Bushmeat and fetish trade of birds in West Africa: A review

Abstract

The use of bushmeat in West Africa is widespread, and the number of people using wildlife as meat and as medicine in this region is very high. Sometimes, one species is used as ‘medicine’ by a population and as food by another, depending on the cultural tradition of the various ethnic groups. Birds are regularly used for food or traditional medicine. Even if birds account for just a small proportion of the bushmeat sold in markets, many species are hunted and traded for bushmeat. Based on a systematic review of all the literature freely available on internet, this paper analyses data about the presence of birds in bushmeat market in ten West and Central African countries. The present analysis shows that 85.3 % of traded species in Africa are present within West and Central African markets, and of these 92 % are Least Concern by IUCN red list criteria. Only 0.7 % of traded species are Critically Endangered, and all of them are birds-of-prey (Accipitriformes). Nigeria is the country with the highest number of bird species recorded in the markets (over 60 % of the species traded in all the African continent). This trend is due to the fact that Nigeria is by far the most populated African country

Full text

INTRODUCTION
In wide parts of the West and Central Africa region,
wildlife has been exploited for several factors, including
domestic consumption and ritualistic traditions (Bakarr et
al. 2001).
The list of wildlife species that are used for both con-
sumption and/or traditional medicine is long, and some-
times one species, or a part of it, can be used as ‘medicine’
by a given human population and as food by another. For
example, the primate Perodicticus potto is used in several
part of Ghana for traditional medicine purposes (Alves et
al. 2010) and in Ivory Coast (Bakarr et al. 2001), Nige-
ria and Equatorial Guinea essentially for consumption
(Petrozzi et al. 2016). In other cases, in the same area a
species is used both for consumption and for traditional
medicine, like for instance the vulture Necrosyrtes mona-
chus (Ogada & Buij 2011).
If in the rural areas bushmeat, especially small sized
animals like rodents and bats (Kamins et al. 2001), is
used for consumption as a protein sources (Brown & Wil-
liams 2003, Elliott 2006, Blaney 2008, Cawthorn & Hoff-
man 2015), in the cities it became a cultural food (Asibey
1991, Luiselli et al. 2017a), to be consumed especially in
particular occasions (e.g. marriages, etc., Fa et al. 2002a;
Luiselli et al., 2017a) and that is losing part of its tradi-
tional importance due to the ‘westernization’ of the cul-
tural characteristics of the urban middle classes, especial-
ly within the young generations (Luiselli et al. 2017b).
Hence commercial hunting changed its functions as a
link between some urban people and their origin culture
(Willcox & Nambu 2007) or religious traditions (Fa et al.
2002b, East et al. 2005, Cronin et al. 2015).
Because of the economic growth of the human popu-
lation in cities (growth estimated about 4.5-7 % per year
in the main West African cities according to World Bank
data), the demand for supplying bushmeat would also
have increased. Consequently to this increase in the bush-
meat demand, in many areas of the region there has been
a deep impact on wildlife (e.g. Njiforti 1996, Robinson et
al. 1999, Wilkie & Carpenter 1999, Redmond et al. 2006,
Mfunda & Roskaft 2010, Lindsey et al. 2013), with a very
high wildlife exploitation level. Fa et al. (2015) suggested
a wildlife harvesting average of 16,000 kg per site per
year), and a conspicuous decrease in populations of sev-
eral free-ranging animals (especially, ungulates) seems
apparent (Oates et al. 2001).
Compared to mammals, birds are clearly less exploited
for the bushmeat trade (Petrozzi et al. 2016, Luiselli et al.
2017b). However, even if birds are just a small proportion
of the bushmeat sold in markets (Fa et al. 2006, Petrozzi
et al. 2016), many species are still hunted and traded for
bushmeat. However, they are very few studies that focused
on the use of birds as bushmeat compared to mammals.
Here a preliminary analysis on the bird bushmeat data
available, and on the use of birds for both human con-
sumption and traditional medicine, is presented with focus
on West Africa. In this paper, the term ‘bushmeat’ is used
with several meanings, including consumption for food,
medicine, and for other rituals (e.g. Bakarr et al. 2001).
METHODS
This paper is based on a detailed inspection of the literature
that is available in internet. In order to obtain a suitable dataset
VIE ET MILIEU - LIFE AND ENVIRONMENT, 2018, 68 (1): 51-64
BUSHMEAT AND FETISH TRADE OF BIRDS IN WEST AFRICA:
A REVIEW
F. PETROZZI
Studio Tecnico di Ecologia Applicata Fano, Fano (Pesaro-Urbino), Italy
fapetrozzi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT. – The use of bushmeat in West Africa is widespread, and the number of people
using wildlife as meat and as medicine in this region is very high. Sometimes, one species is
used as ‘medicine’ by a population and as food by another, depending on the cultural tradition of
the various ethnic groups. Birds are regularly used for food or traditional medicine. Even if birds
account for just a small proportion of the bushmeat sold in markets, many species are hunted
and traded for bushmeat. Based on a systematic review of all the literature freely available on
internet, this paper analyses data about the presence of birds in bushmeat market in ten West and
Central African countries. The present analysis shows that 85.3 % of traded species in Africa are
present within West and Central African markets, and of these 92 % are Least Concern by IUCN
red list criteria. Only 0.7 % of traded species are Critically Endangered, and all of them are
birds-of-prey (Accipitriformes). Nigeria is the country with the highest number of bird species
recorded in the markets (over 60 % of the species traded in all the African continent). This trend
is due to the fact that Nigeria is by far the most populated African country.
BUSHMEAT
TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
WEST AFRICA
BIRDS
THREATENED SPECIES
WILDLIFE CONSUMPTION
REVIEW

