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Retrieval Potentiates New Learning: A Theoretical and Meta-Analytic Review

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A growing body of research has shown that retrieval can enhance future learning of new materials. In the present report, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature on this finding, which we term test-potentiated new learning. Our primary objectives were to: 1) produce an integrative review of the existing theoretical explanations, 2) summarize the extant empirical data with a meta-analysis, 3) evaluate the existing accounts with the meta-analytic results, and 4) highlight areas that deserve further investigations. Here, we identified four non-exclusive classes of theoretical accounts, including resource accounts, metacognitive accounts, context accounts, and integration accounts. Our quantitative review of the literature showed that testing reliably potentiates the future learning of new materials by increasing correct recall or by reducing erroneous intrusions, and several factors have a powerful impact on whether testing potentiates or impairs new learning. Results of a meta-regression analysis provide considerable support for the integration account. Lastly, we discuss areas of under-investigation and possible directions for future research.
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... Testing through retrieval practice is a potentially powerful educational tool. Research has found that attempting to retrieve previously studied information can enhance long-term memory, an effect known as the testing effect (Adesope et al., 2017;Rowland, 2014;Yang et al., 2021), as well as the learning of new information, an effect known as the forward testing effect (FTE) or testpotentiated new learning (Chan et al., 2018). Despite decades of research, however, remarkably little is known about a key issue: What is the optimal placement of tests during a learning episode? ...
... This research explores the effects of the timing of repeated retrieval attempts after a single study episode (e.g., Karpicke & Roediger, 2007) and so does not examine the grain size of study/test cycles but nonetheless points to a potential reason why interim tests might be more advantageous for long-term learning. Finally, and perhaps most critically, interim testing also potentiates new learning of subsequent information (see Chan et al., 2018). In an interim test schedule, each test carries the potential to facilitate learning of the next section of information, which could result in substantially greater overall learning. ...
... This is important as it rules out the possibility that participants in the interim test group were recalling information from short-term rather than long-term memory, which would result in poorer retention. It is interesting to compare this result to metaanalyses on the FTE, which have suggested that delay duration is negatively associated with FTE magnitude (Chan et al., 2018). In addition, studies by Wissman and Rawson (2015) suggested that This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
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Retrieval practice is a powerful method for consolidating long-term learning. When learning takes place over an extended period, how should tests be scheduled to obtain the maximal benefit? In an end-test schedule, all material is studied prior to a large practice test on all studied material, whereas in an interim test schedule, learning is divided into multiple study/test cycles in which each test is smaller and only assesses material from the preceding study block. Past investigations have generally found a difference between these schedules during practice but not during a final assessment, although they may have been underpowered. Five experiments confirmed that final assessment performance was better in students taught using interim than end tests in list (Experiments 1, 2, and 5) and paired associate (Experiments 3 and 4) learning, with a meta-analysis of all available studies (k = 19) yielding a small- to medium-sized effect, g = 0.25, 95% confidence interval [0.09, 0.42]. Experiment 5 finds that the higher level of practice retrieval success in interim tests contributes to the grain size effect, but the effect is eliminated if these tests are too easy. Additional analyses also suggest that the forward testing effect, in which tests promote subsequent learning, may be a major cause of the grain size effect. The practical and theoretical implications of these demonstrations of robust grain size effects are discussed.
... A later final test often reveals better memory in the practice test than restudy condition-the testing effect (e.g., Rowland, 2014). Taking a test, or engaging in retrieval practice, may not only improve memory for the retrieved information itself but can also affect memory by enhancing learning of new material, a phenomenon called the forward testing effect (e.g., Chan et al., 2018aChan et al., , 2018bYang et al., 2018). Retrieval can even enhance subsequent memory when retrieval fails, as demonstrated by the pretesting effect (e.g., Kornell & Vaughn, 2016;Kornell et al., 2009;Metcalfe & Huelser, 2020;Zawadzka et al., 2023). ...
