Content uploaded by Gregory Perreault
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Gregory Perreault on Feb 07, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
1
Marketing Gaming for Girls:
Narrative Framing of Princess Zelda in
American and Japanese Nintendo Commercials
By Dr. Mimi Wiggins Perreault (Appalachian State University),
Dr. Gregory Perreault (Appalachian State University)
& Dr. Michael McCarty (Salisbury University)
2
It is over. That becomes clear as Link remembers the striking scene from his prior
quest in the video game The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild. Link’s sword is
stuck in the ground, he’s wounded and breathing heavily. Princess Zelda stands
behind him, hand on his shoulder, urging him to save himself—to run. But when
danger approaches, Zelda throws herself between Link and the machine and raises
her hand in front of her. The sacred power disrupts the battlefield like a bomb,
disabling all of the machines. This scene, played in part during numerous
commercials for The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, perfectly encapsulates
the imagery of Princess Zelda in the popular video game series The Legend of
Zelda. This chapter examines the presentation of Princess Zelda, as a reference
point in the presentation of women overall, in Japanese and American Nintendo
video commercials.
The Legend of Zelda franchise, a property of Nintendo Corporation, has sold
more than 82 million copies, making it one of the most popular game franchises of
all time. And making its denoted character—Princess Zelda—one of the most
iconic.1 Every Zelda video game contains a variation of this plot: Link (the game
player/protagonist/hero) sets off on a quest to rescue Princess Zelda and, with
varied degrees of help from Zelda, works save the country of Hyrule from the
antagonist Gannon, who is at time represented as a male traitor to the kingdom,
and represented as a demonic beast.
3
Nintendo
As a business, Nintendo Corporation—a video game company
headquartered in Kyoto, Japan—has always skated a fine line in gaming culture: it
has sought to position itself as an inclusive, co-ed, family friendly culture in a
media environment pushing ever more deeply into niche emphasis. Historically,
Nintendo has always had success in marshaling younger players, 18 and under.2 In
1983, Nintendo released their first video game console, the Nintendo Family
Computer, in Japan; it was named the Nintendo Entertainment System upon launch
in North America in 1985. In both cases, Nintendo was careful to keep the phrase
“video” out of the console title as a way to avoid associating it with Atari. The Atari
Video Computer System went from being a family favorite to doorstop within a few
years of launch as a result of poor quality in their games.3 As a result, Nintendo
heavily emphasized their self-developed games at launch in Japan and the United
States—such as Super Mario Bros. and the Legend of Zelda.4 As the premier
exporter of video games to the rest of the world, and also perhaps the most
“voracious and seemingly insatiable consumer of American cultural forms,” Japan
has since the 1980s been intent on creating video games for both Japanese and
American markets that have become influential and iconic in both realms.5 This
was our reasoning for examining both Japanese and American commercials. While
earlier games launched in Japan, first, and then the US, later; in the 2000s games
have launched closer to the same dates with a Japanese and English version hitting
the market at similar times.
4
The Legend of Zelda games appear almost exclusively in video games for
entertainment consoles produced by Nintendo Corporation. As stated, The Legend
of Zelda was a launch game for the original Nintendo Entertainment System in
1985 (Japan) and 1987 (US). Over the years a steady stream of Zelda games
released with each new Nintendo entertainment device: Zelda II: Adventure of Link
in 1988, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past in 1991, The Legend of Zelda:
Link’s Awakening in 1993, The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time in 1998, The
Legend of Zelda: Majora’s Mask in 2000, The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages and
The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Seasons in 2001, The Legend of Zelda: The Wind
Waker in 2002, The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords Adventures and The Legend of
Zelda: The Minish Cap in 2004, The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess in 2006,
The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword in 2011, The Legend of Zelda: Phantom
Hourglass in 2007, The Legend of Zelda: Sprit Tracks in 2009, The Legend of
Zelda: A Link Between Worlds in 2013, The Legend of Zelda: Triforce Heroes in
2017, and, most recently, The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild in 2017. In
addition other Nintendo games like Super Smash Bros. (2014) and Hyrule Warriors
(2014) feature Zelda as playable character.
Japanese and American Commercials
Gaming cultures in Japan and the United States differ, and as such have
differing advertising strategies for games in Japan and the United States.
Female role stereotyping is nearly universal in America.6 In one study,
American commercials only had a quarter of women depicted in “nonstereotypical
5
gender roles;” in Japan, by contrast, nonsterotypical roles are far more common.7
Japanese commercials largely present a “modernized” view of women, and men
and women tend to be depicted in equal proportion. That said, women are still
more likely than men to be “decorative” in Japanese commercials8 and women are
also still more likely to be depicted in “home settings rather than in occupational
and sports settings.”9 In Japanese newscasting for example, the “decorative” female
needs a male “expert” to guide her.
Link and Zelda
In 1986, video game players around the world were introduced to the
character of Princess Zelda in The Legend of Zelda. In all of the prior mentioned
games, Zelda plays different roles: an off-screen guide, a reference point, a
companion, a goal. Rescuing Zelda is frequently the aim of video games from the
Legend of Zelda series, and her rescue is often held to have symbolic value: if
Zelda is saved, the world is saved.
In many ways, Zelda appears on the surface to be quintessential of the
“frailty myth” from 1960s and 70s that dominated advertising to women and girls.10
In the 1990s this trope was challenged by women’s sports teams and a more
educated and engaged women’s political movement in the USA. In the context of
frailty women are powerless in the face of an attack and lack the strength, both
physical and intellectual to combat danger on their own. Stiffly defined gender
divisions are the norm in most analog/traditional games and in sports, but in many
6
ways video games allow the player to play in a way that creates gender
ambiguity.11
Nintendo of America has adjusted their strategy in line with the
development of the US game industry’s purchasing audience and as this myth was
challenged. In the 1980s and 1990s, video games were mainly marketed to men in
the 18-35 age range, because they were the audience with the most computer
literacy knowledge and therefore had the highest likelihood to purchase one of the
earlier Nintendo video game systems.12 More women are participating in game
culture by watching or playing games, more homes had video game consoles, 70
percent of homes had video game consoles in the year 2000.13 By examining The
Legend of Zelda commercials from 1985-2017, Zelda’s development as a character
serves as a window into the strategic communication practices to video game
audiences, specifically to women and girls in the last three decades.
