Article

The carbon footprint of active sport participants

July 2018
Sport Management Review 22(4)

DOI:10.1016/j.smr.2018.07.001

Authors:

Bielefeld University

Researchers examining carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions (carbon footprint) in sport have focused on sport events and, to a lesser extent, sport teams, but provided only average or aggregate values. The author takes the perspective of active sport participants and considers the heterogeneity of individual sport participation behavior. Using online surveys, adult active sport participants (n = 6537) in 20 different sports with main residence in Germany were asked to report their sport-travel behavior in 2015, including traveling in the context of regular (weekly) activity, sport competitions/tournaments, league games, day trips, and training camps/vacations. Annual carbon footprints were estimated using information about travel distances and transportation means. The results revealed an average annual carbon footprint of 844 kg of carbon dioxide-equivalent emissions, with individual sports producing more emissions than team/racket sports. Participants in nature sports had the highest emission levels. Regression analyses revealed that environmental consciousness significantly reduced carbon footprint in individual sports, but not in team/racket and nature sports, supporting the existence of an environmental value-action gap. Activity years, club membership, weekly exercise hours, performance level, and income were mainly positively associated with annual carbon footprint, while gender was insignificant. The findings have implications for policy makers and managers in sport associations and clubs. © 2018 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand

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Man-made global warming is impacting recreation, events, and sports. Climate change affects the viability of outdoor activities, challenging sectors such as event management and sports. Tourism seeks adaptation and resilience in the face of climate change, highlighting the need for local governments to rethink urban areas to attract tourists committed to sustainability. To address this, we explore some sustainable practices and a new and innovative concept-Nature-Based Solutions (NBS). These changes, which are critical to living in harmony with a changing climate, require innovative and sustainable efforts. Key Points • Sporting events are increasingly vulnerable to extreme weather events, requiring climate resilience planning. • Event organizers are prioritizing environmental sustainability and adopting low-carbon initiatives. • Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) offer innovative, cost-effective approaches to address climate challenges. • Collaboration and proactive measures are critical to mitigating the climate impact of leisure and sport.

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The holding of soccer events has an important impact on modern urban activities, which is conducive to the economic development, social harmony, cultural integration and regional integration of cities. However, massive energy is consumed during the event preparation and infrastructure construction, resulting in an increase in the city’s carbon emissions. For the sustainable development of cities, it is important to explore the theoretical mechanism and practical effectiveness of the relationship between soccer events and urban carbon emissions, and to adopt appropriate policy management measures to control carbon emissions of soccer events. With the development of green technology, digitalization, and public transportation, the preparation and management methods of soccer events are diversified, and the possibility of carbon reduction of the event is further increased. This paper selects 17 cities in China from 2011 to 2019 and explores the complex impact of soccer events on urban carbon emissions by using green technology innovation, digitalization level and public transportation as threshold variables. The results show that: (1) Hosting soccer events increases carbon emissions with an impact coefficient of 0.021; (2) There is a negative single-threshold effect of green innovation technology, digitalization level and public transportation on the impact of soccer events on carbon emissions, with the impact coefficients of soccer events decreasing by 0.008, 0.01 and 0.06, respectively, when the threshold variable crosses the threshold. These findings will enhance the attention of city managers to the management of carbon emissions from soccer events and provide guidance for reducing carbon emissions from soccer events through green technology innovation, digital means and optimization of public transportation.

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Comparative Analysis of Carbon Footprints from Away and Home Matches: A Study on Leading Basketball and Football Teams in Türkiye

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Does faster-than-expected climate change represent a feasible challenge or an irresolvable dilemma for the sports industry? This paper acknowledges the sports sector's environmental impact. It aims to challenge the prevailing belief in constant economic growth by proposing integrating Degrowth principles into sports to support the shift towards sustainable practices. The study presents an innovative participatory mixed-method technique that entailed backcasting and a Delphi survey involving 21 sports experts worldwide in a meaningful discussion about the strategic awareness of climate change. The discoveries emphasise the importance of (i) sharing resources and inclusive access (ii) adopting a community-centric and low-impact practices approach, in addressing climate change. The findings focus on the pressing requirement for the sports sector to take a proactive stance and could have a considerable impact on the ongoing debate about the need for a systemic overhaul of sports that draws upon the principles of ecological economics and Degrowth.

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The Impact of Football Teams’ Transportation on the Carbon Footprint for Away Matches

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Problem: Participating in professional sport involves constant travel. From a review of the literature, the issue of transport in sport (passenger transport) in generating a carbon footprint has already been noted. A reliable assessment of the scale of this phenomenon is currently underway. The aim of this article is to assess the carbon footprint of transporting football players to away matches. It is complemented by a proposal to change the way matches are played using the Sports Centre concept. Methods: A systematic literature review was carried out in the theoretical part. The research part was conducted based on EN 16258 and the centre of gravity method. The objects of this study are five selected football clubs from the Polish Ekstraklasa, and their method of travel (by coach) to away matches. Results: The use of alternative (low-carbon) modes of transport reduces GHG levels from 13 per cent (Pogoń Szczecin) to 34 per cent (Jagiellonia Białystok). An interesting solution, although not yet adapted to the current times, is the implementation of the Sports Centre concept, which allows a 48 per cent reduction in the distance travelled (81,940 kgCO2e per year). Conclusions: Football clubs can neutralise their remaining carbon footprint through investments that indirectly contribute to total carbon neutrality, such as the planting of oxygen trees or the installation of a photovoltaic system to completely neutralise the carbon footprint.

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Outdoor winter sports sit on the frontlines of climate change, with athletes subject to increasingly unsafe, unfair and non-ideal competition and training conditions as a result. With athletes’ livelihoods and the future of winter sports on the line, this research investigates if and how winter athletes use their position as public figures, celebrities and role models to challenge the hegemonic structures in sports and society driving climate change. Framed through the broad athlete-activism literature, this study used a qualitative survey of 390 elite winter-sport athletes and coaches combined with eight key stakeholder interviews to understand athlete climate activism. Results demonstrate that winter athletes’ climate action is generally low risk constituting advocacy rather than activism. Athletes express fear of being called out as hypocritical for their high-carbon sport and lifestyle, insecurity over their level of climate education and frustration with the lack of climate action from international- and national-level winter-sport organizations. Scholarly, grassroots and sport-based activism may help athletes engage more effectively in climate activism within and beyond sport.

Sport Events and Emissions Reporting: An Analysis of the Council for Responsible Sport Standard in Running Events

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The use of fossil fuels has pushed the world towards crucial ecological tipping points and a climate crisis. The rapid decarbonization of all sectors is necessary to limit the worst impacts of this. Within the sports and sport-tourism sectors, event organizers and policymakers are increasingly interested in assessing the environmental impacts of events and identifying the types of strategies needed to reduce their carbon footprint. This paper responds to calls for studies to examine and compare the environmental impacts of multiple sport events and contribute towards providing an enhanced understanding of key factors influencing the scale of those impacts. It focuses on assessing the carbon footprints of 28 mass participation running events in North America. The paper uses a methodology developed by the Council for Responsible Sport as part of its Responsible Sport Standard for Events accreditation process. The results highlight that variations existed between the events in terms of their reporting of GHG emissions. The average event generated 3363 MtCO2e (0.23 MtCO2e per capita), with Scope 3 emissions accounting for 99.9% of the total emissions, and 98.9% being attributable to participant travel. This demonstrates how the Council’s methodology can assist event organizers by providing valuable insights into the carbon footprint of their events and its potential value as an environmental management tool. The paper also discusses some of the challenges faced by event organizers in measuring the carbon footprint of their event, suggests strategies for reducing event emissions, and provides recommendations for strengthening the Council’s methodology and its contribution to global sustainability efforts.