... What of the forward effects of retrieval? The present study examines two forms of forward testing effects, what Chan et al., (2018aChan et al., ( , 2018b labeled the standard forward testing effect (hereafter, the standard FTE) and the pretesting effect. In the standard FTE paradigm, the participant is presented with a series of study lists, each of which is followed by retrieval practice for half the participants and by restudy for the other half (Pastötter & Bäuml, 2014). ...
... Experiment 1 used the typical paradigm for examining the standard FTE (Chan et al., 2018a(Chan et al., , 2018b. The experiment consisted of four blocks, each block starting with the presentation of a new study list followed by either restudy or retrieval practice using free recall. ...
Article
Memory retrieval affects subsequent memory in both positive (e.g., the testing effect) and negative (e.g., retrieval-induced forgetting [RIF]) ways, and can be contrasted with other forms of memory modification (e.g., study-based encoding). Divided attention substantially impairs study-based encoding but has a modest effect on retrieval. What of the subsequent learning consequences of retrieval? Earlier studies indicate that certain positive effects (i.e., the testing effect) are not reduced by distraction, whereas negative effects (i.e., RIF) are eliminated. The present study assessed an indirect (positive) effect of retrieval—the forward testing effect (FTE), in which prior retrieval or retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning. Two experiments examined the role of attention in both the standard FTE and the pretesting effect. In Experiment 1, participants learned three study lists through retrieval practice or restudy, followed by a fourth study list. Prior retrieval practice enhanced subsequent new learning more than restudy (i.e., the standard FTE), and to a similar degree under full attention (FA) and divided attention (DA). In Experiment 2, participants learned cue–target word pairs by either studying the pair or guessing the target when shown a cue (i.e., pretesting) followed by the correct pair. Pretesting enhanced memory more than just studying to a similar degree under FA and DA. In sum, both forms of the FTE were unaffected by distraction, indicating that these positive consequences of retrieval are not based on controlled processes but instead appear to be relatively obligatory consequences of retrieval (or retrieval attempts). These results also have relevance for specific accounts of the standard FTE and the pretesting effect.
... The first research question addressed whether quizzing improved learning performances (repeated and new questions highlighting the backward and forward effects of the quizzing strategy). Findings showed that students in the embedded quizzes condition performed better on the learning test for both types of question, consistent with previous studies using textual material (e.g., Chan et al., 2018;Yang et al., 2021). The first contribution of the present study was to confirm the backward (Hypothesis 1a) and forward (Hypothesis 1b) effects using more ecological multimedia material. ...
... An alternative explanation to that of self-regulation is posited by Chan (2010) and supported by the meta-analysis of Chan et al. (2018), who suggested that testing enhances memory integration (of tested and untested information) through retrieval-induced facilitation. In summary, when learners answer quizzes, they activate their semantic memory, leading to a more robust integration of all the information with which they are presented. ...
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Background Previous research has demonstrated that quizzing can improve self‐regulation processes and learning performances. However, it remains unclear whether quizzes in multimedia material bring similar benefits, and whether interindividual differences such as working memory capacity (WMC) modulate quizzing effects. Aims This study aimed to examine the effects of embedded quizzes (multiple quizzes within the learning sequence) with feedback during a multimedia learning sequence on self‐regulated processing (monitoring and control) and learning performances on repeated (material already tested) and new (untested) questions, and possible WMC moderation on performances. Sample and Methods Participants were 59 students who learned a multimedia neuroscience course module in either a no‐quiz or embedded quizzes condition. With regard to self‐regulated processing, control was assessed with eye‐tracking measures (fixation durations and transitions between texts and illustrations), and monitoring by comparing self‐reported judgements of learning with actual performances (calibration). At the end, students' WMC was measured, and learning performances were assessed with repeated and new questions. Results Quizzing improved learning performances on repeated and new questions, and enhanced monitoring (better calibration). Students with low WMC benefited more from quizzing for new questions than those with high WMC. However, contrary to our hypothesis, the embedded quizzes group allocated less time to the learning than the no‐quiz group. Conclusions Embedded quizzes are relevant tools to help students recalibrate their monitoring process and foster more effective self‐regulated learning. Results confirm that the use of quizzes can be recommended to improve the learning of multimedia material, especially among students with low WMC.