While Zelda many times appears on the surface to be the quintessential
princess-in-need-of-rescue, upon further examination Zelda’s role is often much
more nuanced and central to the story. In many of the games, it is made clear that,
barring obstacles, Zelda can stand on her own.14 But the premise of Zelda games
typically revolve around obstacles that prevent Zelda from carrying out her sacred
duty to protect to realm. As such, it falls to Link—the playable character of the
series—to destroy those obstacles and help Zelda accomplish her task.
The character Zelda has been the female protagonist in a game for every
Nintendo console since 1985. This is evolution of Zelda’s character takes place 14
7
different consoles and more than 20 adventure, role-playing games. The first
Nintendo console was 8-bit and featured Zelda as a character only in the later
segments of the game, yet in the 2017 game Zelda appears throughout the
narrative. This progression of her appearance has also been mirrored in the video
games’ strategic communication approach.
While video games have always had female characters, gaming culture has
proven itself adverse, if not openly hostile to the presentation and inclusion of
women in gaming.15 The gaming community is traditionally characterized as an
“unwelcoming space for women.”16 This is in part because games have traditionally
been conceived in America as products for young males—which helps explain the
sometimes “demeaning representations of women.”17 In a content analysis of
female characters in video games from 1983 to 2014, researchers found that
females tended to be oversexualized.18 This is an odd situation given than
approximately 42 percent of women play games, according to a 2015
Entertainment Software Association study.19 Researchers suggest that more women
would be drawn to gaming if women were portrayed as strong, capable and
attractive. Games that do push boundaries in this way, have found their way to
financial as well as critical acclaim.20 That said, a few moments in gaming have
illustrated rare subversive moments where women have taken the center stage.21 A
set of popular, acclaimed games in 2013 for instance presented female protagonists
with “powerful inherent and learned skills”22 as opposed to being “cargo.”23
8
While gaming culture has had some developments in inclusivity24 girl
gamers often adopt the position of the ‘watcher’ of the game—a role which
reinforces an association between masculinity and technology.25 In one study, girl
gamers largely preferred role-playing games when given the choice, but when
listing favorite games, they largely cited “androgynous games” that were
mainstream best-sellers; hence available to “girl gamers who do not purchase their
own games.”26
Zelda’s role has changed over the course of videogame development in
game play, graphics and storyline. In earlier games, Zelda is rarely seen or heard
from. She is an object of Link’s quest and a guide. Later games include her as a
companion character. The game player can play as Zelda in games like Hyrule
Warriors and the fighting game Super Smash Bros., which includes a variety of
Nintendo characters like Mario, Princess Peach and other Legend of Zelda
characters. In the most recent game The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, Zelda
participates in the story from the beginning to the end, as her role is revealed
through memories. As Link unlocks memories Zelda participates in revealing vital
story clues to help the player move through the quest.
Nintendo Marketing
Few female game characters are as iconic as Princess Zelda from the game
that bears her name. As such, an examination into her portrayal in Nintendo
commercials from the United States and Japan could be revelatory for how women
are represented in games, interactive entertainment advertising and in culture more
9
broadly. Zelda plays a role in moving the girl from a ‘watcher’ of the game—to a
more active participant player in video games and video game culture.27
In particular, in the case of Nintendo, by exploring their presentation of an
iconic female character, Princess Zelda, we hope to gain an understanding of how
Nintendo worked to draw women into gaming while still managing to serve a
dominant gaming paradigm that has proven inhospitable to women.
Nintendo’s introduction of console games in the 1980s followed the trend of
games moving from public spaces (arcades) to private spaces (the home).28 Console
game systems can be plugged into a television and young adults in the 1980s
appreciated the convenience of being able to play games from their homes.29 From
1985-2005, games became more popular to the point where they are now
considered mainstream media with children being a driving force for video game
purchases and play. Video game consoles coupled with the access to television
made television commercials the main medium through which children would
view strategic communication and marketing content. Nintendo’s focus post-
arcade era was solely on the in-home video game console and the family gathering
around it. This is consistent with their branding from the introduction of the
Nintendo Entertainment System in 1985 and has continued through the Nintendo
Switch which launched in 2017.
Method
These commercials originally aired on television in Japan and the United
States. In all cases, they largely accompanied children’s television programs and
10
cartoons. The latest commercial campaign for The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the
Wild additionally made use of commercials on video streaming websites such as
YouTube. Researchers approached the commercials, all archived via YouTube, via
a narrative analytical framework. As such, researchers identified for each
commercial heroes, antagonists, settings, and plotlines. The research team included
a gaming and journalism scholar, a gaming and public relations scholar, and a
scholar of Japanese culture. After proposing research questions, the research team
watched the advertisements separately and through a series of discussions
identified consistencies, differences and progress over time in the video’s
presentation of Zelda. Narrative frames were then proposed until consensus was
achieved among the researchers. Finally, researchers situated the findings of the
study within narrative theory in order to assess the nature of deeper messages the
commercials convey regarding the role of women and gaming in both Japan and
America.
Research Questions
This chapter addresses three questions:
RQ1: What narrative frames are created in the portrayal of Zelda in
Nintendo television commercials for The Legend of Zelda?
RQ2: How is gaming narrated in Nintendo television commercials for the
Legend of Zelda?