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Zusammenfassung Koordinierende_r Leitautor_in Barbara Smetschka

Describing and optimising travel distances in amateur football and handball in Germany

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Background Humanity faces dual existential crises of biodiversity loss and global warming. Acknowledging the environmental impact of sports, the United Nations is calling on the sports sector to take the lead in fighting climate change and adopting climate-neutral practices. Research on the greenhouse gas emissions of amateur league play is evolving but to date there are few studies that have described the travel patterns for large samples of teams and explored ways to reduce travel. Methods Travel distances for the 2022/23 season were calculated for 339 amateur football and handball teams playing in different leagues in Bavaria. The program Gurobi was utilised to optimise the grouping of teams in order to reduce travel by car. Results The study showed that playing in a higher amateur league most often resulted in longer travel distances for both women’s and men’s sports. Some amateur teams had to travel up to 2,958 kilometres for one season of play. All 339 teams combined travelled a total of 474,231 km (1398.9 per team in average) for away matches in the 2022/23 season of play. Optimising the groups in which teams play can reduce total travel distances by up to 19.7% while keeping the number of games played constant. Conclusions Our findings indicate that travel distances in amateur football and handball, despite being shorter than those of professional teams, contribute significantly to carbon emissions. Due to the greater number of amateur teams and the necessity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, it is crucial to explore ways of reducing travel in amateur sports. This touches on ethical issues regarding how much travel that causes greenhouse gas emissions is justified in amateur play. Algorithm based optimisation of which teams play against each other appears to be a straightforward, cost-effective, and scalable method for reducing travel emissions in amateur sports.

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Full-text available

Jun 2024

Bu araştırmanın amacı, spor bilimleri alan yazınında çevresel sürdürülebilirlik ile ilgili yapılmış olan araştırmaların gözden geçirilmesidir. Sürdürülebilirlik kavramı birçok alanda sıklıkla ele alınan bir konudur. Spor alanında ise birçok farklı sürdürülebilirlik çeşidi olarak karşımıza çıkabilmektedir. Sürdürülebilirlik alanı olarak çevresel sürdürülebilirlik ele alınmıştır. Spor ve çevre birbirinden ayrılmayan iki parçadır. Spor çevreyi etkilemekte ve çevresel farkındalık için spor aracı olarak kullanılabilmektedir. Spor etkinlikleri çevreyi etkilemektedir. Özellikle mega etkinlikler spor turizmiyle bir araya gelerek büyük etkilere sebep olmaktadır. Çevresel olarak önemli olumlu ve olumsuz etkilere sahiptirler. Bundan dolayı spor etkinlikleri ve sürdürülebilirlik ile ilgili yapılan çalışmalar incelenmiştir. Diğer taraftan spor turizmi büyük bir endüstridir ve birçok alanda etkiye sahiptir. Spor alanında ekonomik, çevresel ve sosyal birçok olumlu veya olumsuz çıktı yaratmaktadır. Bu yüzden spor turizmi ve çevresel sürdürülebilirlik incelenmiştir. Ek olarak, sürdürülebilirliği spor alanında ilerlemesine katkıda bulunun spor kuruluşları ile ilgili çalışmalar incelenmiştir. Spor alanında çevresel sürdürülebilirlik en üst yönetimsel kurum olan Olimpiyat Komitesinin yaptığı gelişmeler, Uluslararası Federasyonların yaptığı çevresel hareketler ve diğer spor kuruluşlarının katkıda bulunduğu çevresel sürdürülebilirlik incelenmiştir. Sonuç olarak alan yazında spor ve çevresel sürdürülebilirlikle ilgili spor etkinlikleri, spor turizmi ve spor kuruluşları hakkında yapılan araştırmalar gözden geçirilmiştir.

Developing a Conceptual Model of Corporate Social Responsibility of the Chinese Super League Clubs

Article

Jun 2024

The Impact of Air Pollution on Game Outcome

Article

Apr 2024
J SPORT ECON

Although air pollution is an important practical and theoretical issue, the impact of air pollution on game outcomes has not yet been comprehensively investigated. Therefore, by using data from the Chinese Football Association Super League, this study examined the impact of the Air Quality Index and six major air pollutants on game outcomes. Results show that air pollution is negatively and significantly related to game outcomes and is heterogeneous between home teams and away teams. The results extend the knowledge of air pollution studies and sports studies and provide insights into both environmental regulations and sports markets.

Integrating climate resilience with sports, exercise, and public health expenditures on sustainable environment: Evidence from coastal regions of China

Article

Mar 2024
ENVIRON RES

Bo Li

Switzerland

Chapter

Jan 2024

Organizations in Swiss sport are increasingly confronted with the questions of their effect on sustainable development and their contribution to solving socially relevant problems. To capture the current state of the sustainability discussion in Swiss sport, interviews were conducted with representatives of the Sports Office of the city of Bern, the national sports federation Swiss Ski and the fitness and sport provider UNIK Sports. The terms sustainability and responsibility are used differently and have only recently come into focus in the organizations. At the Sports Office and at Swiss Ski, where activities are (partly) dependent on public support, the issue has a higher priority. At the commercial company UNIK, sustainability issues often raise the question of costs. Emphasis is placed primarily where the core business is located or where the organization offers scope for action. At Swiss Ski, this tends to be in ecology and at the Sports Office and UNIK in society. All the organizations agree that sustainability issues will continue to gain relevance in Swiss sport, but they see different topics in focus.

Get Active: “back to the future” with government’s latest national policy for sport and physical activity

Article

Mar 2024

Mathew Dowling

In search for climate neutrality in ice hockey: A case of carbon footprint reduction in a Finnish professional team

Article

Mar 2024
J ENVIRON MANAGE

Towards an integration of physical activity and environmental awareness: analysis of students’ activity in physical education

Article

Feb 2024

Background The need for greater attention to Environmental Education (EE) is increasing as awareness of the environmental emergency grows. However, Physical Education (PE), through its physical dimension and the diversity of activities that can take place in nature, seems to provide a favourable context for creating a sense of belonging to the environment, while actively pursuing greater human awareness of our negative impact on it. Purpose With this focus, we were interested in the behaviour of students within programmes integrating PE and EE, in outdoor activities, like orienteering. Methods A Mixed Methods Research (MMR) approach was used to analyse the activity and experiences of 6th grade students during traditional orienteering lessons and during ‘environmental’ orienteering lessons. Accelerometric measurements of movements and audio recordings via dictaphone USB keys were undertaken to assess students’ levels of physical activity (PA) in both conditions and to evidence their communications. Findings Our results show a preservation of the active dimension of the lessons since the students’ PA levels are significantly higher during the ‘environmental’ condition compared to traditional lessons. Three student profiles emerge from analyses of audio recordings, highlighting heterogeneity of concerns between orienteering content, observation of the environment and off-task discussions. Conclusions These results demonstrate the usefulness of MMR for analysing students’ physical and cognitive activity in PE lessons. Data obtained show that it is possible to integrate environmental content into PE programmes, without compromising the active characteristic of the lesson.