52 F. PETROZZI
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
about the presence of birds in bushmeat trade, 79 papers pub-
lished in peer-reviewed journals, university dissertations and
other technical papers publicly available free on the internet
(Google Scholar and Research Gate) were examined. Criteria
for selecting a paper for further consideration was the presence
of data tables clearly identifying the species traded. Of these,
23 papers contained analyzable data about the presence of bird
specimens in the market, with the name of the species explicitly
provided (Table I).
In order to obtain the information needed, the following key-
words were searched for: Bushmeat birds; Bushmeat West Afri-
ca; Traditional medicine West Africa; and Fetish market West
Africa. The geographic region included in the review is present-
ed in Fig. 1. Data obtained covered approximately 24 years of
data (1989-2013).
Even if there could be some gaps in the information about
birds in the bushmeat trade (see discussion), the methodological
biases (e.g. high ‘invisibility’ rate of bushmeat economy: Nasi et
al. 2008) were assumed to be unaffecting the trends.
Scientific names followed IUCN 2017 Red List (http://www.
iucnredlist.org). IUCN was also followed for the red list catego-
ries of the various species in the trade.
The procedure of systematic analysis that was applied
allowed to uncover some potential taxonomical issues for the
Fig. 1. – Study area. Acronyms:
NG = Nigeria, BE = Benin;
TO = Togo; IC = Ivory Coast;
BF = Burkina Faso; CA = Cam-
eroon; MA = Mali; GH = Ghana;
EG = Equatorial Guinea;
NIG = Niger.
Country References
Benin
Adjakpa et al. 2002
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Burkina Faso
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Cameroon
Abugiche 2008
Williams et al. 2014
Tieguhong & Zwolinski 2009
Fa et al. 2005
Whytocket al. 2016
Willcox & Nambu 2007
Abugiche 2008 Buijet al. 2016
Equatorial Guinea
Fa & García Yuste 2001
Fa et al. 2000, 2002
Gill 2010
Juste et al. 1995
Kumpel 2006
Albrechtsen et al. 2007
Buij et al. 2016
Ghana
Bokhorst 2012
Abugiche 2008
Williams et al. 2014
Buij et al. 2016
Country References
Ivory Coast
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Mali
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Niger Buij et al. 2016
Nigeria
Akani et al. 2015
Atuo & O’Connell 2015
Fa et al. 2002-2005
Nikolaus 2001
Okiwelu et al. 2010
Soewu et al. 2016
Sodeinde & Soewu 1999
Bifarin et al. 2008
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Togo
Abugiche 2008
Buij et al. 2016
Williams et al. 2014
Table I. – List of the papers reporting data on the bird bushmeat trade that were used to write the present review. The country is reported
for each reference entry.

