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RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
1
Human Resource Management and the ability, motivation and
opportunity to continue working:
A review of quantitative studies
Pak, K.1,2, Kooij, T.A.M.1, de Lange, A.H.2, & van Veldhoven, M.J.P.M.1
1= Tilburg University, the Netherlands
2= HAN University of Applied Sciences, the Netherlands
This article is in press at Human Resource Management Review. It is a pre-print version of the
manuscript. Please refer to Human Resource Management Review for the final proof-read version of
the manuscript.
Please cite as:
Pak, K., Kooij, D. T., De Lange, A. H., & Van Veldhoven, M. J. (2019). Human Resource Management and the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working: A review of quantitative studies. Human Resource
Management Review, 29 (3), 336-352. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.07.002
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Abstract
Organizations are challenged to retain older workers, however knowledge on how this should be
done is scattered. The aim of this paper is to integrate knowledge on the actions organizations
can take to facilitate the extension of working lives by identifying and examining the
effectiveness of Human Resource Management activities directed at the extension of working
lives. To this end a systematic review was conducted, which identified 110 peer-reviewed and
unpublished empirical articles concerning the influence of job demands, job resources and
Human Resource practices on the ability, motivation and opportunity to work(ing). The results
indicate that offering job resources has a positive effect on the ability, motivation and
opportunity to continue working. Furthermore, work ability was found to be most negatively
related with job demands whereas employability was most positively related with developmental
practices. The paper concludes by suggesting directions for future research and practical
implications to encourage evidence-based practice.
Key words: HRM, work ability, employability, motivation and age discrimination
Highlights:
Proposes a new framework for investigating the relationship between HRM and the
extension of working lives
Reviews the literature on HRM and the extension of working lives
Findings indicate that job resources are positively related to the ability, motivation and
opportunity to continue working
Concludes with directions for future research on the extension of working lives
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Introduction
The composition of the workforce is changing due to increased life expectancies and declining
fertility rates (OECD, 2015; United Nations, 2017). Older workers are exiting the workforce,
often before the official retirement age, and fewer younger workers are available to replace them;
this has led to substantial pressure on the pension systems of many developed countries (Taylor
& Earl, 2016) and expectations of labour shortages in the near future (Bal, Kooij, & Rousseau,
2015; Ilmarinen, 2005; Ng & Feldman, 2008). To cope with the rising costs of retirement and
prevent labour shortages, governments have taken measures to stimulate employees to work until
a later age (e.g. increasing mandatory retirement ages and discouraging early exit from the labour
market) (OECD, 2015; United Nations, 2017). This challenges organisations to design work in
such a way that (older) workers are able to continue working, are motivated to continue working
and have the opportunity to do so (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004; Phillips & Siu, 2012). It is
assumed that organisations can achieve this through the use of Human Resource Management
(HRM) (Truxillo, Cadiz, Rineer, Zaniboni, & Fraccaroli, 2012; Veth, Emans, Van der Heijden,
Korzilius, & De Lange, 2015).
Driven by the abovementioned societal and political trends research interest in the
extension of working lives is growing (e.g. Bal et al., 2015; Fisher, Ryan, & Sonnega, 2015).
However, numerous outcome measures have been used as indicators for the extension of
working lives (Eurofound, 2016; Kooij, 2015; Zacher, 2015). For example, the concept of
sustainable employability is dominant in Western Europe (Eurofound, 2016), and is often
conceptualised as a combination of work ability (i.e. being physically and mentally capable to
conduct one’s work), competence-based employability (i.e. having the skills and competences to
conduct one’s work) and vitality (i.e. having the energy and resilience to conduct one’s work)
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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thereby mainly focusing on the ability to continue working (Brouwer et al., 2012; De Graaf,
Peeters, & Van der Heijden, 2011; Van der Klink et al., 2011). However, the motivation to
continue working is more often researched in the United States than in Europe (e.g. Armstrong-
Stassen, 2008; Armstrong-Stassen & Ursel, 2009). Other relevant concepts related to the
extension of working lives are successful ageing at work, sustainable work, decent work, well-
balanced work, good-quality employment and quality of working life (Eurofound, 2016).