Striking a Balance: Physical Activity and Planetary Health

Article

Oct 2023

Research on the application and promotion of the carbon neutral concept based on the attention mechanism in football under the end-to-end architecture

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Introduction In light of escalating concerns regarding global warming and environmental pollution, the pursuit of carbon neutrality has emerged as a pivotal strategy to address climate change on a global scale. As society becomes increasingly conscious of its ecological impact, various sectors, including sports, are urged to embrace environmental responsibility. This study seeks to explore the integration of a carbon neutral framework utilizing artificial intelligence's attention mechanism within the realm of football, with the aim of contributing to football's adoption of carbon neutrality. Methods The study commences by introducing an end-to-end architectural framework capable of unifying and optimizing all facets of football to realize a comprehensive carbon-neutral objective. This architecture serves as a consolidated platform for enhancing carbon emission reduction within football pedagogical activities, fostering synergy among diverse constituents while concurrently assessing the equilibrium between carbon reduction and pedagogical effectiveness. Subsequently, attention mechanisms are leveraged to heighten the efficacy and comprehensibility of carbon-neutral strategies. The application of attention mechanisms enables the model to autonomously focus on attributes or regions closely associated with carbon neutrality objectives, thereby facilitating precision and efficacy in recommending carbon neutral strategies. By employing attention mechanisms in football, a more thorough understanding of carbon emissions' dynamics is attained, allowing for the identification of pivotal emission contributors and tailored suggestions for emission mitigation. Furthermore, the Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) method is employed to analyze football time-series data. Given football's intricate sequence of actions, the LSTM technique adeptly captures long-term dependencies, offering improved analysis and optimization of carbon emissions during football activities. Results The integrated end-to-end architectural framework offers a holistic approach to carbon-neutral football strategies. Attention mechanisms effectively enhance the focus and interpretation of carbon-neutral strategies, contributing to precise and impactful recommendations. Employing LSTM for time-series analysis aids in comprehending carbon emission dynamics, enabling the identification of efficacious carbon neutral strategies. The study underscores the potential of AI-driven attention mechanisms and LSTM in fostering carbon neutrality within football. Discussion The study's findings underscore the viability of integrating AI-driven methodologies, specifically attention mechanisms and LSTM, to promote carbon neutrality within the football domain. The end-to-end architecture serves as a foundational platform for comprehensive carbon emission reduction, offering potential for broader application in other sectors. The combination of attention mechanisms and LSTM engenders deeper insights into carbon emissions' intricate temporal dynamics, informing the development of targeted strategies for emission mitigation. The study's outcomes provide theoretical underpinnings for advancing sustainable football practices and inspire the broader adoption of carbon neutrality principles across diverse domains.

Kommunale Sportstätten und ihr Beitrag zur Erreichung der deutschen Klimaziele

Book

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Für die städtebauliche Transformation der öffentlichen Infrastruktur sowie zur Stärkung des Klima- und Umweltschutzes in Kommunen spielen auch und gerade Sportstätten eine große Rolle. Angesichts der erheblichen Investitionsrückstände, den die Kommunen auch im Bereich der Sportstätten aufweisen, geht es deshalb zum einen darum, durch geeignete Sanierungsmaßnahmen den baulichen Bestand an die aktuellen energetischen Standards anzupassen. Zum anderen stellt sich die Frage, wie Sportflächen in städtebauliche Gebiete integriert werden können, um zur Verbesserung der CO2-Bilanz von Kommunen beizutragen und gleichzeitig eine grüne und soziale Stadtentwicklung zu fördern. Bereits heute werden viele konkrete Lösungsansätze in den Kommunen realisiert. Allerdings gelingt es bisher nur unzureichend, diese beispielhaften Vorhaben möglichst flächendeckend umzusetzen und dabei auch den lokalen Eigenheiten sowie möglichen Stadt-Land-Differenzen Rechnung zu tragen. Die Studie zeigt Hemmnisse in der Förderpraxis sowie mögliche Ansätze zu ihrer Behebung auf.

Environmental Sustainability and Sports Management: A Review of Marketing Contributions and Discussion of Future Research Opportunities

Chapter

Full-text available

Sep 2023

In this research, we provide an overview of the increasing area of environmental sustainability in the sports management field and discuss future research opportunities. Through a division of topics that we consider most impactful, a selection of the research that has been implemented is presented, as well as their results and possible future directions. We conclude with a final reflection to extend and deepen sustainability studies in sport management.KeywordsEnvironmental sustainabilitySport managementMarketing

Development of a Conceptual Framework for Hybrid Car Adoption in Bangladesh

Chapter

Full-text available

Sep 2023

The major goal of green technology is to lessen the greenhouse effect and control global warming. Hence, the main idea is to come up with new inventions that do not deplete natural resources. The research, here, is attempted to examine the factors influencing consumers to purchase hybrid cars like environmentally friendlier automobiles that are gaining more popularity. Hybrid car is a vehicle that uses at least two or more power supply as to make the vehicle move. The combination of an internal combustion engine and electric motors is one of the uniqueness owned by hybrid cars. This study discusses various theoretical models and proposes a conceptual model based on those theories, especially on UTAUT2 (Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) which adapted and identified seven independent variables (performance expectancy, social influence, environmental concern, price value, hedonic motivation, facilitating conditions, and health benefit) and one dependent variable (behavioral intention to purchase) from the related literatures. Though there is huge importance or advantages of hybrid cars, there have been many people in Bangladesh till now who are not currently buying/using hybrid cars. This study is significant and rationale in environmental, marketers, and economic perspective. The expected outcome of this study will enhance new understanding on the profile of Bangladeshi consumers in purchasing hybrid cars as well as marketers, and policymakers can take opportunity to take decisions by utilizing the findings of this study.KeywordsHybrid carUTAUT2Conceptual modelBangladesh

Carbon Dioxide Emissions of Spectators’ Transportation in Collegiate Sporting Events: Comparing On-Campus and Off-Campus Stadium Locations

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Carbon dioxide (CO 2) emissions related to spectator's transportation to collegiate football events is a significant consideration in the overall carbon footprint of collegiate sporting events. Transportation mode affects CO 2 emissions per spectator and stadium location, specifically on-and off-campus locations affect the transportation mode chosen by spectators. The quantity of CO 2 emissions generated from spectators' transportation to collegiate sporting events at an on-campus university stadium is compared to off-campus stadium. The transportation modes and miles traveled by spectators were modeled with GREET 2016 to estimate CO 2 emissions. Significant differences were found between the two stadium locations regarding the spectators' choice of transportation mode and distance traveled. Implications are presented for environmental sustainability and planning.

Umwelteinstellungen und Umweltverhalten in Deutschland

Book

Full-text available

Jan 1999

Peter Preisendörfer

Das Buch dient dazu, einen Einblick in den Stand und die Entwicklung des Umweltbewußtseins und Umweltverhaltens der deutschen Bevölkerung im Verlauf der 90er Jahre zu vermitteln. Empirische Datenbasis sind die in den Jahren 1991-1998 im Auftrag des Umweltbundesamtes und des Bundesumweltministeriums durchgeführten Bevölkerungsumfragen "Umweltbewußtsein in Deutschland".