BIRDS AS BUSHMEAT 53
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
Table II. – Database used for the analysis. Acronyms: LC = Least Concern; NT = Near Threatened; VU = Vulnerable; EN = Endan-
gered; CR = Critically Endangered. NG = Nigeria, BE = Benin; TO = Togo; IC = Ivory Coast; BF = Burkina Faso; CA = Cameroon;
MA = Mali; GH = Ghana; EG = Equatorial Guinea; NIG = Niger. * Circaetus gallicus and Circaetus beaudouini are very similar and
often it is not easy to distinguish part of them in fetish market, hence in some cases specimens of those species were recorded in the
databases as Circaetus gallicus/Circaetus beaudouini.
(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
ANSERIFORMES
Anatidae Anas acuta LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Anas undulate LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Dendrocygna bicolor LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Dendrocygna viduata LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Plectropterus gambensis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Pteronetta hartlaubii LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Thalassornis leuconotus LC X X 1 X X X X X X X
APODIFORMES
Apodidae Apus afnis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Apus caffer LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
BUCEROTIFORMES
Bucerotidae Bycanistes albotibialis LC 1 X X X X 1 X X X X
Bycanistes cylindricus VU 1 1 X X X X X X X
Bycanistes stulator LC 1 X X 1 X X X X X X
Bycanistes sharpie LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Bycanistes subcylindricus LC 1 1 X X X X X X 1 X
Ceratogymna atrata LC 1 1 X X X 1 X 1 1 X
Ceratogymna elata VU 1 X X X X X X X X X
Tockus camurus LC 1 X X X X X X 1 X X
Tockus erythrorhynchus LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Tockus fasciatus LC 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X X
Tockus hartlaubi LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Tockus nasutus LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Horizocerus albocristatus LC 1 X X 1 X X X 1 X X
Horizocerus cassini LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Bucorvus abyssinicus LC 1 1 X X 1 X 1 X X X
Phoeniculidae Rhinopomastus castaneiceps LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Phoeniculus purpureus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Rhinopomastus aterrimus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Upupidae Upupa epops LC 1 X X X 1 X 1 X X X
CAPRIMULGIFORMES
Caprimulgidae Caprimulgus climacurus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Caprimulgus nigriscapularis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Macrodipteryx longipennis LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
CHARADRIIFORMES
Burhinidae Burhinus capensis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Burhinus senegalensis LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Charadriidae Charadrius alexandrinus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Vanellus albiceps LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Vanellus crassirostris LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Vanellus lugubris LC 1 1 X 1 X X X X X X
Vanellus senegallus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X

54 F. PETROZZI
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Vanellus tectus LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Glareolidae Glareola pratincola LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Pluvianus aegyptius LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Rhinoptilus chalcopterus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Jacanidae Actophilornis africanus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Scolopacidae Gallinago media NT X 1 X X X X X X X X
Lymnocryptes minimus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
CICONIIFORMES
Ciconiidae Anastomus lamelligerus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Ciconia abdimii LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Leptoptilos crumeniferus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Mycteria ibis LC X X X X 1 X X X X X
COLUMBIFORMES
Columbidae Columba guinea LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Columba uncinata LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Streptopelia capicola LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Streptopelia semitorquata LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Treron calvus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Turtur tympanistria LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Treron waalia LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Turtur afer LC 1 X X X X 1 X X X X
CORACIIFORMES
Alcedinidae Corythornis cristatus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Ceryle rudis LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Ispidina picta LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Halcyon chelicuti LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Halcyon leucocephala LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Halcyon malimbica LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Halcyon senegalensis LC 1 1 X 1 X X X X X X
Megaceryle maxima LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Coraciidae Coracias abyssinicus LC 1 1 X X 1 X X 1 X X
Coracias cyanogaster LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Coracias garrulous NT 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Coracias naevia LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Eurystomus glaucurus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Eurystomus gularis LC X X X 1 X X X X X X
Meropidae Merops albicollis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Merops malimbicus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Merops nubicus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Merops oreobates LC X X X 1 X X X X X X
Merops pusillus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
CUCULIFORMES
Cuculidae Centropus grillii LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Centropus leucogaster LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Centropus monachus LC X X X 1 X X X X X X
Centropus senegalensis LC 1 1 X X 1 X X 1 X X
Centropus superciliosus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Table II. – Continued.