Due to this diversity in concepts and outcome measures, present knowledge on the
effectiveness of HRM for the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working is
scattered. This makes it difficult for researchers to make informed decisions about areas that
need future research, and for practitioners to get an overview of which practices or interventions
are available and effective to use (Briner & Rousseau, 2011). Furthermore, as demonstrated by
De Lange, Kooij, and Van der Heijden (2015) there is little consensus on which theories could be
applied in this research field resulting in a large variety of theories used with regard to the
extension of working lives. This research field would therefore benefit from a research model
that is strongly grounded in (HRM) theory (De Lange et al., 2015). To fill this gap, this paper
aims to integrate existing knowledge by creating a framework for analysing studies on the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working simultaneously, identifying HR practices
that organisations can use to stimulate employees to work longer and examining the
effectiveness of these HR practices on the extension of working lives. With this overview, we
aim to stimulate evidence-based practice and present an agenda for future research.
To our knowledge no existing (systematic) reviews to date have combined outcomes
related to the ability, motivation or opportunity to continue working and examined the
effectiveness of HR practices on this broad range of outcomes. Although many previous reviews
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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on this topic have focused on the ability to continue working (e.g. Cloostermans, Bekkers,
Uiters, & Proper, 2015; Fadyl, Mcpherson, Schlüter, & Turner-Stokes, 2010; Kuoppala,
Lamminpaa, & Husman, 2008; Smith, 2010; Steenstra, Cullen, Irvin, & Van Eerd, 2016; Van
den Berg, Elders, de Zwart, & Burdorf, 2009), only a few reviews focused on the motivation to
continue working (e.g. Feldman, 1994; Kooij, De Lange, Jansen, & Dikkers, 2008) and the
opportunity to continue working (e.g. Wood, Wilkinson, & Harcourt, 2008). These reviews
either have not focused on the effect of HRM (e.g. Kooij et al., 2008; Wood et al., 2008) or have
focused only on one specific type of HR practice or element of work design (Fadyl et al., 2010;
Van den Berg et al., 2009). Whilst acknowledging the value of these earlier reviews we decided
to conduct a new systematic literature review in which a broad range of outcomes was included
and in which the effectiveness of HRM was specifically addressed. This will result in an
overview of current studies from which concrete recommendations can be given to organisations
regarding the actions they can take with regard to the extension of working lives and an agenda
for future research can be created.
The contributions of this review are threefold. First, this review aims to contribute to the
literature on HRM and the extension of working lives (including, but not limited to, the topics of
successful ageing at work, sustainable employability and work ability) by combining and
reframing existing models on HRM and the extension of working lives to be able to give a
complete overview of the available evidence on this topic. This review builds further on a model
for conceptualizing HRM (provided by Van Veldhoven and Peccei (2015)), bundles of HR
practices (provided by Kooij, Jansen, Dikkers, and De Lange (2014)) and a framework for
categorizing relevant outcomes relating to the extension of working lives (provided by Van der
Heijden (2012)).The framework of Van Veldhoven and Peccei (2015) helped to categorize HRM
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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factors as being part of the immediate or distal work context, with the aim to disentangle how
different components of HRM influence the extension of working lives. The model of (Kooij et
al., 2014) helped to categorize HR practices in bundles that are relevant for the retention of older
workers. The framework of Van der Heijden (2012) argues that in order to work longer one has
to be able and motivated to do so and have the opportunity, thereby capturing a broad range of
outcomes related to the extension of working lives. Although HR research has typically focused
on either the ability, motivation or opportunity (to continue working), considering all these
outcomes at once provides a broader and more complete picture (Jiang, Lepak, Hu, & Baer,
2012) and allows for the identification of possible conflicting outcomes (Van de Voorde,
Paauwe, & Van Veldhoven, 2012). Second, this review aims to contribute to the literature on the
extension of working lives by providing an overview of the research designs, conceptualisations
and theories that studies have used to date to examine the effect of HRM on the ability,
motivation and opportunity to continue working. This overview provides an image of the
available research to date and identifies gaps in knowledge in order to create an agenda for future
research. Third, although the body of research on the extension of working lives is growing, it
remains unclear how organisations can act to improve the ability, motivation and opportunity to
continue working. This review contributes to the literature by examining the effectiveness of
HRM in relation to the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working. Furthermore,
these insights can be used to stimulate evidence-based practice.