... Testing requires learners to actively retrieve data from memory, which strengthens retrieval pathways, making retrieval of these data easier in the future [11,12]. It also improves future learning by increasing correct recall [13,14]. Studies in cognitive psychology have shown that TEL encourages focusing attention on content, promotes task-relevant behaviors such as taking notes, and reduces overall cognitive demand [15]. ...
... The same structure was observed for CS_A and CS_B. The decision to include ten questions in each exam was based on a previous study, which indicated that ten questions struck the right balance of efficiency and effectiveness [13]. Each question in these exams provided four answer choices. ...
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Background Test enhancing learning (TEL) had shown a significant effect in promoting the learning of many learning contents. However, its effect on the postgraduate medical level was unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect of TEL in 1st year anesthesiology residents learning neuroanesthesia. Method The residents were randomized to either group A, which was assigned to do the intervention exam (exam A) for two times during learning in neuroanesthesia, or group B, which studied in the same environment without doing the exam. All participants were assigned to do the assessment exam (exam B) at one month after the end of the rotation. All of the exams were ten multiple choice questions (MCQ). Since the anesthesia residents rotated to neuroanesthesia for two weeks twice during the first year, we conducted the experiments twice, using exams that covered both basic science (BS) and clinical science (CS) topics. Results There was no significant difference in mean ± SD of the scores for assessment exams asking about the basic science topic (BS_B) [group A (5.25 ± 2.05) VS group B (4.90 ± 1.80); p = 0.570] and the clinical science topic (CS_B) [group A (6.30 ± 1.26) VS group B (5.95 ± 1.61); p = 0.448]. Conclusion This study showed null findings on the effect of TEL on learning in residents of the first year of anesthesiology. More studies on TEL were required to confirm the effect of TEL and find the appropriate test format that could enhance learning for post-graduate medical trainees.
... Adult weaknesses centre on the reduced plasticity of the adult brain, which makes the accumulation and consolidation of knowledge across lessons more difficult (Lillard and Erisir 2011). Adults are likely to need more help to consolidate learning, through more frequent repetition and retrieval of material (Chan et al. 2018), simple repeated testing, recaps at the start of a lesson and knowledge testing at the end. ...
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A mind, brain and education (MBE) approach applies the best evidence regarding how people learn to real classroom settings. Much of the work in the field to date has involved child learners, but MBE is increasingly turning to the study of adult education, supported by a growing understanding of how adults and children differ in their learning styles. MBE’s systematic, evidence-driven interdisciplinary approach has much to offer the field of adult literacy. The Literacy for Women in Africa (LWA) programme in Malawi seeks to improve and develop its provision for adult learners using MBE’s interdisciplinary, evidence-based approach. This article reports on that programme, showing how its design and future development have benefited from the MBE framework. The authors suggest that the field of adult literacy could gain from the development of a strong, shared, scientific evidence base which allows all programme practitioners to benefit from the best knowledge available. The authors offer their experience with the LWA programme as a small contribution towards that goal. It is their hope that this article will be of use to those involved in the development, design and implementation of adult literacy programmes, particularly in the Global South.
... In addition to the timing of the delays between tests, the delays in FFR studies include additional study and recall periods. As a result, on all but the first list may also have benefited from following other IFR tests, consistent with evidence of a forward testing effect (Chan et al., 2018;Darley & Murdock, 1971;Pastötter & Frings, 2019;Szpunar et al., 2008;Yang et al., 2018). At the same time, IFR of later lists may have suffered from proactive interference from earlier lists. ...