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(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Ceuthmochares aereus LC 1 1 X 1 X X X X X X
Chrysococcyx caprius LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Clamator glandarius LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Clamator jacobinus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Clamator levaillantii LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Cuculus canorus LC X X X 1 X X X X X X
Cuculus clamosus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Cuculus gularis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
ACCIPITRIFORMES
Accipitridae Accipiter badius LC 1 1 X 1 1 X X X X 1
Accipiter castanilius LC X 1 X X X X X X X 1
Accipiter erythropus LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X 1
Accipiter melanoleucus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X 1
Accipiter ovampensis LC X 1 X X 1 X 1 X X X
Accipiter tachiro LC 1 1 1 X 1 1 X X 1 1
Aquila africana LC 1 1 X X X X X X X 1
Aquila rapax LC 1 1 X 1 1 X 1 X X 1
Aquila spilogaster LC X 1 X X 1 X 1 X X 1
Aquila wahlbergi LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X 1
Aviceda cuculoides LC 1 1 1 X X X X X X 1
Butastur rupennis LC 1 1 X X 1 X 1 X X 1
Buteo auguralis LC 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 X 1
Chelictinia riocourii LC 1 X X X X X X X X 1
Circaetus beaudouini VU 1 X X X X X X X X X
Circaetus cinerascens LC X 1 X X X X X X X 1
Circaetus cinerascens LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Circaetus cinereus LC 1 1 1 X 1 X X X X 1
Circaetus gallicus/Circaetus beaudouini* LC/VU X X X X 1 X X X X 1
Circus aeruginosus LC X 1 1 X 1 X 1 X X 1
Circus macrourus NT X 1 X X X X X X X 1
Circus pygargus LC X 1 X X 1 X X X X 1
Dryotriorchis spectabilis LC 1 X X X X X X X X 1
Elanus caeruleus LC 1 1 1 X 1 X X X X 1
Gypohierax angolensis LC 1 1 X X X 1 X 1 1 1
Gyps africanus EN 1 1 X X 1 1 1 X X 1
Gyps rueppellii EN 1 1 X 1 1 X 1 X X 1
Haliaeetus vocifer LC 1 1 X X X X X X 1 1
Hieraaetus pennatus LC X 1 X 1 X X X X X 1
Kaupifalco monogrammicus LC 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 X X 1
Lophaetus occipitalis LC 1 1 X X 1 X X 1 X 1
Macheiramphus alcinus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Melierax metabates LC 1 1 X 1 1 X X X X 1
Micronisus gabar LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Milvus migrans LC 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 X 1
Necrosyrtes monachus CR 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 X 1
Neophron percnopterus EN 1 1 X X X X X X X 1
Pandion haliaetus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Table II. – Continued.

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Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Pernis apivorus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Polemaetus bellicosus VU 1 X X X X 1 X X X 1
Polyboroides typus LC 1 1 1 1 1 X X X X 1
Stephanoaetus coronatus NT 1 1 1 X X 1 X 1 1 1
Terathopius ecaudatus NT 1 1 X X 1 X 1 X X X
Torgos tracheliotos EN X 1 X X 1 X 1 X X 1
Trigonoceps occipitalis CR 1 X 1 1 X X 1 X X 1
Sagittariidae Sagittarius serpentarius VU XXXXXXXXX1
FALCONIFORMES
Falconidae Falco alopex LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Falco ardosiaceus LC 1 1 X X 1 X 1 X X 1
Falco biarmicus LC 1 1 X 1 1 X 1 X X 1
Falco chicquera NT 1XXXXXXXXX
Falco cuvierii LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X 1
Falco pelegrinoides LC XXXXXXXXX1
Falco peregrinus LC X X X X X X 1 X X 1
Falco rucollis LC 1 X X X 1 X X 1 X 1
Falco subbuteo LC XXXXXXXXX1
Falco tinnunculus LC 1 1 1 X X X X 1 X 1
Numididae Agelastes niger LC X X X X X X X X 1 X
Agelastes meleagrides VU X X X X X X X 1 X X
Guttera edouardi LC XXXXX1XXXX
Guttera plumifera LC X X X X X 1 X X 1 X
Guttera pucherani LC 1 1 X X X 1 X 1 X X
Numida meleagris LC 1 1 X X 1 1 X X 1 X
Phasianidae Coturnix coturnix LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Coturnix delegorguei LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Pternistis ahantensis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Peliperdix albogularis LC X X X X 1 X X 1 X X
Peliperdix lathami LC X X X X X X X X 1 X
Pternistis bicalcaratus LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Ptilopachus petrosus LC 1 X X X X X X 1 X X
GRUIFORMES
Gruidae Balearica pavonina VU 1 1 X 1 X X X X X X
Heliornithidae Podica senegalensis LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Rallidae Zapornia avirostra LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Canirallus oculeus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Crex egregia LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Gallinula angulata LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Gallinula chloropus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Himantornis haematopus LC 1 X X X X X X X 1 X
Porphyrio alleni LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Porphyrio porphyrio LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Sarothrura pulchra LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
OTIDIFORMES
Otididae Ardeotis arabs NT 1 X X 1 X X X X X X
Table II. – Continued.