Diekmann, Andreas und Jann, Ben, 2000: Sind die empirischen Ergebnisse zum Umweltverhalten Artefakte? Ein Beitrag zum Problem der Messung von Umweltverhalten. In: Umweltpsychologie, 4, 2000: 64-75.

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2000

Andreas Diekmann

Intercollegiate Sport and the Environment: Examining Fan Engagement Based on Athletics Department Sustainability Efforts

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2014

Assessing tourism's global environmental impact 1900–2050

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2015

This paper pioneers the assessment of tourism's total global resource use, including its fossil fuel consumption, associated CO2 emissions, fresh water, land, and food use. As tourism is a dynamic growth system, characterized by rapidly increasing tourist numbers, understanding its past, current, and future contributions to global resource use is a central requirement for sustainable tourism assessments. The paper introduces the concept of resource use intensities (RUIs), which represent tourism's resource needs per unit of consumption (e.g. energy per guest night). Based on estimates of RUIs, a first assessment of tourism's global resource use and emissions is provided for the period 1900-2050, utilizing the Peeters Global Tourism Transport Model. Results indicate that the current (2010) global tourism system may require c.16,700 PJ of energy, 138 km3 of fresh water, 62,000 km2 of land, and 39.4 Mt of food, also causing emissions of 1.12 Gt CO2. Despite efforts to implement more sustainable forms of tourism, analysis indicates that tourism's overall resource consumption may grow by between 92% (water) and 189% (land use) in the period 2010-2050. To maintain the global tourism system consequently requires rapidly growing resource inputs, while the system is simultaneously becoming increasingly vulnerable to disruptions in resource flows.

Are we counting what counts? A closer look at environmental concern, pro-environmental behaviour, and carbon footprint

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2013

Three parallel lines of inquiry regarding individuals' support for the environment have developed within the environmental social sciences. These include individuals' concern for the environment, research on private sphere pro-environmental behaviour (PEB), i.e. household actions seeking to improve the environment (e.g. buying better light bulbs), and more recently, ecological and carbon footprints. Researchers have noted that the correlates of this third form of support for the environment are not necessarily the same as the predictors of the first two forms. Using Canadian survey data, this study examines the relationships among, and predictors of, all three forms. Evidence that there is not a link between private sphere PEB and household carbon footprints, and that measures of socio-economic status (education and income) have different effects on different types of support for the environment, invites a discussion of whether environmental social scientists are really counting what counts.

Recycling intentions among youth baseball spectators

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2011

In drawing from the theory of planned behaviour, the purpose of this research project was to examine factors that influence sport spectators| intentions to recycle plastic bottles. In Study 1 (n = 144 students), the authors developed and provided validity evidence for a questionnaire measuring recycling behaviour. In Study 2, data were collected from adult spectators (n = 129) who were attending a weekend-long youth baseball tournament. Results point to the importance of subjective norms and other spectators| recycling expectations. In all, the model explained 30% of the variance in recycling intentions. Implications for theory and policy development are discussed.

Environmental Behavior and Gender: An Emerging Area of Concern for Environmental Education Research

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2013
Appl Environ Educ Comm Int J

Ecofeminism suggests that women are more active than men regarding environmental issues for a variety of social, cultural, and biological reasons. In support to these arguments, women predominate within the overall grassroots of the Environmental Justice movement. However, claims have been made that environmental education theory and research are overlooking gender differences in environmentalism. Although literature research reports that women show stronger environmental concern and attitudes than men and although there has been a growing awareness of the importance of gender in the willingness to act environmentally, we argue that there has been relatively little recognition of its potential in the context of environmentally responsible behavior. Finally, we suggest that by incorporating findings about gender differences in motivation, attitudes, and behaviors, Environmental Education would be in a position to inspire women from all race and class backgrounds to engage in effective ecological and political action.

Environmental Behavior Frameworks of Sport and Recreation Undergraduate Students

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2012

This study examined the values, beliefs, and norms of undergraduate sport management and recreation administration student’s related to environmental awareness and personal actions utilizing Stern’s (2000) value-belief-norm (VBN) framework. Students ( N = 341) in sport-related programs at two universities completed the survey. Structural equation modeling found the VBN framework explained both personal and organizational environmental behavior. Values were a significant predictor of environmental beliefs. Beliefs significantly explained personal norms, but not behavior. Personal norms were the strongest indicator for proenvironmental action and predicted personal and organizational conservation behavior equally. This study extends research related to environmental behavior and provides a departure point to improve understandings of the current foundational environmental perspectives held by future sport and recreation managers.

How can we alter our carbon footprint? Estimating GHG emissions based on travel survey information

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2012

The city of Montreal has taken recent initiatives to significantly reduce overall greenhouse (GHG) emissions from the transport sector and has made large investments in alternative transportation. In particular, the city has called upon the participation of all businesses and institutions to further these goals. In light of these recent plans, this study identifies with two objectives: first, to develop a methodology for estimating GHG emissions generated by commuters to McGill University’s downtown campus; and secondly, to better understand who, how, and when each commuter to McGill generates travel-related GHG. Mode split, travel distance, age, gender and job category were uncovered by a 2011 travel survey that we conducted across the University, from which daily individual GHG emissions are estimated. Details about these trips not only reveal who the largest polluters are and where they are coming from, but also the seasonality of their emissions. These associations are then used to narrate scenarios which present alternatives to the structure of individuals’ commutes by examining the outcomes of selected shifts in travel behavior on total GHG emissions.

Division of labour and gender differences in metropolitan car use: An empirical study in Cologne, Germany

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2005
J TRANSP GEOGR

This paper suggests the need for a broader view of `gender and transport' by presenting a study of gender differences in car use for maintenance travel. Although many more women are now entering the labour force than a few decades ago, they still have to undertake the larger share of household-related work. The main objective of this paper is to assess the impact of these changing gender roles on travel patterns and in particular on car use for maintenance travel. We used the survey and trip diary data of 949 respondents living in two urban and two suburban neighbourhoods of the Cologne metropolitan area. The empirical findings suggest that labour market and maintenance activities influence car use in different directions. While parenthood reduces the odds of car use by women, it increases men's car use. Labour force participation on the other hand, especially when part-time, intensifies car use for both genders. In short, a levelling influence of paid work and a traditionalizing influence of parenthood regarding car use for maintenance travel was found.

Who emits most? Associations between socio-economic factors and UK households' home energy, transport, indirect and total CO2 emissions

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2013
ECOL ECON

Does the association between household characteristics and household CO2 emissions differ for areas such as home energy, transport and indirect emissions? This question is policy relevant because distributional implications of mitigation policies may vary depending on the area of emissions that is targeted if specific types of households are likely to have higher emissions in some areas than in others. So far, this issue has not been examined in depth in the literature on household CO2 emissions. Using a representative UK expenditure survey, this paper compares how household characteristics like income, household size, education, gender, worklessness and rural or urban location differ in their association with all three areas as well as total emissions. We find that these associations vary considerably across emission domains. In particular, whilst all types of emissions rise with income, low income, workless and elderly households are more likely to have high emissions from home energy than from other domains, suggesting that they may be less affected by carbon taxes on transport or total emissions. This demonstrates that fairness implications related to mitigation policies need to be examined for separate emission domains.

