No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Teaching English in a Multilingual Classroom: Addressing Challenges Through Teacher Education and Development
Abstract
As many societies evolve into multicultural entities consideration needs to be given to the challenges and opportunities associated with teaching English within a multilingual context. By means of a study conducted at a primary school in Malta, this article discusses the beliefs and experiences of a group of teachers adapting to a new classroom reality. It shows how they endeavoured to surmount a number of difficulties with minimal support from outside the school. This article underscores the role that effective teacher education and development can play in assisting such practitioners.
The research field of multilingualism in education has grown exponentially over the last two decades, with more and more studies published every year on the need for teachers to validate the whole linguistic repertoire of their students and help them draw on their multilingualism as a resource. What has, conversely, not been accorded sufficient attention by researchers is the multilingualism of the teachers tasked with realising this. This oversight, as it were, raises ethical issues for researchers that go beyond macro ethical considerations like the need to ensure participant anonymity, their protection from harm, and data confidentiality. Education is itself a complex, ethical enterprise, where engagement with teachers and students requires greater faithfulness, exactitude, and respect on the part of researchers. The need for such engagement, from an ethical standpoint, has been magnified as governments globally implement multilingual initiatives in schools and universities that encourage teachers to harness the growing linguistic and cultural diversity that surrounds them (and of which they are a part). Based on a systematic review of 59 published works between 2016 and 2021, this article discusses the importance of adopting a fidelity‐to‐participants approach when researching multilingual language teachers. Such an approach has been missing from most studies, yet it would benefit researchers and their participants, as well as policymakers and educators in several ways.
Many educational institutions offer second- or foreign-language (L2) programmes that give students many more hours of contact with the target language than is typical of foreign-language instruction in schools around the world. This article compares some of the instructional approaches developed for both second- and foreign-language learners at the primary and secondary school levels. The approaches are compared in terms of several characteristics, including goals and outcomes. The review suggests that, even when more time is available, it is important to provide learning opportunities that focus on both meaningful language use and the vocabulary and structure of the language itself. In addition, the research shows that supporting students' knowledge of their first language (L1) can contribute to their long-term academic and L2 success.
Many policy-makers are in favor of Content Language and Integrated Learning (CLIL) for this approach integrates both language and content. In Indonesia, CLIL is locally known as English as a medium of instruction (EMI) where content subjects are taught in English. This present study presents the results of implementing an EMI policy in a large college in Indonesia, a semester after the start of the implementation. The main objectives of the study were to seek the views of both the students and teachers regarding the use of EMI. Questionnaires, classroom observations, and interviews were used as the research instruments. The findings suggest that both students and teachers acknowledge the important role of English in the world. However, both reported a host of problems with the implementation of EMI. In this paper, I would also suggest ways to deal with these from both institutional and curricular perspectives.
In Lightbown (1985a), I summarized SLA research by stating ten generalizations which were consistent with the research to that date. I concluded that SLA research could not serve as the basis for telling teachers what to teach or how. One of the reasons for that was the limited scope of SLA research at that time. Another reason was that most of the research had not been designed to answer pedagogical questions. However, I suggested that SLA research was one important source of information which would help teachers set appropriate expectations for themselves and their students. In this paper, following a review of language teaching practices of the past fifty years, I reassess the ten generalizations in light of the considerable amount of classroom-based SLA. research which has been carried out since 1985, especially that which has addressed pedagogical concerns in primary and secondary school foreign and. second language classes. For the most part, this research tends to add further support to the generalizations, and this gives them greater pedagogical relevance. Nevertheless, I argue that teachers need to continue to draw on many other kinds of knowledge and experience in determining the teaching practices which are appropriate for their classrooms.
This paper is focused on the ways in which social policy and social concerns have impacted upon and shaped provision for students who consider English as an additional language (EAL). It provides an overview of practice and provision in relation to EAL learners in the context of state-funded education in England over the last 60 years in order to highlight common patterns and similarities in approaches as well as to draw attention to some of the implications of these patterns or policy tendencies on classroom practice and provision. The past six decades is a period in which important changes have occurred at all levels of English society in terms of its ethnic and cultural composition as well as educational organisation, provision and classroom practice. Against this historical backdrop, the paper highlights what we can learn from past policy in addition to how it may inform where we might be heading next.
Content-based language instruction and form-focused instruction (FFI) have been investigated extensively in the context of English as a second language. However, there has not been much research concerning FFI in the context of English as a foreign language. The study described here explores the effect of integrated and isolated FFI on the vocabulary, grammar, and writing development of foreign language learners in two separate classes at the primary level in Turkey. It also investigates students’ attitudes towards integrated and isolated FFI. Findings suggest that the students receiving integrated FFI performed better than students receiving isolated FFI in all measures. In addition, the students expressed a preference for integrated FFI.