BIRDS AS BUSHMEAT 57
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(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Eupodotis melanogaster LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Eupodotis savilei LC X X X 1 X X X X X X
Eupodotis senegalensis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Neotis denhami NT 1 X X X X X X X X X
Musophagidae Corythaeola cristata LC 1 1 X X X 1 1 X 1 X
Crinifer piscator LC 1 1 1 X 1 X 1 X X X
Musophaga violacea LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Tauraco macrorhynchus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Tauraco persa LC 1 1 X X X 1 1 X X X
PASSERIFORMES
Campephagidae Coracina pectoralis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Cisticolidae Hypergerus atriceps LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Camaroptera brachyura LC X X X X X X 1 X X X
Corvidae Corvus albus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Ptilostomus afer LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Dicruridae Dicrurus adsimilis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Dicrurus atripennis LC X X X X X X 1 X X X
Estrildidae Estrilda troglodytes LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Lagonostica senegala LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Spermophaga haematina LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Hirundinidae Delichon urbicum LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Cecropis abyssinica LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Hirundo aethiopica LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Hirundo rustica LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Hirundo smithii LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Laniidae Corvinella corvina LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Lanius collaris LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Leiotrichidae Turdoides plebejus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Malaconotidae Dryoscopus gambensis LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Laniarius aethiopicus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Laniarius barbarus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Malaconotus blanchoti LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Tchagra senegalus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Chlorophoneus multicolor LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Melocichla mentalis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Monarchidae Terpsiphone ruventer LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Terpsiphone viridis LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Motacillidae Motacilla aguimp LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Motacilla ava LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Muscicapidae Cossypha albicapillus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Cossypha niveicapilla LC 1 X X 1 X X X X X X
Melaenornis edolioides LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Muscicapa striata LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Nectariniidae Cinnyris chloropygius LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Cinnyris coccinigastrus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Cinnyris cupreus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Chalcomitra senegalensis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Table II. – Continued.

58 F. PETROZZI
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(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Cinnyris superbus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Cyanomitra verticalis LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Chalcomitra adelberti LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Oriolidae Oriolus auratus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Oriolus brachyrynchus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Passer griseus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Passeridae Picathartes oreas VU 1XXXXXXXXX
Picathartidae Sporopipes frontalis LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Ploceidae Anaplectes rubriceps LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Bubalornis albirostris LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Euplectes franciscanus LC 1 1 X 1 X X X X X X
Malimbus nitens LC X 1 X X X X X 1 X X
Malimbus rubricollis LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Malimbus scutatus LC X 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Ploceus cucullatus LC 1 1 X X X X X 1 X X
Ploceus nigerrimus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Platysteira cyanea LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Platysteiridae Atimastillas avicollis LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Pycnonotidae Eurillas virens LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Pycnonotus barbatus LC 1 1 X X X X X 1 X X
Stelgidillas gracilirostris LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Nicator chloris LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Nicatoridae Hylia prasina LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Scotocercidae Cinnyricinclus leucogaster LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Sturnidae Lamprotornis chalybaeus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Lamprotornis pulcher LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Lamprotornis purpureus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Lamprotornis splendidus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Onychognathus fulgidus LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Onychognathus morio LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Turdoides plebejus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Neocossyphus poensis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Turdidae Turdus pelios LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Prionops plumatus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Va1idae Vidua macroura LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Viduidae Vidua paradisaea LC 1 X X X X X X X 1 X
PELECANIFORMES Ardea cinerea LC 1 X X 1 X X X X X X
Ardeidae Ardea goliath LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Ardea melanocephala LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Ardea purpurea LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Ardeola ralloides LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Bubulcus ibis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Butorides striata LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Egretta garzetta LC X 1 1 X 1 X X X X X
Egretta gularis LC X X 1 X X X X X X X
Calherodius leuconotus LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Ixobrychus sturmii LC 1XXXXXXXXX
Table II. – Continued.