RQ3: How do American commercials for The Legend of Zelda contrast with
those from Japan?
11
In examining these questions, the goal is to reveal the progression of Zelda
in advertising from 1985 to 2017, a time frame just short of 30 years and across 14
different game consoles.
Narrative Theory
Berger argues that there is nothing more powerful and central to how we
understand our world than stories, and interactive media platforms allow for a
deeper level of narrative experiences.30 This section details the nature of narrative
theory in order to demonstrate its features for a study of Princess Zelda in
commercials. Given that a commercial’s approach to storytelling is one that mixes
text and visual, narrative theory is particularly relevant given its ability to expose
latent assumptions written into both visuals and texts. “Each [narrative] is an
intertextual network, a system of other texts and values referencing other stories,”
according to Boje,31 and in a similar manner, Escalas notes that narratives adopted
in the advertising can help customers connect to brands and adopt those brands as
their own preferences.32 Hence, narratives then cross platforms like video games
and their commercials.33
In a discussion of story production, Schudson notes that humanity makes
sense of itself through the tools of narrative.34 Institutions like Nintendo construct
narratives that influence how people view certain groups, institutions and ideas.35
Gurevitch and Levy see media as “a site on which various social groups,
institutions and ideologies struggle over the definition and construction of social
reality.”36 Parsing advertising narratives about gender does not just present a picture
12
of how advertising narrates gender, but reflects the deeper cultural constructions of
gender.
One the ways that narratives make sense of humanity, Foss argues, is by
ordering the flow of experience to make sense out of actions and events.37
Exploring Nintendo’s representations of Zelda from a perspective of narrative
enables the analysis to lead what Fisher describes as “a critique, a determination of
whether or not…discourse provides a reliable, trustworthy and desirable guide to
thought and action”38 and can help to reveal foundational opinions about the
nature of reality and humanity as applied to the group in question.39 Herman and
Vervaeck note that plot-oriented narratives link events in meaningful ways40 and,
hence, media producers like Nintendo, play a substantial role in narratives in that
they observe events and develop plotlines from these related experiences.41 Most
important for this analysis, narratives bring attention to what a society sees as
reasonable and appropriate., according to Berdayes and Berdayes 42 Researchers
using narrative theory explore settings, characters, narrators, heroes, and themes—
the elements that contribute to narrative frames.
Bal argues that there is value in applying narrative theory as a tool in
depictions of gender43 in that narrative theory, as Foss explains,44 emphasizes the
degree to which human beings are storytelling animals and tend to conceptualize
the world according to heroes, villains, and plotlines. Yet while humans are
storytelling animals, humans rarely tell new stories. Bascom notes that humans
naturally tend to retell stories but in new ways and by using new mediums.45
13
Narrative theory also helps identify the degree to which media make meaning out
of events by applying culturally engrained stories to help explain what is happening
(i.e. campaign horse race coverage may be narrated as a “tortoise and the hare”
story). Applying narrative theory to this study is sensible in that finding what is
considered “the norm” will reveal by extension the ways in which women are or
are not seen as “abnormal” in gaming culture.
Narrative theory provides a useful lens for identifying the elements of society
that contribute to creating a sense of sameness. This sameness informs the
narratives of what is normal and acceptable in a society. Narrative frames order
information in a strategic manner. In theory, there are any number of stories that
could be used to communicate the quality of Legend of Zelda games. Yet in
practice, narrative frames are employed in order to better appeal to an audience. A
frame at once limits the story, leaving out elements not relevant to the story, yet
simultaneously circumscribes attention to particular elements. By identifying these
key elements, the frames then emerge from the ability to pinpoint the interaction of
these narrative elements.46
Sample
This chapter seeks to expose the narrative frames applied in the presentation
of Princess Zelda in Japanese and American Nintendo video commercials from
1985 (Nintendo’s first console launch in America) to 2017 (N=67) with the launch
of its newest console, the Nintendo Switch (the company’s most successful console
to date).47 All of the commercials for this study aired on American and Japanese
14
television, many before children’s programing and cartoons.48 Narrative is a useful
theory to apply in the exploration of gender in that by looking at narrative shared
across time, one can gain insight into that which a society finds appropriate and
acceptable.49
Narrative Frames in the Legend of Zelda Commercials
This research identified three narrative frames employed in Legend of Zelda
commercials: “Zelda as Family,” “Zelda is Mysterious,” and “Zelda as a Woman.”
These frames reveal not only advertising audience strategies but also something
about the context in which they were aired.
Zelda as Family
In the frame Zelda as Family (n=11), Princess Zelda is a well-known family
friend—in a sense, the character is representative of the role of the game in the life
of players. Zelda’s role in Nintendo commercials largely presented itself in US
commercials. Zelda is a faithful friend and companion often connected to Link
through an object, the ocarina (musical instrument) in The Ocarina of Time, or a
mirror he uses to travel between dimensions in Link to the Past. Sometimes, Zelda
is an image in memory, like in the most recent The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the
Wild. Throughout the Breath of the Wild, much Zelda’s pivotal work is revealed as
Link returns to areas of the game, which jog his memory. When his memories are
activated, Link remembers what he and Zelda accomplished on a prior adventure
through in game cut scenes. While Zelda is often the object of the quest, she is also
15
frequently present throughout the game. For instance, in The Legend of Zelda: A
Link to the Past, even though Zelda is a sage to be rescued, she also speaks to Link
throughout his quest as a guide. Similarly, in The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the
Wild, Zelda is presented to Link as a companion throughout the game through
memories of a prior quest they took together. And these roles build intertextually,
as Zelda continues to appear in game after game. Hence, she represents a part of
the family.