English as a second language (ESL) is taught in Australia to adult learners of mixed language backgrounds through the medium of English, and there is currently no requirement that ESL teachers speak another language. This paper reports on a study which asked what advantages there may be for ESL teachers to have proficiency in two or more languages. Data were gathered from semi-structured interviews and language biographies to explore the connection between the language backgrounds of multilingual and monolingual teachers of ESL, and their knowledge and beliefs about language learning. Theoretical constructs from the field of teacher cognition are used to argue that teachers' own language learning experience is a resource which is a powerful contributor to their conceptions of language, language use and language learning. The more multilingual the teacher, and the more varied his or her learning experiences, the richer this resource appears to be.
Purpose
This paper aims to explore the beliefs and experiences of a group of teachers endeavouring to enhance their students’ learning of English while adapting to a multicultural classroom reality.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper is based on the results of a case study involving a number of semi-structured interviews.
Findings
The paper illustrates how the teachers and their learners adopted a number of strategies to make the most of the opportunities of learning English within a multilingual context.
Originality/value
This paper underscores the role that language-in-education policies can play in enhancing the teaching and learning of English in a multicultural classroom.
In this Afterword, I offer reflections on the five articles in this special issue. I begin by highlighting the ways in which the research presented here builds on the theoretical advances that have been made in the field of multilingual classroom interaction, due to the close imbrication of critical ethnography and discourse analytic approaches. I focus, in particular, on the kinds of insights that accrue from research which aims to capture multiple layers of language-policy-making and the agentive ways in which teachers and learners open up spaces for the use of different languages. Then, considering future directions for research in this field, I argue that greater attention needs to be given to the multimodal nature of meaning-making in classrooms. I also call for a re-balancing of our gaze, as researchers, so as to focus more on learners and to take account of their aspirations and their experiences in multilingual classrooms. In concluding, I emphasise the need to view learners’ home and community languages as resources, so as to counter the monolingualising goals of most of the educational provision in multilingual contexts. I also emphasise the need for support for teachers who espouse a resource orientation, through locally appropriate professional-development programmes.
Preparing early childhood educators to support effective instruction of English language learners (ELLs) is an important dimension of teacher preparation programs, yet often difficult to enact. This article reports on a collaboration between early childhood education (ECE) faculty and teachers of English to speakers of other languages (TESOL) faculty at an urban teacher preparation program in an effort to better understand and enhance ECE and TESOL candidates’ beliefs and understandings of ELL pedagogy. Over the course of a semester, one section of practicum teacher candidates from these two programs met in person and online, as did their instructors, to identify common concerns and approaches from their respective discipline areas. Video records of teaching from early childhood classrooms with ELLs played a critical role in fostering collaborative inquiry. Implications for infusing the ECE curriculum to strengthen instruction for ELLs are discussed.
Most Ministries of Education in East and Southeast Asia still see the acquisition of native-like proficiency as the goal for English language teaching. They thus promote the native speaker model as the classroom target and many have some form of 'native English teacher' scheme, whereby native speakers are brought in from overseas to teach in Asian English language classrooms. In this paper I shall question the need for a native speaker model in a multilingual world in which a number of new varieties of English have become established and in which the majority of English users are LI speakers of other languages who use English as a medium of communication or lingua franca with each other. I shall propose a number of possible alternative models, ranging from a localised variety to a lingua franca 'approach'. The paper concludes with a suggestion for the curricula for TESOL courses in light of the arguments presented in the paper.
Beliefs are central constructs in every discipline which deals with human behaviour and learning. In addition to learner beliefs about language learning, language teachers themselves may hold certain beliefs about language learning that will have an impact on their instructional practices and that are likely to influence their students’ beliefs about language learning. This article reports on a study of beliefs held by 217 full-time undergraduate students (142 females and 75 males) enrolled in English Language Teaching (ELT) programmes at seven state universities in Turkey. Horwitz’ BALLI was used to collect data. The data reveal that where some of the results carried by pre-service teachers might surprise language teaching educators and teacher trainers, some others probably confirm their experiences and intuitions.
English-taught Programmes (ETPs) have increased exponentially in European universities over the last 10 years, leading to growing numbers of bilingual graduates. This study reports on the most recent survey of ETPs in Italian higher education. A questionnaire completed in 2010 by 50% of Italian universities addressed both organisational factors (including the number of ETPs, reasons for adoption and difficulties in implementation) and pedagogical factors (including recruitment and teachers’ competencies). The findings paint a heterogeneous picture, with ETPs expanding but still not universal. Issues are analysed according to university type (public/private) and location, since the divisions between the wealthy, industrialised North, the Centre and the less developed South are largely reflected in the profile and status of universities in each geographical zone. All institutions show a clear-cut focus on content over language.
