a 1 min or 25 min retention interval. In Experiments 3 and 4, participants took at 25 min break before studying List 4. A TPNL effect was observed in all experiments. To gain insight into the mechanism that may underlie TPNL, we analyzed the extent to which participants organized their recall from list to list. Relative to restudy and math, testing led to superior semantic organization across lists. Our results support a strategy change account of TPNL.
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An Update on Memory Reconsolidation Updating
Article
The reactivation of a stored memory in the brain can make the memory transiently labile. During the time it takes for the memory to restabilize (reconsolidate) the memory can either be reduced by an amnesic agent or enhanced by memory enhancers. The change in memory expression is related to changes in the brain correlates of long-term memory. Many have suggested that such retrieval-induced plasticity is ideally placed to enable memories to be updated with new information. This hypothesis has been tested experimentally, with a translational perspective, by attempts to update maladaptive memories to reduce their problematic impact. We review here progress on reconsolidation updating studies, highlighting their translational exploitation and addressing recent challenges to the reconsolidation field.
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A Framework of Episodic Updating: An Account of Memory Updating After Retrieval
Chapter
One of the functional roles posited for retrieval-induced memory malleability is that it allows memories to be updated with new information. A large body of literature from the cognitive and neurocognitive traditions has shown that retrieval can facilitate new learning. However, there is also recent evidence demonstrating that retrieval can impair new learning. Current models of episodic retrieval primarily focus on the processes and contextual updating as they relate to target retrieval. However, any account of episodic retrieval should also be able to accommodate the finding that retrieval can both facilitate and impair learning of new information presented after the retrieval attempt. A framework of episodic updating is presented that aims to synthesize these contrasting effects. In the framework, emphasis is given to the postretrieval processing phase of episodic retrieval. This phase has been characterized as involving interactive metamemory processes that monitor and control facets of the retrieval process with respect to the current goals for retrieval. This chapter ends with a discussion of the practical implications of updating after retrieval in educational practice.
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Directing the Wandering Mind
Article
  • Feb 2017
Mind wandering—a mental phenomenon characterized by the spontaneous shift of attention away from external stimulation toward self-generated thought—has been consistently shown to have a negative impact on learning, yet little is known about how to reduce or redirect the experience in educational settings. In this article, I distinguish between approaches to directing mind wandering that focus on either the detection of lapses of attention (reactive) or restructuring of the learning environment (proactive) and argue that proactive approaches avoid issues of implementation that currently limit reactive approaches. I then review emerging research on a proactive approach to reducing and redirecting mind wandering that involves interpolating lecture-based content with brief memory tests, and further elaborate on the benefits of interpolated testing in other educationally relevant contexts. I conclude by highlighting that proactive approaches to creating attentive learning environments will also need to take into account characteristics of the individual learner.
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