Associations of individual, household and environmental characteristics with carbon dioxide emissions from motorised passenger travel

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2013
APPL ENERG

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from motorised travel are hypothesised to be associated with individual, household, spatial and other environmental factors. Little robust evidence exists on who contributes most (and least) to travel CO2 and, in particular, the factors influencing commuting, business, shopping and social travel CO2. This paper examines whether and how demographic, socio-economic and other personal and environmental characteristics are associated with land-based passenger transport and associated CO2 emissions. Primary data were collected from 3474 adults using a newly developed survey instrument in the iConnect study in the UK. The participants reported their past-week travel activity and vehicle characteristics from which CO2 emissions were derived using an adapted travel emissions profiling method. Multivariable linear and logistic regression analyses were used to examine what characteristics predicted higher CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions from motorised travel were distributed highly unequally, with the top fifth of participants producing more than two fifth of emissions. Car travel dominated overall CO2 emissions, making up 90% of the total. The strongest independent predictors of CO2 emissions were owning at least one car, being in full-time employment and having a home-work distance of more than 10 km. Income, education and tenure were also strong univariable predictors of CO2 emissions, but seemed to be further back on the causal pathway than having a car. Male gender, late-middle age, living in a rural area and having access to a bicycle also showed significant but weaker associations with emissions production. The findings may help inform the development of climate change mitigation policies for the transport sector. Targeting individuals and households with high car ownership, focussing on providing viable alternatives to commuting by car, and supporting planning and other policies that reduce commuting distances may provide an equitable and efficient approach to meeting carbon mitigation targets.

How Tourists and Tourism Experts Perceive Climate Change and Carbon-offsetting Schemes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2004

Susanne Becken

This study was undertaken against the background of tourism as an active contributor to climate change, to explore how tourists and 'tourism experts' perceive climate change and forest carbon sinks as a means to offset carbon dioxide emissions. Three different surveys were undertaken in Australia and New Zealand that contained the same two questions: is climate change an issue for tourism, and would tourists be willing to participate in tree-planting to offset their greenhouse gas emissions. About half of all tourists questioned a link between climate change and tourism, but the willingness to plant a tree was surprisingly high among tourists (48%), who associated much broader benefits with trees than their function as carbon sinks. The study identified five groups of tourists that require different approaches for the development of educational campaigns. The degree to which cognitive or affective factors play a role for each group will be critical for the success of such campaigns. Tourism experts saw a changing climate as a potential threat for tourism, but did not necessarily see tourism's fossil fuel consumption and the resulting carbon dioxide emissions as a contributor to climate change.

A Definition of Carbon Footprint

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2008

The term 'carbon footprint' has become tremendously popular over the last few years and is now in widespread use across the media – at least in the United Kingdom. With climate change high up on the political and corporate agenda, carbon footprint calculations are in demand. Numerous approaches have been proposed to provide estimates, ranging from basic online calculators to sophisticated life-cycle-analysis or input-output based methods and tools. Despite its ubiquitous use however, there is an apparent lack of academic definitions of what exactly a 'carbon footprint' is meant to be. The scientific literature is surprisingly void of clarifications, despite the fact that countless studies in energy and ecological economics that could have claimed to measure a 'carbon footprint' have been published over decades. This commentary explores the apparent discrepancy between public and academic use of the term 'carbon footprint' and suggests a scientific definition based on commonly accepted accounting principles and modelling approaches. It addresses methodological questions such as system boundaries, completeness, comprehensiveness, units, and robustness of the indicator.

Green and Greenback: The Behavioral Effects of Environmental Attitudes in Low-Cost and High-Cost Situations

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2003
RATION SOC

The low-cost hypothesis predicts that the strength of effects of environmental concern on environmental behavior diminishes with increasing behavioral costs. Thus, environmental concern influences environmental behavior primarily in situations and under conditions connected with low costs and little inconvenience for individual actors. In a first step, we develop and specify this hypothesis. Referring to two procedures, we then test it on the basis of an environmental survey of a random sample of 2307 respondents from the German population. The empirical evidence is positive. The low-cost hypothesis is not confined to the area of environmental research. It points to general limits of attitude-research (in high-cost situations) and to general limits of rational-choice theory (in low-cost situations), and suggests a strategy for integrating research in social psychology, sociology, and economics.

Mind the Gap: Why Do People Act Environmentally and What Are the Barriers to Pro-Environmental Behavior?

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2002

Numerous theoretical frameworks have been developed to explain the gap between the possession of environmental knowledge and environmental awareness, and displaying pro-environmental behavior. Although many hundreds of studies have been undertaken, no definitive explanation has yet been found. Our article describes a few of the most influential and commonly used analytical frameworks: early US linear progression models; altruism, empathy and prosocial behavior models; and finally, sociological models. All of the models we discuss (and many of the ones we do not such as economic models, psychological models that look at behavior in general, social marketing models and that have become known as deliberative and inclusionary processes or procedures (DIPS)) have some validity in certain circumstances. This indicates that the question of what shapes pro-environmental behavior is such a complex one that it cannot be visualized through one single framework or diagram. We then analyze the factors that have been found to have some influence, positive or negative, on pro-environmental behavior such as demographic factors, external factors (e.g. institutional, economic, social and cultural) and internal factors (e.g. motivation, pro-environmental knowledge, awareness, values, attitudes, emotion, locus of control, responsibilities and priorities). Although we point out that developing a model that tries to incorporate all factors might neither be feasible nor useful, we feel that it can help illuminate this complex field. Accordingly, we propose our own model based on the work of Fliegenschnee and Schelakovsky (1998) who were influenced by Fietkau and Kessel (1981).

Targeting Consumers Who Are Willing to Pay More for Environmentally Friendly Products

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2001
J Consum Market

Concerns related to the environment are evident in the increasingly ecologically conscious marketplace. Using various statistical analyses, investigats the demographic, psychological and behavioral profiles of consumers who are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products. Finds that this segment of consumers were more likely to be females, married and with at least one child living at home. They reported that today’s ecological problems are severe, that corporations do not act responsibly toward the environment and that behaving in an ecologically favorable fashion is important and not inconvenient. They place a high importance on security and warm relationships with others, and they often consider ecological issues when making a purchase. Managerial implications for green marketers and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Carbon Footprint: Current Methods of Estimation

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2011
ENVIRON MONIT ASSESS

Increasing greenhouse gaseous concentration in the atmosphere is perturbing the environment to cause grievous global warming and associated consequences. Following the rule that only measurable is manageable, mensuration of greenhouse gas intensiveness of different products, bodies, and processes is going on worldwide, expressed as their carbon footprints. The methodologies for carbon footprint calculations are still evolving and it is emerging as an important tool for greenhouse gas management. The concept of carbon footprinting has permeated and is being commercialized in all the areas of life and economy, but there is little coherence in definitions and calculations of carbon footprints among the studies. There are disagreements in the selection of gases, and the order of emissions to be covered in footprint calculations. Standards of greenhouse gas accounting are the common resources used in footprint calculations, although there is no mandatory provision of footprint verification. Carbon footprinting is intended to be a tool to guide the relevant emission cuts and verifications, its standardization at international level are therefore necessary. Present review describes the prevailing carbon footprinting methods and raises the related issues.