This frame appears most prominently in a series of Nintendo of America
commercials from 2011 that featured actor Robin Williams and his daughter,
Zelda. These commercials feature Robin and Zelda sitting close to each another on
a couch in what appears to be a private home., playing Legend of Zelda: Ocarina
of Time 3D on the Nintendo 3DS handheld. The commercials are light-hearted in
tone with the father and daughter bantering as they explain what they enjoy about
the game. Robin and Zelda both look directly to the camera and to each other.
Robin Williams describes Zelda as an “old friend” with whom there should be “no
pressure.”50 In the commercial, Zelda and Robin together tell the story of her name,
intercut with game images of Princess Zelda. Zelda describes her parents
obsessively playing the original Legend of Zelda for the Nintendo Entertainment
System while pregnant with her. Robin describes finding the princess of the original
game to have been a “magical” experience and decided Zelda would be a fitting
name.51 Zelda is pictured playing the Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time 3D and
reminiscing on playing the game as a little girl: using the male protagonist Link to
16
cut bushes and ride horses.52 In another commercial, Robin Williams is pictured
speaking sincerely toward the screen, intercut with scenes from Legend of Zelda:
Ocarina of Time 3D:
Robin Williams: “The first time I saw you. I knew we’d be linked forever. For you, I
traveled to the four corners of the world. I faced adversity. I became a hero—”
Zelda Williams: “Dad?”
Robin Williams: “—I saved your kingdom—”
Zelda Williams: “Dad?”
Robin Williams: “—Yes, Zelda?”
Zelda Williams: “Are you mixing me up with the princess again?”
Robin Williams: “Hard to say, you’re both pretty magical.”53
This set of Robin and Zelda Williams commercials humanizes the gaming
experience. Zelda is more than a product or a game character—someone valued,
treasured, and part of the family story.
Traditionally, in Zelda games, Princess Zelda does need to be rescued. Yet
in the series of Williams’ commercials that theme is only lightly implied with Robin
Williams saying “saved your kingdom.”54 In this sense, Zelda has value beyond that
cargo. Zelda is part of the quest, a fellow voyager on the journey with the game
player.
This family emphasis also falls in line with Nintendo’s traditional advertising
strategy. One researcher argues that Nintendo attempts to market to women by
suggesting that “the perfect family can be created through community play.”55 This
appears in a set of Japanese ads for the launch of The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords
17
Adventure. The ad depicts a group of adults at table, while their children all play
the game in the other room. In the first ad, a group of boys is depicted with an
inquisitive set of mothers discussing the activity in the other room. The second ad
presents a group of girls playing the game while their fathers discuss the activity.
Taken together, the ads show that Nintendo is for everyone in the family.
Finally, the commercials for the Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild from
2017 however, change the setting. In one commercial, a young man is depicted
waking up in bed, rolling over and then immediately starting to play Legend of
Zelda: Breath of the Wild on the Nintendo Switch. Then he is shown cooking at the
stovetop, alternating between stirring his food and playing Zelda. Later he is shown
at the dog park, sitting on a bench playing more Breath of the Wild. The scene
showcases Princess Zelda raising her hand to ward off enemies. The message here
is clear: the setting for gaming is everywhere and Zelda can go with you anywhere.
Nintendo employed this family-focused strategy by at the launch of the
Nintendo Wii. The “My Wii story” campaign encouraged players to share what they
like about the Wii. The majority of the submissions were from women, and some
were turned into commercials toward women which argued that play was a means
of “connecting with their families.”56
Overall, the approach of the Zelda as Family advertisements not only falls in
line with Nintendo’s traditional marketing strategies but also showcases Nintendo’s
desire to push some boundaries in gaming culture in order to reach female players.
18
Nintendo is concerned with a long-term investment in their audience and adapts
their commercials to this strategic communication approach.
Zelda is Mysterious
In the Zelda is Mysterious frame, Zelda is mysterious (n=39) in that her
identity and her objective in the game plot are both hidden. As mentioned earlier,
the developing role Zelda plays in providing Link navigation throughout the games
and her part becomes more dominant as the cross-game plot develops.
The revelation of Zelda from mysterious to active reveals this change in
mass communication and marketing. Whereas women were considered to be more
passive in game play early on, video games do not require physical activity and
therefore become an equalizer for boys and girls.
This is consistent with the narrative in the commercials, which only show a
male player or the character Link in US commercials—leaving the role of the
iconic female character shrouded in mystery. For example, in the 1996 commercial
a wispy haired 20-something man calls out “Zelda” repetitively, but the character
of Zelda never appears.57 Yet into the 2000s, her role in the games and the
advertisements becomes more active, and even serves as a companion character
for the player. Without Zelda, there would be no centrally consistent game plot. In
early games her character lacks depth and participation in the plot, but as the
commercials suggest, she becomes a more active part and indispensable to the
story plot as time moves on.
19
The shift to revealing the mystery of Zelda’s identity occurred in the
commercials of the 2000s. In the early 2000s, the commercials for Zelda begin to
show the character of Zelda either as an in-game graphic, and then in 2003 as a
shrouded woman in a tower who says as the punch line of the commercial “you
did all this…to save me?” and reveals her face.58
The revelation of her face in the commercials aligns with the revelation in
the video game plots. As the player gains knowledge of Princess Zelda, she goes
from untouchable princess to a close friend whom the player journeys with and
who directs the game’s plot. As she is revealed to be a more complex character, the
mystery is more about what she might do in the game rather than her identity.
Overall, the Zelda is Mysterious advertisements showcase a sort of gender
anxiety, as if presenting a female in a game commercial would scare away their
perceived, primarily male audience. This frame disappears in the 2000s.