In UK schools, as elsewhere, linguistic diversity is on the rise. Changing patterns of migration and settlement mean that schools in areas where once English was the only language spoken are encountering bilingual pupils for the first time, while schools with a long history of multilingualism are finding that the range of languages spoken by pupils is growing and changing. These developments can be viewed positively, in particular given that plurilingualism (competence in more than one language) has been recognized by the Council of Europe, among other international bodies, as a desirable educational goal for all, benefiting both the individual who can speak several languages and wider society. However, to reap these benefits, there is a need for investment in formal educational provision which enables plurilingual learners to maintain and develop all their languages. Research conducted by three of the UK's Centres for Information on Language Teaching and Research—Scottish CILT, CILT, the (English) National Centre for Languages and CILT Cymru, in Wales—has established that there are substantial (and growing) numbers of plurilingual children in UK schools, speaking a very wide range of languages. There is provision for some of these languages to be studied formally, in mainstream education and in complementary classes. However, the research also revealed that professional development is a high priority for community language teachers, many of whom are untrained volunteers. In addition, research conducted by the Training and Development Agency (TDA) in England has shown that newly qualified teachers feel that their training has not prepared them well for working with pupils from a wide range of cultural and linguistic backgrounds. There is therefore also a need for initial teacher education and professional development which raises awareness of the benefits of plurilingualism, and for teacher educators to participate in experimental initiatives to develop bilingual educational approaches.
This article addresses the challenges that non‐native English‐speaking teacher trainees face as they begin teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) in Western, English‐speaking countries. Despite a great deal of training, non‐native speaker teachers may be viewed as inadequate language teachers because they often lack native speaker competence in the target language and culture. However, non‐native speaker teachers possess distinct advantages over native speakers including a deeper understanding of learners’ first languages and an ability to explain second language features in ways that students can understand. This article explores the linguistic and pedagogical skills that are required for teaching ESL to immigrant students in primary and secondary schools. It concludes that while it is important for non‐native teachers to continuously strive to attain high levels of written and oral proficiencies in English, they must also become familiar with the discourse and cultures of the schools and communities in which they work. In addition, non‐native teacher candidates need to be trained to become ethnographers of their own and others’ interactions and draw on the knowledge about the different ways of learning and using language to grow as teachers and professionals. This article provides specific suggestions for teacher education programs to better prepare non‐native teachers to meet these challenges.
This collection of essays addresses issues in second language instruction related to focus on linguistic form, as distinguished from communicative or experiential language instruction. Papers include: "Issues and Terminology" (Catherine Doughty, Jessica Williams); "Focus on Form: Theory, Research, and Practice" (Michael H. Long, Peter Robinson); "Beyond Focus on Form: Cognitive Perspectives on Learning and Practicing Second Language Grammar" (Robert M. DeKeyser); "Focus on Form through Conscious Reflection" (Merrill Swain); "Getting the Learners' Attention: A Typographical Input Enhancement Study" (Joanna White); "Communicative Focus on Form" (Catherine Doughty, Elizabeth Varela); "What Kind of Focus and On Which Forms?" (Jessica Williams, Jacqueline Evans); "The Role of Focus-on-Form Tasks in Promoting Child L2 Acquisition" (Birgit Harley); "The Importance of Timing on Focus on Form" (Patsy M. Lightbown); and "Pedagogical Choices in Focus on Form" (Catherine Doughty, Jessica Williams). Contains 430 references. (MSE)
This study employed (and reports in detail) systematic procedures for research synthesis and meta-analysis to summarize findings from experimental and quasi-experimental investigations into the effectiveness of L2 instruction published between 1980 and 1998. Comparisons of average effect sizes from 49 unique sample studies reporting sufficient data indicated that focused L2 instruction results in large target-oriented gains, that explicit types of instruction are more effective than implicit types, and that Focus on Form and Focus on Forms interventions result in equivalent and large effects. Further findings suggest that the effectiveness of L2 instruction is durable and that the type of outcome measures used in individual studies likely affects the magnitude of observed instructional effectiveness. Generalizability of findings is limited because the L2 type-of-instruction domain has yet to engage in rigorous empirical operationalization and replication of its central research constructs. Changes in research practices are recommended to enhance the future accumulation of knowledge about the effectiveness of L2 instruction.
The Introduction has three main aims. First, it provides a historical sketch of form-focused instruction research, documenting the origins of this branch of second language acquisition, the research questions that have been addressed, and current trends. Second, it seeks to define and conceptualize what is meant by “form-focused instruction” by distinguishing it from “meaning-focused instruction” and by describing three types of form-focused instruction in terms of whether the primary focus is on form or meaning and whether the instructional attention to target forms is intensive or extensive. Various instructional options relating to each type are also described. Third, the Introduction offers a discussion of the main research methods that have been used to investigate form-focused instruction in terms of a broad distinction between confirmatory and interpretative research. Methods of measuring “acquisition” in form-focused instruction research are also considered.
English as a foreign language teacher education: Current perspectives and challenges
- M C Deyrich
- K Stunnel
- MC Deyrich