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When performing successive recall tests without restudy, subjects’ recalls exhibit intriguing variability across tests, including gaining or losing items across tests. To examine the cognitive mechanisms underlying this variability, research has focused primarily on hypermnesia, the finding that recall performance increases across tests (Erdelyi & Becker, 1974). Hypermnesia studies commonly consider conditions that impact recall levels of items gained across tests versus items maintained across tests. By contrast, analyses of recall clustering in hypermnesia studies typically collapse across maintained items and item gains. Here, I examine associative processes separately for item gains and maintained items. Experiment 1 examines these effects in final free recall, a paradigm also used to examine changes in recall across tests but less commonly linked with hypermnesia, whereas Experiment 2 uses a classic hypermnesia design. In both experiments, subjects exhibited significant temporal and semantic clustering for maintained items, but there was less evidence of these associations supporting item gains. In Experiment 1, transitions to maintained items boasted a greater proportion of same-list transitions than item gains, and in Experiment 2, there were no significant clustering effects to item gains on a test producing hypermnesia. Further, in Experiment 1, subjects exhibiting greater list-level temporal clustering of maintained items also maintained more items across tests. The results highlight the importance of episodic and semantic associations to changes in recall across tests and have implications for current theories of hypermnesia.
... particularly striking since studies examining the phenomenon usually exclude correct guessing attempts made during initial pretesting from the data analysis, which means that the effects of failed guessing attempts are isolated. From an applied perspective, the pretesting effect appears highly relevant since it has been observed for various types of study materials, such as trivia questions, word pairs, videos, and prose passages, and has not only been found in laboratorybased studies, but also in educational settings (for reviews, see Chan et al., 2018;Kornell & Vaughn, 2016). ...
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The pretesting effect refers to the finding that tests performed before to-be learned material is encountered can enhance later retention of the material, even when no correct answers were provided on the initial pretest. The goal of the present study was to examine whether interspersing pretest questions between the study of multiple segments consisting of prose passages can induce a pretesting effect on a final cumulative recall test on all segments. To this end, participants studied four segments which were either thematically related (Experiment 1) or distinct (Experiment 2) and either received pretest questions about each segment immediately prior to study of the segment (pretest condition) or not (study-only condition). Results of the cumulative final test performed 24 h after study of the segments showed for both experiments that interpolated pretesting enhanced correct recall of the segments. The findings thus suggest that the positive effects of pretesting on memory generalize from the standard single-list design to a multiplelists design when pretests are performed prior to study of each list. Interpolated pretesting thus may play a critical role as a potential learning tool in educational practice.
... Yet another account suggests that pretesting may strengthen retrieval pathways to related content, which may be particularly relevant under productive memory conditions (Richland et al., 2009). Differences aside, there is consensus that pretesting falls under the umbrella of test-potentiated new learning: New learning is broadly enhanced when the learner attempts to generate a response to a test question (Chan et al., 2018). It does not matter if the attempt is successful (Kornell, 2014;Metcalfe, 2017). ...
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Pretesting, or asking a test question prior to the onset of learning, is a well-established means of enhancing learning. Research on pretesting has focused primarily on direct factual learning outcomes. Yet building a coherent knowledge base also depends on productive memory processes that permit going beyond the information directly given. In the specific productive process of self-derivation through memory integration, individual differences are prominent; verbal comprehension is a consistent predictor. In the current work, we integrated these research trends by testing the extent to which pretesting enhances learning through productive memory processes and the role played by individual differences in verbal comprehension. Across four within-subjects experiments, we assessed the pretest effect after accounting for variability associated with verbal comprehension. In Experiments 1–3, we assessed the productive memory process of self-derivation through memory integration. Adults were more successful on pretest trials compared to control (i.e., no pretest) trials, but this effect was no longer significant after controlling for verbal comprehension. This pattern emerged when we used stem-fact pretests (Experiment 1) and integration-fact pretests (Experiment 2) to probe self-derivation across single-sentence stimuli and replicated when we used stimuli more akin to everyday learning materials (i.e., text passages and photographs; Experiment 3). In Experiment 4, we shifted the test target from productive processes to fact recall and found the pretest effect held even after controlling for verbal comprehension. This research bridges the pretest and productive process literature to provide novel insight into ways of maximizing learning.
Chapter
To realize the potential for transformational learning that the Block provides, educators must expand their repertoire of teaching modalities beyond those of a typical lecture course. Rather than a purveyor of information, the teacher guides learners to construct knowledge for themselves through activities inside and outside the classroom, supported in an environment that celebrates failure as a natural step toward understanding and incorporating peer-to-peer collaboration.