Specifically, the following research questions will be answered:
1. What kind of research is conducted on the relations between HRM and the ability,
motivation and opportunity to continue working?
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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2. How strong is the empirical evidence regarding the associations between HRM and the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working?
The ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working
A common belief in HR research is that employee performance is a function of an employee’s
ability, motivation and opportunity to work (Blumberg & Pringle, 1982). The Abilities-
Motivation-Opportunity (AMO) theory (Appelbaum, Bailey, Berg, & Kalleberg, 2000) builds
further upon this premise, proposing that an organisation can positively affect its performance by
ensuring that all employees have the ability and motivation to perform their jobs and the
opportunity to contribute. When we apply this theory to the extension of working lives, this
means that in order for organisations to extend the working lives of (older) workers, HRM
should improve and sustain the work ability and work motivation of employees over the course
of their working lives (De Lange, 2014) and offer them sufficient opportunities to work, even at
a later age. In other words, in order for people to work longer, they need to be able and motivated
and be provided with the right opportunities (Van der Heijden, 2012). The framework of Van der
Heijden (2012) captures a broad range of outcomes and is therefore considered to be appropriate
to give a complete overview of current knowledge on the extension of working lives.
In line with Van der Heijden (2012), this paper argues that in order to be able to continue
working, people should have and maintain the physical and mental capacity to do so (i.e. work
ability) and should have and maintain the competencies needed to fulfil their jobs or find a new
job when needed (i.e. employability). Work ability represents the current ability to continue
working, whereas employability represents the future ability to continue working.
Work ability is often defined as the ability of the worker to carry out work given the
demands of the work, the health of the worker and his or her mental resources (Ilmarinen,
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Tuomi, & Klockars, 1997). Previous research has demonstrated that having a low work ability is
a predictor of sickness absence (Sell, 2009) and early retirement (Hopsu, Leppänen, Ranta, &
Louhevaara, 2005; Sell, 2009). Work ability can be conceptualized as an observed (medical)
construct (e.g. the cuttlery wiping performance test; Dellve et al., 2011), as a subjective self-
assessment (e.g. McGonagle et al., 2014) or as a combination of subjective self-assessment with
objective information on diseases (e.g. the work ability index; Tuomi, Ilmarinen, Jahkola,
Katajarinne, & Tulkki, 1998; Tuomi, Ilmarinen, Martikainen, Aalto, & Klockars, 1997). In this
review we are interested in each of these conceptualizations as long as they measure work ability
or health in relation to the job. Employability is commonly defined as ‘the continuous fulfilling,
acquiring or creating of work through the optimal use of competences’ (Van der Heijde & Van
der Heijden, 2006, p. 453). Research has indicated that individuals with a high level of perceived
employability are able to cope more effectively with the increasingly complex labour market that
workers have to deal with nowadays (De Cuyper et al., 2014; Vanhercke, De Cuyper, Peeters, &
De Witte, 2014), and are therefore more capable of continuing to work (Van der Heijden, 2012).
Motivation is a broad concept and can be conceptualised as the motivation to work,
motivation at work or motivation to continue working until (or even beyond) the retirement age
(Kanfer, Beier, & Ackerman, 2013). Motivation at work refers to the cognitions, affect and
behaviours that people direct towards job accomplishment, i.e. motivation to perform well at
work (Kanfer et al., 2013). Motivation to work refers to the cognitions, affect and behaviours
related to participation, i.e. motivation to participate in a work arrangement (Kanfer et al., 2013).
Finally, motivation to continue working refers to the intention to work until or beyond the
retirement age (Kanfer et al., 2013). This last aspect of motivation is the most relevant for the
extension of working lives, as with ageing the motivation to work until or beyond the retirement
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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age becomes more predictive of the actual retirement age than the motivation to work and the
motivation at work (Kooij et al., 2008). We therefore focus on motivation to continue working in
this study.