BIRDS AS BUSHMEAT 59
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
(ORDER, Family) Species Red
List status NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Ardea intermedia LC 1 X 1 X X X X X X X
Nycticorax nycticorax LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Tigriornis leucolopha LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Pelecanus onocrotalus LC X 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Pelecanidae Pelecanus rufescens LC X 1 X X X X X X 1 X
Scopus umbretta LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Scopidae Bostrychia hagedash LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Threskiornithidae Bostrychia rara LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
PICIFORMES Campethera cailliauti LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Picidae Campethera punctuligera LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Jynx torquilla LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Dendropicos goertae LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Dendropicos pyrrhogaster LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Lybius bidentatus LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Lybiidae Gymnobucco calvus LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
Pogonornis dubius LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Pogoniulus chrysoconus LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Lybius vieilloti LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Trachylaemus purpuratus LC X X X X X X X 1 X X
PODICIPEDIFORMES
Podicipedidae Tachybaptus rucollis LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
PSITTACIFORMES LC X 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Psittacidae Agapornis pullarius LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Poicephalus gulielmi LC 1 1 X X 1 X X X X X
Poicephalus senegalus LC 1 1 X X X 1 X 1 1 X
Psittacula krameri EN 1 1 X X X X X 1 X X
Psittacus erithacus
PTEROCLIDIFORMES LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Pteroclididae Pterocles quadricinctus
STRIGIFORMES LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Strigidae Asio capensis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Bubo africanus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Bubo lacteus LC 1 X X 1 X X X X X X
Bubo poensis LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Glaucidium perlatum LC X 1 X X X X X X X X
Glaucidium tephronotum LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Otus leucotis LC X 1 X X 1 1 X X X X
Otus scops LC 1 X X X 1 X X X X X
Tytonidae Otus senegalensis LC 1 1 1 1 X X X X X X
Strix woodfordii LC 1 1 X X X X X X X X
Tyto alba
STRUTHIONIFORMES
Struthionidae Struthio camelus LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
TROGONIFORMES
Trogonidae Apaloderma narina LC 1 X X X X X X X X X
Table II. – Continued.

60 F. PETROZZI
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
considered dataset. When a record of Circaetus gallicus/Circae-
tus beaudouini was found, it was maintained as that in the data-
base because it is not easy to distinguish part of them in fetish
market (Table II) (see Buij et al. 2016). When records were
doubtful, because of the wrongly spelled scientific name and/
or of the ascertained distribution of a given species that appears
to not occur in West Africa (for instance, alien species), these
records were deleted (Petrozzi et al. 2016). For some taxa, it
was not possible to reach the identification species level, and
therefore they are merely indicated up to the genus level in the
databank (e.g. Francolinus sp., Milvus sp.). The database was
created by entering the species, the IUCN status, and the coun-
try where it was recorded (Table II).
RESULTS
Overall, and after exclusion of all data entries with
taxonomic identification up to the genus level, 302 spe-
cies were found in the West African markets (Table II).
Most of the traded species (92 %) are LC (Least Concern),
while just 7.6 % of the species traded are threatened (Near
Threatened [NT]= 8; Vulnerable [VU] = 8, Endangered
[EN] = 5, Critically Endangered [CR] = 2. Interestingly,
a single species was sold in almost all countries (9 out
of 10), and it was a CR vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus)
(Table III). In addition, out of the 22 species traded at least
in half of the countries studied, 22.7 % were EN or CR.
Over 50 % of the species censused in the markets were
sold both in Nigeria and Benin (Table IV), for a total of
207 (Nigeria) and 166 (Benin), while the species of birds
sold are less than 20 in Togo, Cameroon and Equato-
rial Guinea. Obviously, these different frequencies also
depended on the relative effort of studies by countries
performed by ornithologists. The most frequently traded
order of birds was that of Passeriformes, while the least
traded ones were Podicipediformes, Pteroclidiformes,
Struthioniformes, and Trogoniformes (Table V).
Out of 24 bird orders traded across the West African
countries, 20 were consumed in Nigeria. On the other
side, Charadriiformes and Psittaciformes were found
especially in Benin, and Accipitriformes and Falconi-
formes in Niger (Table VI).
DISCUSSION
This review is just a short synthesis of the birds exploit-
ed as bushmeat in West and Central Africa, and the quan-
titative data are so partial and scattered over space and
time that the real impact of the bushmeat trade on birds
species cannot be evaluated on the basis of the presented
data. In fact:
(i) in this analysis there are no data inherent the inter-
national trade, especially the Chinese and the Asian mar-
kets that can be for sure very relevant;
(ii) in most of the published papers, the researchers
focused on mammals, thus relatively overlooking rep-
tiles and birds specimens occurring in the market places
(Petrozzi et al. 2016);
(iii) some of the articles used in this review reported
just the species harvested/present in the markets, without
quantitative data on the numbers of individuals actually
on trade, hence it was not possible to perform any deeper
analysis;
(iv) in some countries, and in particular in the Sahel
region, the bushmeat trade was not carefully studied
because there are no open bushmeat markets and most of
the trade remains hidden (Hema et al. 2017);
(v) smaller species of bushmeat, including several spe-
cies of birds, are consumed locally by hunters and their
families (Whytock et al. 2016) and hence not traded (Fa
et al. 2001), thus creating a gap of information on the real
impact of the bushmeat harvesting on these species.
Table III. – List of the bird species that were sold in at least 5
countries of West Africa, including their red list status by IUCN
(2017). Acronyms: LC = least concern; NT = near threatened;
VU = vulnerable; EN = endangered; CR = critically endan-
gered.
Species RedList status Countries
Necrosyrtes monachus CR 9
Buteo auguralis LC 8
Milvus migrans LC 8
Accipiter tachiro LC 7
Kaupifalco monogrammicus LC 7
Stephanoaetus coronatus NT 7
Aquila rapax LC 6
Gypohierax angolensis LC 6
Gyps africanus EN 6
Gyps rueppellii EN 6
Polyboroides typus LC 6
Falco biarmicus LC 6
Ceratogymna atrata LC 5
Tockus fasciatus LC 5
Accipiter badius LC 5
Butastur rupennis LC 5
Circaetus cinereus LC 5
Circus aeruginosus LC 5
Elanus caeruleus LC 5
Lophaetus occipitalis LC 5
Melierax metabates LC 5
Trigonoceps occipitalis CR 5
Falco ardosiaceus LC 5
Falco tinnunculus LC 5
Numida meleagris LC 5
Corythaeola cristata LC 5
Crinifer piscator LC 5
Psittacula krameri LC 5