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General Audience Summary New learning must be scaffolded onto previously learned concepts, and some research has shown that recalling previously learned information (i.e., retrieval practice) can aid later learning of new concepts. However, other research has found the opposite effect. Here, we examined when and why retrieval practice can enhance or impede new learning. We hypothesized that retrieval practice is harmful to new learning when learners must frequently switch between retrieving old materials and learning new ones. We asked participants to remember two sets of materials that were associated with the same concept, and found that retrieving materials from the first set enhanced learning of the new set when retrieval practice and new learning occurred in separate phases of the experiment. However, when retrieval practice and new learning were intermixed in a single phase of the experiment, retrieval (as opposed to reviewing previously learned concepts) impaired new learning. We suggest that retrieval uses different mental processes than those necessary for learning new information, and frequently switching between these processes can interfere with new learning. We conclude by recommending that instructions provide in-class quiz questions at the beginning or end of a class to minimize these interfering effects of retrieval, while still reaping its benefits.
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Eyewitnesses are often repeatedly interviewed about the same crime, and they might be exposed to misleading information between these interviews. Taking a memory test before being exposed to misinformation can ironically increase the likelihood that an eyewitness would fall prey to the misinformation effect-a finding termed Retrieval-Enhanced Suggestibility (RES). In this paper, we outline the motivation behind the original research on RES, summarize the theoretical explanations that have been used to explain this finding, and provide a review of the extant empirical findings. We then report the results of two new experiments that examined whether participants, upon being informed that they had provided inconsistent responses during the prior recall tests, could overcome the RES effect during a final recognition test in which the correct event detail and the misinformation were offered as response options. The results showed that RES persisted in this recognition test, and the level of inconsistencies shown by participants during the prior recall tests predicted their final recognition performance, such that more inconsistent witnesses were also more error-prone during the final recognition test-but this relation was stronger for misinformation-induced inconsistencies than for spontaneously-produced inconsistencies.
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The forward effect of testing occurs when testing on previously studied information facilitates subsequent learning. The present research investigated whether interim testing on initially studied materials enhances the learning of new materials in category learning and examined the metacognitive judgments of such learning. Across the 4 experiments, participants learned the painting styles of various artists, which were divided into 2 separate sections (Sections A and B). They were given an interim test or not on the studied paintings of Section A before moving on to study the paintings of different artists in Section B, and then were given a final test on Section B where participants had to transfer what they had previously learned to new exemplars of the studied artists in Section B. In all experiments, transfer performance on Section B was greater when the participants were given an interim test versus no test. The beneficial effect of interim testing was obtained when the final test was presented in cued-recall (Experiments 1 and 2) and multiple-choice (Experiments 3 and 4) formats. Experiments 3 and 4 also indicated that the forward effect of testing was not due to re-exposure to previously studied items but the testing itself. However, the metacognitive measures provided by the participants did not reflect their actual performance, suggesting that the participants were unaware about the beneficial effects of interim testing. Interim testing appears to prepare students to learn better, facilitating not only learning of specific instances but also generalization of that learning.
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Initial learning can interfere with subsequent learning (proactive interference [PI]), but recent work indicates initial testing can reduce PI. Here, we tested 2 alternative hypotheses of this effect: Does testing reduce PI by constraining retrieval to the target list, or by facilitating a postretrieval monitoring process? Participants first studied 4 lists of unrelated words. The study-only group performed a distractor task following each list, whereas the tested group recalled each list. After these initial lists, both groups studied and were tested on a final list. Replicating prior work, the tested group recalled more of the final list items and had fewer prior-list intrusions than the study-only group (i.e., initial testing reduced subsequent PI). To test the 2-alternative hypotheses, Experiment 1 used a modified recall test for the final list, whereby participants were asked to recall the final list of words and also report any items from prior lists that inadvertently came to mind. Contrary to the constrained retrieval hypothesis, initial testing did not reduce the number of prior list items that came to mind, but consistent with the postretrieval monitoring hypothesis, testing increased the likelihood that the intrusions would be correctly attributed to prior lists. Experiments 2 and 3 further tested the postretrieval monitoring hypothesis by testing the final list twice. According to the hypothesis, testing all of the lists should render prior testing nondiagnostic of list membership, thereby impairing retrieval monitoring in the test group and minimizing its ability to reduce PI. This prediction was confirmed.