Zelda as a Woman
In the Zelda as a Woman frame (n=17), Zelda’s gender identity is clearly
revealed through dress and presentation. Hence, this frame could be viewed as a
mirror image of the Zelda is Mysterious frame. Even in the earliest Japanese
commercial, Zelda’s gender is always clear, as opposed to the at-times veiled
nature of American presentation of Zelda. In the notable exception discussed
above, in the commercial for The Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker, her body is
hidden.59 The same however, cannot be said for Link—who traditionally is the one
who saves Zelda. In the earliest Japanese commercials, a young girl sporting a
20
ponytail enters a video game store and when she picks up the Zelda cartridge she
magically dons Link’s clothes. Similarly, in a Japanese commercial featuring Zelda
and Link dancing to pop music, Zelda is dressed in clearly feminine clothes
whereas Link remains gender ambiguous: a female actress but in Link’s standard
male clothing. Surely some aspect of this gender fluidity is related to the greater
level of acceptance toward gender-bending in Japanese entertainment culture. The
young girl’s companion in the early Japanese commercials, a male actor, appears
in one commercial in his “normal” nebbish male attire, but in the other in drag as
an elderly woman. The young girl even calls this variation of her companion
“Grandma” (obachan). Some of this playfulness in gender transgression
notwithstanding, the message in these Japanese commercials is clear: anyone can
be Link, and anyone can save Princess Zelda.
The same cannot be said for American commercials, which primarily used
male protagonists in the commercials and presentation of Link.60 In the earliest
American commercials, the original Legend of Zelda is advertised to hip-hop
music. In the commercial, a boy plays the game wearing a jean jacket and his hair
in crew cut. He is instructed about the game by a boy with large rimmed glasses
who is wearing a tie. In short, the commercial is framed in 1980s American context
as the cool kid and the nerd. For the purpose of this study, what is most notable is
who is excluded—women. In fact, female characters do not appear until the 2000s
with the arrival of Legend of Zelda: Wind Waker..
21
In a contrast with the early Japanese commercials that empowered young
girls to emulate Link, a Japanese commercial from the early 2000s shows a teenage
girl overwhelmed by the difficulty of the Zelda games—making mistakes in
gameplay, flinching in reaction to events on the screen, and constantly remarking
about her nervousness. The commercial in essence deploys the well-worn trope,
familiar from Japanese newscasting, of the “decorative” female with the male
“expert.”
Overall, Zelda as a Woman frame clearly displays Zelda’s gender identity.
And while this does not always equate to a positive presentation of women—as
was seen in the Japanese commercial from the 2000s—this does indicate an
increasing attempt by Nintendo to reach a female audience with their games.
Discussion: Narrating Gaming
Strategic communication practices change with the knowledge that women
have strong financial power and are purchasing and playing games. One scholar
argues that “advertisers wish to make commercials a pleasurable experience for the
intended audience. They construct the commercials in ways that reinforce the
image of sex more familiar to and comfortable for their target audience.”61 As this
image changes in culture, the image also adjusts to fit with what is expected from
the games. While the image is more consistent in Japan, it changes drastically from
1985 to 2017 in the US commercials.
The commercials become more explanatory about The Legend of Zelda
series, and increasingly humanize Zelda as the years passed. In reference to RQ 2
22
and 3, there was a remarkable narrative in the commercials in America that
progressed gaming from a niche activity to a mainstream activity. Simultaneously,
Zelda became increasingly present and significant in the advertising narrative in
America. By contrast, Japanese commercials remained more static narratively and
consistently portrayed Zelda as an active component of the game. Japanese ads
focus on Zelda as a centric character to the plot early on. The American
development occurred through a broadening conception of the audience for the
Legend of Zelda series.
In regards to RQ 2, in America, that narrative progression was largely in
relation to gender. The earliest American commercial featured the tech enthusiast
“nerd” male and the jean jacket sporting “cool” male. Women did not feature into
any appearance in gaming until the mid-2000s. The Robin and Zelda Williams
commercials in 2010 featured a family—albeit, introduced to gaming and perhaps
compelled to continue it, as a result of the father. This is indicative of a changing
conception of the audience for gaming. Early gaming in America was conceived of
as a teenage male activity and this was represented in the characters in the
commercials. Yet this characterization developed to include women and children
nearly 30 years later. In the 2017 commercials for The Legend of Zelda: Breath of
the Wild, many times, no player is shown—just gameplay from the actual game.
The implication, given that we are watching the gameplay, is that we are the
player. In a sense, anyone who views the commercial could also be a player.
23
Another aspect of the narrative that developed in American commercials
was the setting, and that changed only recently from an advertising perspective—
with the commercials for The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild. Early advertising
placed gaming as a living room activity. The commercials depict youth, alone or
with friends, in front of the living room television. This narrative is maintained even
in Robin and Zelda Williams commercials, which place the father and daughter in
a living room—despite the fact that she is playing Zelda on a portable game
console.
In regards to RQ 3, Japanese commercials showcased both genders even in
the earliest commercials, and even all ages. The earliest commercials presented a
young girl and an older man, then later a young girl and an older woman. And so
here, both genders are involved in gaming even early on. But one thing remains the
case throughout all the advertisements—the main protagonist is always young. In
short, people of all ages game, but the primary audience remains youth. In a similar
manner, in Japan, the setting was varied—even in the earliest commercials.
Japanese commercials took place at video game stores, homes, and often in school
settings and even classrooms—understandable since Japanese schoolchildren
spend much more time at school and after-school activities than their American
counterparts. In one commercial for the The Legend of Zelda: Phantom Hourglass,
a young Japanese woman is shown in a classroom moving Link around with a
stylus—it would be common for a Japanese student stay after school to wait for a
club activity or an evening cram school or juku. As such, little development took
24
place in terms of settings, perhaps suggesting that video games were imagined to be
appropriate in many different venues.
Broadly, in both Japanese and American commercials, the Nintendo
commercials placed an increasing emphasis on the gameplay itself as time passed.