Estimating willingness to pay for a cycling event using a willingness to travel approach

Article

Apr 2018
TOURISM MANAGE

This study examines the monetary value of nonmarket benefits to participants of an active sport tourism event, such as happiness and pride from participating in an event. Willingness to travel (WTT) greater distances for future events is assessed and converted into willingness to pay (WTP) estimates using travel costs. Using survey data from the 2014 and 2015 Blood Sweat Gears bike ride, the intended visitation models show that changes in travel cost have a significant negative effect. WTP to revisit the event was between

41 and

57. The likelihood of return visit decreases as travel costs increase, indicating that WTP estimates are internally valid. WTP estimates stemming from two years of data collection are stable, suggesting that they are also temporally reliable. This study demonstrated the feasibility of using stated preference WTT questions to assign a monetary value to nonmarket benefits of active sport tourists.

Carbon Footprint Analysis: Concepts, Methods, Implementation, and Case Studies (Systems Innovation Book Series)

Book

Jun 2012

The negative impacts of carbon emissions from human activities continue to dramatically reshape the environmental, political, and social landscape. These impacts coupled with cap and trade schemes iterate the importance and need to properly measure and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon Footprint Analysis: Concepts, Methods, Implementation, and Case Studies provides up-to-date technical information and practical guidance on measuring and reducing energy and GHG emissions. Presenting a comprehensive framework for carbon management, this book: Provides definitions, concepts, benefits, and background information regarding carbon footprint analyses Discusses the GHG accounting methods Outlines the general systems framework for conducting an audit Features four case studies in higher education, service, and manufacturing organizations The book includes detailed discussions of the concepts and explains how the different concepts fit together. It supplies the necessary background as well as systematic tools and procedures for organizations to measure and reduce their carbon footprints and begin to adapt to a carbon-constrained world.

Equity-based sustainability and ecocentric management: Creating more ecologically just sport organization practices

Article

Aug 2018

Recognizing the shared responsibility all entities with a vested interest in keeping the Earth habitable possess, this work proposes ways in which sport organizations can take action by incorporating ecocentric management principles within their organizational practices and thus become more ecologically just. First, by drawing upon the tenets of the systems thinking paradigm and the four levels of thinking model, the underlying beliefs and values guiding current practices within sport organizations are identified. Next, a series of propositions are offered to suggest that by adopting an equity-based perspective, recognizing the interdependent relationships between humans and the natural environment, and acknowledging the manner in which sport organizations hinder the opportunities of the natural environment to thrive, sport organizations can contribute to the health of the planet and all of its inhabitants through their own organizational practices. Additionally, sport organizations can also serve as ecologically just exemplar for organizations in other industries to emulate.

The carbon footprint of active sport tourists: an empirical analysis of skiers and boarders

Article

Apr 2017

Pamela Wicker

This study estimated the annual carbon footprint of active sport tourists caused by snow-sport-related travel in the context of day trips, vacations, training courses, and competitions in 2015. Information about individual travel behaviour, sport profile, environmental consciousness, and socio-economic characteristics was collected using a nationwide online survey of adult skiers and boarders living in Germany (n = 523). The average annual carbon footprint of snow sport tourists was 431.6 kg of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions in 2015. Boarders had a higher carbon footprint than skiers. Regression analyses revealed that income and number of snow days had a significant positive effect on annual carbon footprint, while environmental consciousness was insignificant. This finding can be explained with the value–action gap and the low-cost hypothesis, suggesting that environmental attitudes were not associated with pro-environmental behaviour in terms of a lower carbon footprint because snow-sport-related travel was perceived as a high-cost situation by respondents. Segmenting respondents by snow-sport-related travel behaviour yielded two clusters, frequent travellers (56% boarders) and occasional riders (43% skiers), which differed with regard to annual carbon footprint, club membership, number of snow days, and performance level. This study contributes to the literature on active sport tourism and carbon footprinting.

Is Going Green Worth It? Assessing Fan Engagement and Perceptions of Athletic Department Environmental Efforts

Article

Jan 2017

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which environmentally themed activities within an intercollegiate sport context impact fan engagement. A total of 557 fans responded to an online survey measuring fan connection to the athletic department, environmental values, expectations for environmental activities, event and at home environmental behaviors, perceptions of profile enhancement, and recall of environmental sponsors and major initiatives. Results found that fans expected athletic department environmental action and they help with favorable perceptions about the athletic program and university and influenced at event and home behaviors. Cluster analysis identified two clusters based on high pro-environmental and low pro-environmental perceptions. The high proenvironmental cluster was skewed female, had lower connection to the athletic program, and had higher recall of official environmental sponsors and athletic initiatives. The results provide a fundamental and foundational understanding of how environmental activities impact fan engagement and the value of such efforts.

The green waves of environmentalism in sport

Article

Jan 2016

The purpose of this paper is to provide a conceptual framework surrounding the typology of environmental sustainability efforts made within the sport industry. We draw from multiple theoretical frameworks (i.e., institutional theory, diffusion of innovation) to understand the increased similarities of environmental sustainability efforts through organizational learning as environmental sustainability efforts become more purposeful and sophisticated across the sport industry. The paper uses examples from various sport organizations and leagues to classify the efforts of sport organizations into waves of sport environmental sustainability efforts and important implications arising from them.

A new method to assess the sustainability performance of events: Application to the 2014 World Orienteering Championship

Article

Jan 2016
ENVIRON IMPACT ASSES

Athletics Department Awareness and Action Regarding the Environment: A Study of NCAA Athletics Department Sustainability Practices

Article

Jan 2012

The relationship of sport to sustainability management is relatively unknown. Despite the increasing recognition of the growing role of athletics in regard to environmental sustainability, it remains unclear what role athletics departments have with regard to environmental action and what is currently being done now. The purpose of this study is to examine American intercollegiate athletics department personnel in relation to their organization's sustainability practices, organizational strategies, and personal perspectives at National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) universities. Athletics department members (N = 97) who were most responsible for sustainability initiatives responded to a survey designed to assess awareness levels and concern for environmental issues and the strategies and practices at work in their respective athletics departments. Findings based on prioritization, planning, decision-making, and use of initiatives using frequencies and means are reported. Differences, using t tests were also compared based on BCS or non-BCS standing. Results show that although environmental concern is high, there is disconnect between concern and action perhaps due to a lack of communication between the athletics department and the general university, cost concerns, and a lack of knowledge about sustainability initiatives. Implications related to the need for better communication between the athletics department/university and improved planning and prioritization is discussed.

Analysis and Synthesis of Research on Responsible Environmental Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

Article

Jan 1987

Despite the wealth of information which exists concerning environmental behavior, it is not known which variable or variables appear to be most influential in motivating individuals to take responsible environmental action. A meta-analysis of environmental behavior research was undertaken in an attempt to determine this. An exhaustive search of the empirically based environmental behavior research conducted over the past decade yielded a substantial number of studies representative of a broad academic base. The characteristics and findings of these studies served as the data for the meta-analysis. As a result of the meta-analysis, the following variables were found to be associated with responsible environmental behavior: knowledge of issues, knowledge of action strategies, locus of control, attitudes, verbal commitment, and an individual's sense of responsibility. A model of predictors of environmental behavior is proposed.