BIRDS AS BUSHMEAT 61
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
In general, the overall bird trade remains with no doubt
remarkable. Indeed, the number of bird species traded in
Africa is the largest hunted for traditional practices on any
continent (Solavan et al. 2004), with an estimated num-
ber of at least 354 species being traded (Abugiche 2008),
and 85.3 % of these being reportedly traded within West
Africa.
The present review revealed that 92 % of the traded
species in the study area were considered as Least Con-
cern (LC) by IUCN (2018) red list criteria. Therefore, the
trade seems to play a relatively minor role in the decline
of species, as even reported by Abugiche (2008) in a wider
region, and observed by Nikolaus (2001) in Nigeria. The
presence of such a few percentage of threatened species in
the whole bushmeat trade also mirrors previous evidence
collected for mammals and reptiles (Petrozzi et al. 2016).
However, five of the traded bird species were Endangered
(EN) and two Critically Endangered (CR), with four of
the five EN and both the two CR species being raptors.
This is an interesting result, as the second most frequently
traded order of birds was Accipitriformes, with 46 species
traded in all the countries of the study area (Table V). The
first bird order in trade as for the number of marketed spe-
cies was Passeriformes, but this was merely the outcome
of the relatively higher number of Passeriformes spe-
cies in the continent (59 % of the total African birds are
belonging to this group, see Abugiche 2008). If the high-
est number of diurnal raptor species were sold in Benin
and Nigeria (Buij et al. 2016), in Niger it was the highest
Table IV. – Number of bird species traded in bushmeat markets
in each country of West Africa, on the basis of the present sys-
tematic review.
Country n. of species
Nigeria 214
Benin 166
Togo 19
Ivory Coast 30
Burkina Faso 57
Cameroon 17
Mali 24
Ghana 30
Equatorial Guinea 15
Niger 46
Table V. – Number of species sold by each order in the various
countries of West Africa.
Order n. of species traded %
Anseriformes 7 2.3
Apodiformes 2 0.7
Bucerotiformes 19 6.3
Caprimulgiformes 3 1.0
Charadriiformes 14 4.6
Ciconiiformes 4 1.3
Columbiformes 8 2.6
Coraciiformes 19 6.3
Cuculiformes 13 4.3
Accipitriformes 46 15.2
Falconiformes 10 3.3
Galliformes 13 4.3
Gruiformes 11 3.6
Otidiformes 5 1.7
Musophagiformes 5 1.7
Passeriformes 73 24.2
Pelecaniformes 19 6.3
Piciformes 11 3.6
Podicipediformes 1 0.3
Psittaciformes 5 1.7
Pteroclidiformes 1 0.3
Strigiformes 11 3.6
Struthioniformes 1 0.3
Trogoniformes 1 0.3
Table VI. – Number of bird species for each order that were
recorded in bushmeat markets by country. Acronyms:
NG = Nigeria, BE = Benin; TO = Togo; IC = Ivory Coast;
BF = Burkina Faso; CA = Cameroon; MA = Mali; GH = Ghana;
EG = Equatorial Guinea; NIG = Niger.
Order NG BE TO IC BF CA MA GH EG NIG
Anseriformes 6 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Apodiformes 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bucerotiformes 18 9 1 3 5 2 2 3 2 0
Caprimulgiformes 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Charadriiformes 7 8 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0
Ciconiiformes 3 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Columbiformes 5 3 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
Coraciiformes 15 11 0 3 3 0 0 1 0 0
Cuculiformes 10 8 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 0
Accipitriformes 32 36 12 11 24 6 14 6 4 38
Falconiformes 6 5 1 1 4 0 3 2 0 8
Galliformes 7 4 0 0 3 4 0 4 4 0
Gruiformes 8 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Otidiformes 4 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Musophagiformes 5 4 1 0 1 2 3 0 1 0
Passeriformes 48 39 0 2 2 0 2 7 1 0
Pelecaniformes 13 8 2 1 3 0 0 0 1 0
Piciformes 7 6 0 0 3 0 0 3 0 0
Podicipediformes 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Psittaciformes 4 5 0 0 3 1 0 2 1 0
Pteroclidiformes 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Strigiformes 8 8 1 2 2 1 0 0 0 0
Struthioniformes 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Trogoniformes 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