While Japanese commercials always showcased more of The Legend of Zelda
gameplay than American commercials, both Nintendo of America and Nintendo of
Japan gradually emphasized the gameplay even more—showcasing the graphics
and what a player can do in the game. From an advertising perspective this makes
sense, in that the graphics of today are near movie quality in a way, which could
have scarcely been imagined in the 1980s. Furthermore, this approach would tend
to be more cost effective in that, instead of spending a great deal on a single
commercial with choreographed dance—as was the case in one Japanese
commercial—instead, they can focus on targeting specific audiences by gearing
shorter, more gameplay focused commercials toward specific audiences.
Narratively, this also is a more intimate approach to advertising in that the
commercials appear more as if they were made with the viewer in mind.
Conclusion
This chapter proposed to address three questions in its research. In RQ1, we
found three narrative frames regarding Zelda. She was portrayed as family,
mysterious, and as a woman—but the player was not always meant to identify with
her. In RQ2, we found that gaming was narrated increasingly as an activity for all
ages and in all settings. RQ3 developed the idea that while commercials in the US
25
for The Legend of Zelda contrast with those from Japan, the characterization of
gender in the Japanese ads is more consistent across time and matches the
narratives—a point at which the US ads have just now arrived.
These narratives reveal not only the focus and goals of the Nintendo brand,
but also give us information about the intended audience for their games. Certain
commercials push boundaries established by commercials for earlier games, and
like Zelda in the cross-game narrative, develop to include female players as Zelda
takes on a more visible role in the game plot. The commercials push boundaries by
abandoning the idea of a stereotypical male gamer in the early-2000s and became
more inclusive regarding gamer identity. Similarly, in the commercials Zelda’s
identity becomes clearer. While Zelda was always part of the game, her
appearance in the commercials only increased as her role in the games became
more visible. Each commercial extends the narrative slightly farther, with Zelda’s
voice and image being more present as the years progress. In fact, in the initial
Electronic Entertainment Expo trailer for The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, it
was highly speculated that the main character would actually be Zelda.62
While research shows women have watched video games from the
beginning, recent data has revealed that women are also playing games more than
ever. Strategic communicators recognize the increase in a heterogeneous video
game audience, and respond to this. Narrative theory states that humans use stories
to make meaning, and the story of Zelda is no exception. In the world of Nintendo,
the classic damsel in distress becomes an empowered and magical sage guide
26
accessible to any player who holds the controls. The narrative in the commercials
represents the game narrative, but also a narrative of culture. Women are playing
these games and therefore more likely to identify with games where they
understand and identify with the character’s narrative. A woman in control of a
game would therefore be less willing to identify with a narrative of a passive,
absent female character. The development in Nintendo’s commercials
acknowledge this, and portray post-2000 Zelda as a narrator and explorer on a
quest that Link (the game player) can join.
Narratives provide building blocks from one game to the next, but also seek
to re-establish and re-design the relationship between the game player and Princess
Zelda. Zelda is a princess at first without agency then later with agency and
initiative. This provides a platform for branding and customer brand identification,
but also spring boards the games’ narratives into the marketplace.
The roles of women in both Japanese and US cultures has progressively
been redefined. Women in Japan are more likely today than in 198663 to hold a job
and be single into their late 20s—similar to women in the US64. Single women are
also more likely to have leisure time in both countries, as women are less likely to
have children earlier in life. Perhaps Nintendo recognizes this change, or perhaps
as time has passed the game players have gotten to know Zelda better. Regardless,
she appears more in the game commercials. The shift from absent female
protagonist to active confidant is mirrored in the advertising messages.
27
While many would prefer to see this as an indicator of gender norms and
demand for female characters, it could also be a result of game platform and
graphics development. When games were 8-bit there was little room for character
development, However, as games have progressed and graphics have sharpened
there is more space and demand for character development. With each console,
the game interface progresses to allow for a more “real” depiction of all characters,
and therefore Zelda needs to be more real and have more depth.
What we can conclude from this study is that the idea of Zelda the Princess
deepens over time to give her a more dominate role in the commercials’ narratives,
which is in line with the expectations from female game players in culture, but is
also consistent with the capabilities and direction of the game narrative. Zelda is a
cultural treasure who redefines the typical idea that a princess must be rescued and
therefore reestablishes our cultural understanding of women in video games.
Nintendo provides a platform for this conversation in an interactive, family-
oriented way consistent with their strategic brand-image and marketing direction.
While the thematic examination of Zelda commercials reveals a progression
of Nintendo’s strategic communication practices to include a more universal game
player, Nintendo remains consistent in its commitment that games should be for all
people and are best enjoyed in a family setting.
28
Bibliography
"2015 Sales, Demographics, and Usage Data: Essential Facts about the Computer
and Video Game Industry." Entertainment Software Association.
http://www.theesa.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ESA-Essential-Facts-
2015.pdf (Accessed January 12, 2018).
Bal, Mieke. "Second-Person Narrative: David Reed." Looking In: The Art of
Viewing, 2001: 213-38.
Berger, Arthur Asa. Narratives in Popular Culture, Media, and Everyday Life. Sage,
1997.
Bertozzi, Elena. "'You Play Like a Girl!' Cross-Gender Competition and the Uneven
Playing Field." Convergence 14, no. 4, 2008: 473-487.
Boje, David M. Narrative methods for organizational & communication research.
Sage, 2001: 35
Bresnahan, Mary Jiang, Yasuhiro Inoue, Wen Ying Liu, and Tsukasa Nishida.
"Changing gender roles in prime-time commercials in Malaysia, Japan,
Taiwan, and the United States." Sex roles 45, no. 1-2, 2001: 130.