The opportunity to continue working refers to opportunities for older workers to find
work in the internal and external labour market. Since this review focuses on the effect of HRM,
we will limit the scope of the review to factors that influence the opportunity of older workers to
continue working in the internal labour market. Although opportunities in the external labour
market are also very important when facilitating successful ageing at work, this is not within the
control of organizations and therefore falls out of the scope of this review. Similarly to Van der
Heijden (2012), the opportunity to continue working is conceptualised as the organisational
climate towards working until a later age, which can be measured as either (perceived)
discrimination towards older workers in the organisation or (perceived) facilitation of older
workers in the organisation. Organizational climate towards working until a later age is defined
as ‘group members’ shared perceptions (Kozlowski & Klein, 2000) of the fairness or unfairness
of organizational actions, procedures, and behavior towards different age groups’ (Kunze,
Boehm, & Bruch, 2011, p. 266). Previous studies have suggested that people who experience a
negative climate towards working longer want to retire at an earlier age (Schermuly, Deller, &
Büsch, 2014; Snape & Redman, 2003). Although age discrimination can affect workers of all
ages, it is most prevalent among older workers (Wood et al., 2008).
Human Resource Management
As previously mentioned it is assumed that organisations can stimulate the ability, motivation
and opportunity to continue working through the use of HRM (Truxillo et al., 2012; Veth et al.,
2015). Boxall and Purcell (2003) have broadly defined HRM as ‘all those activities associated
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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with the management of people in firms’ (p.1). In this review we will limit these activities to
work design (i.e. job demands and job resources) and HR practices. In line with Van Veldhoven
and Peccei (2015) work design and HR practices are broken down further as elements that
immediately influence the work activities of employees (the proximal or immediate work
context) and activities in the distal or wider context. This model was chosen to organize HRM as
it allows to get a more detailed overview of how the work context influences work outcomes
than traditional HRM models (Van Veldhoven & Peccei, 2015).
The immediate work context consists of all elements that ‘are necessary for and/or a
direct part of the work activities’ (Van Veldhoven & Peccei, 2015, p. 4). These elements could
either be physical (e.g. machines or tools) social (e.g. co-workers or clients) or intangible (e.g.
orders or scripts). We will consider several job resources and job demands as part of the
immediate work context. All job demands that are directly related to the tasks that are performed
are considered to be part of the immediate work context in this review, whereas job demands that
relate to the work environment are considered to be part of the distal context. An example of
such a proximal job demand is physical demands, as these demands directly relate to the tasks
that need to be performed. Furthermore, only those resources that immediately influence the
tasks that are being performed are considered to be part of the immediate work context in this
review. Proximal resources are feedback, learning value of the job, task variety and autonomy.
The distal or wider context is thought to refer to the organizational and societal context in
which the work takes place. In this review we will focus specifically on the organizational level.
At this level we will examine the effect of job demands that relate to the work environment such
as environmental conditions (e.g. noise) and work schedules and job resources that do not
directly influence the work tasks such as job security, organizational justice and social support.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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In addition to work design this review examines the effect of bundles of HR practices.
These HR bundles are a set of interrelated and internally consistent HR practices which are used
to achieve a common goal (Guest, Conway, & Dewe, 2004; MacDuffie, 1995). Most studies that
have examined HR practices have made use of bundles (Wall & Wood, 2005), as HR practices
within a specific bundle are understood to support and enhance one another (Delery, 1998). This
review uses a set of HR bundles constructed by Kooij et al. (2014), which specifically focus on
the extension of working lives. Although these bundles were originally designed to enhance the
motivation to continue working, they are also expected to stimulate the ability and opportunity to
continue working. Kooij et al. (2014) have distinguished between developmental practices,
maintenance practices, utilisation practices and accommodative practices. Developmental HR
practices are those practices that assist workers in reaching higher levels of functioning.
Examples of developmental practices are training, internal promotion and continuous
development. Maintenance HR practices are those practices that allow workers to maintain their
current levels of functioning despite (age-related) changes. Examples of maintenance practices
are health checks, performance appraisals, ergonomic adjustments to the workplace and a
compressed work week. Utilisation HR practices make use of the knowledge, experience and
competences of older workers, and can be used to help workers return to previous levels of
functioning after experiencing a loss. Examples of utilisation practices are job redesign,
mentoring roles, participation in decision making, lateral moves and a second career. Finally,
accommodative HR practices help workers function at lower levels when maintenance or
recovery is no longer possible. Examples of accommodative HR practices are additional leave,
demotion, exemption from overtime and partial retirement. Each of these HR bundles is thought
to be part of the distal context. Table 1 and 2 present an overview of all included job demands,
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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job resources and HR practices respectively. Figure 1 presents an overview of all included
variables.