Examining the linkages between automobile use and carbon impacts of community-based ice hockey

Article

Nov 2012

Fossil fuels used in automobiles have generated over 15% of the carbon emissions worldwide (Nascimento et al., 2009) and driving represents the human activity contributing the most to air pollution (Barkenbus, 2009; Wiederkehr, 1995). As such, the purpose of this study was to generate understandings concerning the environmental impacts of ice hockey at the community level. Specifically, interviews with parents (n = 32) of minor "rep" ice hockey players on two teams (16 parents from "A" level and 16 parents from "AAA" level) in Ontario, Canada were conducted to elicit information on automobile usage for "away" game travel. Using this information, two carbon footprint calculators were employed (CarbonZero and PlanetAir) to ascertain the carbon footprint of these hockey players. The results of the investigation show that the teams journeyed 44,036 ("A" team) and 33,477 ("AAA" team) kilometres, respectively, for "away" games and the total environmental impact of this travel was approximately 20 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). Organizational and individual behavioural initiatives, to mitigate impacts, are discussed as are future research initiatives about this important issue.

Theoretical exploration for the combination of the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints: Overview of a footprint family

Article

Jan 2014
ECOL INDIC

Over the past two decades, a continuously expanding list of footprint-style indicators has been introduced to the scientific community with the aim of raising public awareness of how humanity exerts pressures on the environment. A deeper understanding of the connections and interactions between different footprints is required in an attempt to support policy makers in the measurement and choice of environmental impact mitigation strategies. Combining a selection of footprints that address different aspects of environmental issues into an integrated system is, therefore, a natural step. This paper starts with the idea of developing a footprint family from which most important footprints can be compared and integrated. On the basis of literature review in related fields, the ecological, energy, carbon, and water footprints are employed as selected indicators to define a footprint family. A brief survey is presented to provide background information on each of the footprints with an emphasis on their main characteristics in a comparative sense; that is, the footprints differ in many aspects more than just the impacts they are addressed. This allows the four footprints to be complementarily used in assessing environmental impacts associated with natural resource use and waste discharge. We evaluate the performance of the footprint family in terms of data availability, coverage complementarity, methodological consistency, and policy relevance and propose solutions and suggestions for further improvement. The key conclusions are that the footprint family, which captures a broad spectrum of sustainability issues, is able to offer a more complete picture of environmental complexity for policy makers and, in particular, in national-level studies. The research provides new insights into the distinction between environmental impact assessment and sustainability evaluation, properly serving as a reference for multidisciplinary efforts in estimating planetary boundaries for global sustainability.

Reducing the carbon footprint of spectator and team travel at the University of British Columbia's varsity sports events

Article

Jul 2014

The carbon footprint of spectator and team travel was analyzed at small-scale varsity sports events held at the University of British Columbia. Sport management literature suggests a need for quantitative environmental impact studies of events, in particular to seek out transport footprint reduction opportunities. This study applies a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)-based approach to increase methodological rigour and transparency. We analyze travel patterns of spectators and teams and put forward several scenarios for impact reduction. Results show that UBC spectators had a smaller footprint than teams on a per person basis but a larger overall carbon footprint. Although only 4% of the spectators travelled by air, this constituted 52% of total spectator impact. We find the biggest opportunities for footprint reductions by spectators and teams alike are strategies that (a) reduce long-distance air travel, (b) increase vehicle occupancy rates, and (c) encourage low-emission travel mode choices.

Service Quality, Satisfaction, and Intent to Return in Event Sport Tourism

Article

Sep 2008

David J. Shonk

The article proposes a conceptual model of quality in event sport tourism wherein perceived quality of sport tourism (Sport Tourism Quality) is said to influence tourist satisfaction which, in turn, influences the tourist's intention to return to the place of the event and/or the event itself. Sport Tourism Quality is indicated by four primary dimensions each of which is defined by two or more subdimensions. The primary dimensions are (a) access quality (composed of access to destination, sport venue, hotel),(b) accommodation quality .... .

Environmental Consequences of Tourism Consumption at Major Events An Analysis of the UK Stages of the 2007 Tour de France

Article

Sep 2012
J Trav Res

This paper examines two related methods for estimating selected environmental effects of tourism consumption associated with major events. Monitoring and evaluation procedures for major events require that event promoters and managers understand how levered tourism consumption creates both economic and environmental effects. This process is however far from straightforward. The article focuses on the case of the UK stages of the 2007 Tour de France and describes two interrelated methods for examining environmental effects. The article shows that the methods adopted can be linked to more common economic impact assessments. With respect to the Tour de France event, the paper demonstrates that the approaches when combined provide useful information for policy makers, particularly in terms of how changes in travel behavior could significantly reduce the environmental consequences of major events.

Gender patterns in environmental consciousness among adolescents

Article

Mar 1996

This article identifies several reasons for an interest in gender patterns in environmental concern and knowledge. It then describes the different responses to environmental issues among Year 10 boys and girls in Victorian secondary schools. Although higher environmental consciousness is associ ated with higher parental education, particularly among boys, girls exhibit greater environmental responsibility than boys from the same socio-economic levels. The literature does indicate that wilderness experience contributes to greater environmental concern but the current study suggests that it is mediated by, and is less significant than, gender and socio-economic factors. The current study also suggests that if environmentally responsible behaviour is to be increased, attention should be paid to matters of gender identity and environmental attitudes as well as environmental knowledge.

Promoting Sport for All to Age-specific Target Groups: the Impact of Sport Infrastructure

Article

Jun 2009

Sport management should contribute to making sport accessible for people of all ages. Therefore, sport management research must analyse the impact of different managerial opportunities. A special focus lies on the effects of infrastructural conditions. In this paper, the impact of sport infrastructure on sport participation has been analysed using data from a population survey in the city of Stuttgart, which are related to infrastructural data. The results show that the availability of sport infrastructure, regardless of individual socio-economic conditions, influences patterns of sport activity significantly. However, the influence of certain types of sport infrastructure varies between age groups. For example, the availability of swimming pools is important during childhood and adolescence, whereas the availability of fitness centres, gymnasia and sports fields is of greater importance in young adulthood. These findings have significance for the ways in which sport managers can influence patterns of lifelong sports activity.

Explaining Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Perspective

Article

Jun 1991
Pers Soc Psychol Bull

Recent meta-analytic reviews have documented that the sexes typically differ in a variety of social behaviors, including aggression, helping, nonverbal behavior, and various aspects of inter-action in task-oriented groups. In general, these findings are consistent with a social-role theory of sex differences, which emphasizes the causal impact of gender roles-that is, of people's beliefs about the behavior that is appropriate for each sex. To move beyond the demonstration of consistency between role expectations and social behavior, meta-analyses have examined the moderators and mediators specified by this theoretical model The outcomes of these moderator and mediator analyses are illustrated from several meta-analyses of gender and social behavior. These meta-analyses thus show that quantitative reviewing is not limited to the mere summarizing of research findings; the technique also allows reviewers to examine the plausibility of theories that are relevant to these findings.