62 F. PETROZZI
Vie Milieu, 2018, 68 (1)
number of species in total sold (n = 38). Accipitriformes
were also frequently sold in Nigeria, where their price is
particularly high (Nikolaus 2001). In the recent years, it
has been detected an important import of species in Nige-
ria from Chad and Burkina Faso, and this fact is probably
due to the high income for the traders (Nikolaus 2011).
Considering the two CR species (Necrosyrtes monachus
and Trigonoceps occipitalis), for both species, the trade
is considered to be one of the most important factor of
the decreasing of the populations and their vulnerability
(Thiollay 2001, 2006). In Nigeria, Necrosyrtes monach-
us is the most widely traded species of vulture (Saidu &
Buij 2013, Atuo & O’Connell 2015), and about 90 % of
all the traded vulture parts belong to this species (Bird-
Life International 2017). For this species, direct persecu-
tion, habitat change and trade, both for bushmeat and for
traditional medicine (Ogada & Buij 2011) are the most
important threats (Ogada & Buij 2011, Atuo & O’Connell
2015, BirdLife International 2017). Concerning the other
CR species (i.e. Trigonoceps occipitalis), the decrease in
abundance of its prey (medium-sized mammals) and hab-
itat conversion, together with direct persecution and use
for bushmeat and traditional medicine, were considered
to negatively affect the species (BirdLife International
2016).
Considering all bird species, Nigeria was the country
where the highest number of species was traded (n = 214),
for a total of 70 % of the species traded in the study area,
and 60.45 % of the species traded in all the African con-
tinent. The second country was Benin (n = 166), with a
total of 55 % of the traded species in the study area and
47 % of the species traded in the continent. Concern-
ing Nigeria, this trend mirrors the fact that Nigeria also
leads bushmeat consumption in general (Nikolaus 2011),
including also the traditional medicine market (Abugiche
2008), essentially because this country is also by far the
most populated African country and one of the economi-
cally wealthier of the continent.
In conclusion, about 95 % of the species recorded on
trade are LC or NT, thus suggesting that currently the
harvest of the majority of the traded birds in West Africa
would be tolerable. Moreover, the new social trends (Lui-
selli et al. 2017b) could decrease the bushmeat harvesting
in the next decades, thus positively affecting wildlife (and
birds) conservation. In fact, in five countries of the study
area, interviews of local persons, both in rural and urban
areas, showed that young people dislike bushmeat, and
that they use to eat it just occasionally during particular
family events (Luiselli et al. 2017b). This is particularly
true in Nigeria (country where there has been the highest
number of bird species on trade, n = 214), where in urban
areas eating bushmeat for young people may result in a
loss of ‘personal prestige’ within their circle of friends
(Luiselli et al. 2017b). Hence we could hypothesize
that, in the next decades, the bushmeat harvesting could
become lower than today due to a potential drop on trade
demand.
On the other hand, because of the unsustainable trend
of land use change, human activities change, deforesta-
tion, habitat destruction, and use of chemicals in agricul-
ture, the conservation status of many bird species may
become more uncertain and may include as threatened
additional species that are nowadays neither CR, EN or
VU.
Acknowledgments. - I wish to thanks Dr F Di Vincenzo for
the help in finding some crucial data, and two anonymous refer-
ees for very helpful comments on the submitted draft.
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Received on June 12, 2017
Accepted July 13, 2017