Brown, Peter. “Why Zelda: Breath of the Wild won’t have a female hero: no girls
allowed.” GameSpot. https://www.gamespot.com/articles/why-zelda-breath-
of-the-wild-wont-have-a-female-he/1100-6440862/ (accessed January 14,
2018).
Cauterucci, Christina.“What the US can learn from Japan’s working women.” Slate
Magazine. 8 October 2017.
(http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2015/10/08/japan_passes_u_s_in_wo
men_s_employment_rate.html. (accessed January 13, 2018).
Chess, Shira. "A 36-24-36 cerebrum: Productivity, Gender, and Video Game
Advertising." Critical Studies in Media Communication 28, no. 3 (2011):
243.
Cooper Berdayes, Linda, and Vicente Berdayes. "The Information Highway in
Contemporary Magazine Narrative." Journal of Communication 48, no. 2
(1998): 109-124.
Cote, Amanda C. "Writing “Gamers” the Gendered Construction of Gamer Identity
in Nintendo Power (1994–1999)." Games and Culture (2015): 18.
Craig, R. Stephen. "The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in
Television Commercials: A Content Analysis." Sex roles 26, no. 5 (1992):
208.
Dowling, Colette. The Frailty Myth: Redefining the Physical Potential of Women
and Girls. Random House, 2001.
Escalas, Jennifer Edson. "Narrative Processing: Building Consumer Connections to
Brands." Journal of consumer psychology 14, no. 1-2, 2004: 168-180.
Fisher, Walter R. "The Narrative Paradigm: An Elaboration." Communications
Monographs 52, no. 4,1985: 351.
Ford, John B., Patricia Kramer Voli, Earl D. Honeycutt Jr, and Susan L. Casey.
"Gender Role Portrayals in Japanese Advertising: A Magazine Content
29
Analysis." Journal of Advertising 27, no. 1, 1998: 122.
Foss, Sonja K. Narrative criticism. 1996.
Game News Official. “Why Robin Williams called his daughter Zelda?”
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcZhY_Zo-yg (accessed
January 4, 2018).
Gurevitch, Michael, and Mark R. Levy, eds. Mass Communication Review
Yearbook. Vol. 5. Sage Publications, Inc, 1985: 19
Harris, Blake. Console Wars: Sega Vs Nintendo-and the Battle that Defined a
Generation. Atlantic Books Ltd, 2014.
Herman, Luc and Bart Vervaeck. Handbook of Narrative Analysis. University of
Nebraska Press, 2005.
Ivy, Marilyn. “Formations of Mass Culture,” in Andrew Gordon, ed. Postwar Japan
as History (University of California Press, 1993), 257.
King, Geoff, and Tanya Krzywinska. Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame
Forms and Contexts. IB Tauris, 2006: 183.
Lynch, Teresa, Jessica E. Tompkins, Irene I. van Driel, and Niki Fritz. "Sexy, Strong,
and Secondary: A Content Analysis of Female Characters in Video Games
across 31 years." Journal of Communication 66, no. 4, 2016: 564-584.
Massanari, Adrienne. "# Gamergate and The Fappening: How Reddit’s Algorithm,
Governance, and Culture Support Toxic Technocultures." New Media &
Society 19, no. 3, 2017: 329-346.
Miller, Dellen. “15 Things that Zelda can do that Link can’t.” The Gamer.
https://www.thegamer.com/15-things-that-zelda-can-do-that-link-cant/
(accessed April 19, 2018)
Molina, Brett. “‘The Legend of Zelda’ launches today; check out our review.” USA
TODAY. http://content.usatoday.com/communities/gamehunters/post/2011/
11/the-legend-of-zelda-launches-today-check-out-our-
review/1#.Wlqz8EtG3EY(accessed January 12, 2018).
Morris, Chris. “Nintendo Switch sets all time sales record.”
Fortune. http://fortune.com/2018/01/04/nintendo-switch-sets-sales-
record/ (accessed January 8, 2018).
Ortner, Sherry B. "Is Female to Male as Culture?" in Women, Culture, and Society,
M.Z. L. Lampere, eds., Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1974: 67-87.
Perfectly Nintendo. “The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild (Switch, Wii U) -
Commercial.”
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w6PcsgefkZQ (accessed
January 4, 2018).; Nintendo. “Nintendo Switch Super Bowl LI
Perreault, Mildred F., Gregory Pearson Perreault, Joy Jenkins, and Ariel Morrison.
"Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A Narrative Analysis of
2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games." Games and Culture, 2016.
DOI: 1555412016679584.
Riessman, Catherine Kohler. Narrative Analysis. Vol. 30. Sage, 1993.
30
Schott, Gareth R., and Kirsty R. Horrell. "Girl Gamers and their Relationship with
the Gaming Culture." Convergence 6, no. 4, 2000: 36-53.
Schudson, Michael. "The Sociology of News Production." Media, Culture & Society
11, no. 3, 1989: 263-282.
Scolari, Carlos Alberto. "Transmedia Storytelling: Implicit Consumers, Narrative
Worlds, and Branding in Contemporary Media Production." 2009.
Sheff, David. Game over: How Nintendo Conquered the World. Vintage, 2011.
Virtual Kirby 108. “The Legend of Zelda 30th Anniversary (1986-2016): All
Commercials.”YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JMSA178PgG
U (accessed January 4, 2018).
Vogel, H. L. (2014). Entertainment Industry Economics: A Guide for Financial
Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
Williams, Dmitri. "A Brief Social History of Game Play." In DiGRA Conference.
2005.
Women in the Laborforce, Facts overtime. United State Department of Labor.
https://www.dol.gov/wb/stats/NEWSTATS/facts/women_lf.htm#three (Accessed
January 13, 2018).
Zelda Universe. “Robin Williams Zelda Commercial #1.”
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=09wBn4ux3N0(accessed
January 4, 2018).
Zelda Universe. “Robin Williams Zelda Commercial #2.”
YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vu-N0ctQgKU(accessed
January 4, 2018).
31
1 Molina, “‘The Legend of Zelda’ launches today; check out our review.”
2 Sheff, Game Over: How Nintendo Conquered the World.
3 Sheff, Game Over: How Nintendo Conquered the World.
4 Sheff, Game Over: How Nintendo Conquered the World.
5 Ivy. “Formations of Mass Culture,” 257.
6 Ortner, “Is Female to Male as Culture?,” 67-87.
7 Bresnahan, Inoue, Liu, and Nishida. "Changing Gender Roles in Prime-Time Commercials in Malaysia,
Japan, Taiwan, and the United States," 130.
8 Ford, Voli, Honeycutt & Casey. "Gender Role Portrayals in Japanese Advertising: A Magazine Content
Analysis."
9 Ford, Voli, Honeycutt & Casey, "Gender Role Portrayals in Japanese Advertising: A Magazine Content
Analysis."
10 Dowling, The frailty myth: Redefining the physical potential of women and girls
11 Bertozzi. “'You Play Like a Girl!' Cross-Gender Competition and the Uneven Playing Field,” 473-487.
12 Vogel, Entertainment industry economics: A guide for financial analysis.
13 Williams, “A Brief Social History of Game Play.” In
14 Miller, “15 Things that Zelda can do that Link can’t.”
15 Massanari, “# Gamergate and The Fappening: How Reddit’s Algorithm, Governance, and Culture
Support Toxic Technocultures.”
16 Cote, “Writing “Gamers” the Gendered Construction of Gamer Identity in Nintendo Power (1994–
1999).”
17 King & Krzywinska, Tomb Raiders and Space Invaders: Videogame Forms and Contexts.
18 Lynch, Tompkins, van Driel, & Fritz, "Sexy, Strong, and Secondary: A Content Analysis of Female
Characters in Video Games Across 31 years."
19 "2015 Sales, Demographics, and Usage Data: Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game
Industry.”
20 Perreault, Perreault, Jenkins, & Morrison, “Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A
Narrative Analysis of 2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games.”
21 Perreault, Perreault, Jenkins, & Morrison, “Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A
Narrative Analysis of 2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games.”
22 Perreault, Perreault, Jenkins, & Morrison, “Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A
Narrative Analysis of 2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games,” 15.
23 Perreault, Perreault, Jenkins, & Morrison, “Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A
Narrative Analysis of 2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games,” 14
24 Perreault, Perreault, Jenkins, & Morrison, “Depictions of Female Protagonists in Digital Games: A
Narrative Analysis of 2013 DICE Award-Winning Digital Games.”
25 Schott & Horrell, “Girl Gamers and their Relationship with the Gaming Culture.”
26 Schott & Horrell, “Girl Gamers and their Relationship with the Gaming Culture.”
27 Schott & Horrell. “Girl Gamers and their Relationship with the Gaming Culture.”
28 Williams, “A Brief Social History of Game Play.”
29 Harris, Console Wars: Sega Vs Nintendo-and the Battle that Defined a Generation.
30 Berger, Narratives in Popular Culture, Media, and Everyday Life.
31 Boje, Narrative Methods for Organizational & Communication Research.
32 Escalas, “Narrative Processing: Building Consumer Connections to Brands.”
33 Scolari. “Transmedia Storytelling: Implicit Consumers, Narrative Worlds, and Branding in
Contemporary Media Production.”.
34 Schudson, “The Sociology of News Production.”
35 Schudson, “The Sociology of News Production.”
36 Gurevitch & Levy, Mass Communication Review Yearbook, 19
37 Foss, Narrative Criticism.
38 Fisher, “The Narrative Paradigm: An Elaboration,” 351.
39 Herman & Vervaeck, Handbook of Narrative Analysis.
32
40 Herman & Vervaeck, Handbook of Narrative Analysis.
41 Riessman, Narrative Analysis
42 Berdayes & Berdayes, “The Information Highway in Contemporary Magazine Narrative.”
43 Bal, "Second-Person Narrative: David Reed."
44 Foss, Narrative Criticism.
45 Bascom, "The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives."
46 Foss, Narrative Criticism.
47 Morris. “Nintendo Switch sets all time Sales Record.”
48 Sheff, Game Over: How Nintendo Conquered the World.
49 Berdayes & Berdayes, “The Information Highway in Contemporary Magazine Narrative.”
50 Zelda Universe. “Robin Williams Zelda Commercial #2.”
51 Game News Official. “Why Robin Williams called his daughter Zelda?”
52 Game News Official. “Why Robin Williams called his daughter Zelda?”
53 Zelda Universe. “Robin Williams Zelda Commercial #1.”
54 Zelda Universe. “Robin Williams Zelda Commercial #1.”
55 Chess, “A 36-24-36 Cerebrum: Productivity, Gender, and Video Game Advertising,” 243.
56 Chess, “A 36-24-36 Cerebrum: Productivity, Gender, and Video Game Advertising,” 243.
57 Virtual Kirby 108. “The Legend of Zelda 30th Anniversary (1986-2016): All Commercials.”
58 Virtual Kirby 108. “The Legend of Zelda 30th Anniversary (1986-2016): All Commercials.”
59 Virtual Kirby 108. “The Legend of Zelda 30th Anniversary (1986-2016): All Commercials.”
60 Perfectly Nintendo. “The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild (Switch, Wii U) - Commercial.”
61 Craig, “The Effect of Television Day Part on Gender Portrayals in Television Commercials: A Content
Analysis,” 208.
62 Brown. “Why Zelda: Breath of the Wild won’t have a female hero: no girls allowed.”
63 Cauterucci.“What the US can learn from Japan’s Working Women.”
64 “Women in the Labor Force: Facts Over Time.”