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The episodic context account of retrieval-based learning proposes that retrieval enhances subsequent retention because people must think back to and reinstate a prior learning context. Three experiments directly tested this central assumption of the context account. Subjects studied word lists and then either restudied the words under intentional learning conditions or made list discrimination judgments by indicating which list each word had occurred in originally. Subjects in both conditions experienced all items for the same amount of time, but subjects in the list discrimination condition were required to retrieve details about the original episodic context in which the words had occurred. Making initial list discrimination judgments consistently enhanced subsequent free recall relative to restudying the words. Analyses of recall organization and retrieval strategies on the final test showed that retrieval practice enhanced temporal organization during final recall. Semantic encoding tasks also enhanced retention relative to restudying but did so by promoting semantic organization and semantically based retrieval strategies during final recall. The results support the episodic context account of retrieval-based learning. (PsycINFO Database Record
Article
Practicing retrieval on previously studied materials can potentiate subsequent learning of new materials. In four experiments, we investigated the influence of retention interval and lag on this test-potentiated new learning (TPNL) effect. Participants studied four word lists and either practiced retrieval, restudied, or completed math problems following Lists 1–3. Memory performance on List 4 provided an estimate of new learning. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants were tested on List 4 after either a 1 min or 25 min retention interval. In Experiments 3 and 4, participants took at 25 min break before studying List 4. A TPNL effect was observed in all experiments. To gain insight into the mechanism that may underlie TPNL, we analyzed the extent to which participants organized their recall from list to list. Relative to restudy and math, testing led to superior semantic organization across lists. Our results support a strategy change account of TPNL.
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The reactivation of a stored memory in the brain can make the memory transiently labile. During the time it takes for the memory to restabilize (reconsolidate) the memory can either be reduced by an amnesic agent or enhanced by memory enhancers. The change in memory expression is related to changes in the brain correlates of long-term memory. Many have suggested that such retrieval-induced plasticity is ideally placed to enable memories to be updated with new information. This hypothesis has been tested experimentally, with a translational perspective, by attempts to update maladaptive memories to reduce their problematic impact. We review here progress on reconsolidation updating studies, highlighting their translational exploitation and addressing recent challenges to the reconsolidation field.
Chapter
One of the functional roles posited for retrieval-induced memory malleability is that it allows memories to be updated with new information. A large body of literature from the cognitive and neurocognitive traditions has shown that retrieval can facilitate new learning. However, there is also recent evidence demonstrating that retrieval can impair new learning. Current models of episodic retrieval primarily focus on the processes and contextual updating as they relate to target retrieval. However, any account of episodic retrieval should also be able to accommodate the finding that retrieval can both facilitate and impair learning of new information presented after the retrieval attempt. A framework of episodic updating is presented that aims to synthesize these contrasting effects. In the framework, emphasis is given to the postretrieval processing phase of episodic retrieval. This phase has been characterized as involving interactive metamemory processes that monitor and control facets of the retrieval process with respect to the current goals for retrieval. This chapter ends with a discussion of the practical implications of updating after retrieval in educational practice.
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Mind wandering—a mental phenomenon characterized by the spontaneous shift of attention away from external stimulation toward self-generated thought—has been consistently shown to have a negative impact on learning, yet little is known about how to reduce or redirect the experience in educational settings. In this article, I distinguish between approaches to directing mind wandering that focus on either the detection of lapses of attention (reactive) or restructuring of the learning environment (proactive) and argue that proactive approaches avoid issues of implementation that currently limit reactive approaches. I then review emerging research on a proactive approach to reducing and redirecting mind wandering that involves interpolating lecture-based content with brief memory tests, and further elaborate on the benefits of interpolated testing in other educationally relevant contexts. I conclude by highlighting that proactive approaches to creating attentive learning environments will also need to take into account characteristics of the individual learner.