Confronting Tourism's Environmental Paradox: Transitioning for Sustainable Tourism

Article

Aug 2009
FUTURES

Tourism requires environmental resources as core ingredients and compelling backdrops for the production of tourism experiences. Paradoxically it also depends on the protection of the ecological integrity of these features for sustained competitiveness. This ‘resource paradox’ has epitomized relationships between tourism and the environment for decades. However, unprecedented reportings of the frequency, severity and persistence of adverse weather conditions; climate change; natural disasters; disease outbreaks; and various forms of environmental pollution, cumulatively highlight the urgency for more systematically managing tourism's resource paradox. This paper characterizes the industry's environmental and sustainability performance, and suggests planning and management approaches that will be needed to move it towards a more sustainable future. It uses a case study of ‘sustainability-focused’ tourism destination planning to illustrate the type of collective actions that must occur if the industry is to successfully manage tourism's challenging environmental relationships. It is argued that more collective and vision-oriented approaches to tourism industry planning are needed to address broader and more pervasive environmental and sustainability challenges.

Overcoming the ‘value‐action gap’ in environmental policy: Tensions between national policy and local experience

Article

Oct 1999
Local Environ

James Blake

This paper is concerned with debates over the implementation of sustainability objectives. In particular, it focuses on policies that address the ‘value‐action gap’ in environmental policy. Using evidence from the author's research connected with the UK Going for Green Sustainable Communities Project in Huntingdonshire, the paper highlights the tensions between national policies that are based on an ‘information deficit’ model of participation, and local research and experience that posits a more complex relationship between individuals and institutions. While this suggests the need to develop more differentiated policies based on the restructuring of socioeconomic and political institutions, the paper warns against knee‐jerk calls for more local, community or public participation which simply replace one set of generalised appeals with another. The paper concludes that greater emphasis must be placed on the negotiation of partnerships that are more sensitive to local diversity, and which involve a more equitable distribution of responsibility between different environmental stakeholders.

Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior

Article

Jan 2000

Paul C. Stern

This article develops a conceptual framework for advancing theories of environ- mentally significant individual behavior and reports on the attempts of the author's research group and others to develop such a theory. It discusses defini- tions of environmentally significant behavior; classifies the behaviors and their causes; assesses theories of environmentalism, focusing especially on value-belief-norm theory; evaluates the relationship between environmental concern and behavior; and summarizes evidence on the factors that determine environmentally significant behaviors and that can effectively alter them. The article concludes by presenting some major propositions supported by available research and some principles for guiding future research and informing the design of behavioral programs for environmental protection. Recent developments in theory and research give hope for building the under- standing needed to effectively alter human behaviors that contribute to environ- mental problems. This article develops a conceptual framework for the theory of environmentally significant individual behavior, reports on developments toward such a theory, and addresses five issues critical to building a theory that can inform efforts to promote proenvironmental behavior.

Assessing the Impact of a Major Sporting Event: The Role of Environmental Accounting

Article

Jun 2008

Calvin Jones

Government support for major sporting events is usually predicated on their assumed economic benefits. Yet there has been little parallel consideration of their potential environmental costs, at a time when the same governments are citing the importance of sustainable development. Environmental performance of major sporting events has hitherto been judged, if at all, on qualitative, activity and procedural criteria, rather than by attempting to estimate the overall impact of an event on measurable externalities. This paper examines the UK round of the 2004 World Rally Championship, using environmental accounting techniques to estimate its economic and environmental impacts on its host region.

Travel Time Spending Behaviour in Recreational Sports: An Econometric Approach with Management Implications

Article

Jul 2009

The analysis of the economic determinants of participation in sports is considered to be a promising research topic in general. Although time is a constitutive part of sports consumption, there has been only limited empirical analysis of the determinants of time investments in recreational sports. This article focuses on revealing the determinants of sports consumers’ travel time spending behaviour in recreational sports. The study is based on survey data from two studies, one in Stuttgart and the second in Cologne. By applying a Heckit model, several socio-demographic (e.g., gender, age) and involvement (e.g., frequency a sport is practised) variables influencing the sports consumers’ travel time investments are detected. Practical implications with regard to sports facility management/planning (e.g., sports facility allocation as well as closure, relocation and renovation of existing sports facilities) are discussed.

Earth Mother Myths and Other Ecofeminist Fables: How a Strategic Notion Rose and Fell

Article

Jan 2007
DEV CHANGE

Melissa Leach

The notion that women are ‘closer to nature’, naturally caring for land, water, forests and other aspects of the environment, has held powerful sway in certain development circles since the 1980s. Along with the rise in global environmental concern, ‘women, environment and development’ (WED) perspectives gained ground among many donor agencies and NGOs, complementing and sharing core assumptions with earlier-established ‘women in development’ (WID) discourses. The materialist dimensions of WED were bolstered by fables about women's natural, cultural or ideological closeness to nature grounded in varieties of ecofeminist analysis. This proved a seductive mix for agencies wishing simultaneously to promote environmental protection and WID, as well as for certain forms of feminist activism and sisterhood-construction, such as those around the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. This contribution revisits these narratives and the politics of this strategic fix in the development of international environmentalism and explores the sustained critiques of these ecofeminist fables by feminist scholars and activists from the early 1990s onwards. It provides a critical review of the approach to gender and the environment in some current donor, NGO and other policy documents, which draw little from the feminist critiques of the 1990s. The author reflects on how, and for whom, women–nature links might have practical or strategic value today.

Are sports club members big spenders?: Findings from sport specific analyses in Germany

Article

Aug 2010

This paper analyses the sport expenditures of people who are members of non-profit sports clubs (NÂ =Â 10,013) in Germany. Adult members, active in 21 sports, were asked about their sport expenditure relating to several defined categories. The results show that members spend an average of [euro]1610 per year on their chosen sport. Sport specific analyses reveal big differences in expenditure between sports, ranging from badminton ([euro]338) to equestrian ([euro]7902). According to sport-specific regression analyses, personal income, level of performance, and weekly time of participation are the main predictors of sport-specific expenditures. Compared to other studies, these results show that the financial status of members of non-profit sports clubs is very strong.

Price elasticities of demand for passenger air travel: A meta-analysis

Article

Jun 2001
J AIR TRANSP MANAG

The demand for air transport is largely determined by the spending capacity of customers. This paper aims to offer more insight into the determinants of price elasticities in the aviation sector. It seeks to identify both common and contrasting factors that influence the price elasticities, on the basis of a comparative analysis among a large number of empirical studies in this field. By means of meta-analytical methods, the relative importance of several driving forces such as distance, type of ticket and the nature of study is investigated.

Travel behaviour and environmental concern

Article

May 2000
TRANSPORT RES D-TR E

In two empirical studies, the impact of attitudes and environmental knowledge on driving distance, travel behaviour and acceptance of various traffic restrictions was investigated. The first study included the population in Lund, southern Sweden, and the second the politicians and civil servants responsible for transports and environment in the same city. Comparisons of the two samples revealed similar psychological processes, including environmental concern, hazard/efficacy perception and car affection, whereas environmental knowledge seemed to have a subordinate role. Preferences of restrictions differed somewhat between the public, and the politicians and civil servants. It is suggested that local implementation of new strategies to reduce private car driving might benefit from a better understanding of what will be accepted among the public. Further, in promoting pro-environmental travel behaviour it may be important to focus on basic attitudes, rather than to rely solely on factual information.

The carbon footprint of active sport participants

Abstract

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