Table 1. Overview of the proximal and distal job demands and resources included in this
systematic review
Proximal job
demands
Proximal job
resources
Distal job demands
Distal job resources
Physical demands
Feedback
Quality of the work
environment
Job security
Mental demands
Learning value of the
job
Work conditions
Organizational justice
Emotional demands
Autonomy
Work schedules
Social support
Workload
Task variety
Leadership
Effort-reward
imbalance
Skill discretion
Pay
Demand-control
imbalance
Organizational
climate
Table 2. Overview of the HR practices included in this systematic review (Kooij et al., 2014)
Accommodative
practices
Utilization practices
Maintenance practices
Developmental
practices
Part-time work/semi-
retirement
Lateral job movements
Compressed workweek
Career planning
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Additional leave
Participation
Ergonomic adjustments
to the workplace
Development on the job
Demotion
Second career
Flexible benefits
Promotion
Early retirement
Task enrichment
Performance appraisal
Training
Exemption from working
overtime/night shifts
Pay for performance
Reduced workload
Teleworking
Prolonged career
interruptions
Figure 1. Conceptual model of the review
Methods
Selection criteria
This systematic literature review focuses on the previously mentioned outcomes related to the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working (conceptualised as work ability,
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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employability, motivation to work until or beyond the retirement age and culture towards
working longer). Articles were included if (1) they incorporated any of the abovementioned
outcomes, (2) they concerned employees in organisations, (3) they tested the effect of an HR
practice or work design practice on any of the previously mentioned outcomes, (4) they were
peer-reviewed publications and (5) they were written in English. Theoretical and qualitative
studies that were identified were not analysed for the results section, as it was not possible to
produce any firm conclusions regarding the effectiveness of HR practices. However, they are
used to improve the theoretical foundation of this study.
Search strategy
For this systematic review the instructions of Rousseau, Manning, and Denyer (2008) were
followed. In line with their suggestions we have formulated a research question that reflects the
review’s intended use, identified relevant research relevant to answer our research question,
organized and interpreted the articles that were identified and synthesized these findings to
answer our research question.
This research employed search terms related to the motivation, ability and opportunity to
continue working, such as ‘work ability’ or ‘motivation to continue working’. These main search
terms related to the first selection criterion. With regard to the second selection criterion, a
second set of search terms was created that included terms such as ‘employee’ or ‘worker’.
Finally, to comply with the third selection criterion, a set of search terms focused on HRM was
created with terms such as ‘HR practices’ or ‘job resources’. A complete overview of the search
terms can be found in Appendix 1. The different sets of search terms were combined in the
search machines with the Boolean ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ operators. These search terms were created
based on the concepts identified in the theoretical framework of this article and refined by
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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checking whether these search terms would lead to several key articles that were pre-identified
by the authors. Furthermore the search terms were refined throughout the process if too many
articles were rejected for similar reasons in an iterative process. For example, when we realized
that many of the identified articles focused on other groups of respondents than employees in
organizations (e.g. students, unemployed individuals and inmates) we added the search words
“employee”, “worker” and “professional”.
The final search terms were entered in November 2016 in the following electronic
databases: PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDline, Business Source Elite, Web of Science and
Science Direct. In each database, the search included only peer-reviewed articles (fourth
selection criterion) that were written in English (fifth selection criterion). This initial search
resulted in 620 hits in the PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, MEDline and Business Source Elite
databases combined, 707 in Web of Science and 54 in Science Direct. This led to 1381 papers in
total, of which 964 were unique papers. Based on an analysis of the abstracts, 355 articles were
selected. The main reasons for exclusion were that the sample did not consist of employees in
organisations (second selection criterion) or that the article did not consider the influence of
HRM (third selection criterion). After reading the full articles, 105 relevant studies were
identified and included in the analysis. Furthermore, the abstracts of the past three editions of the
European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology (EAWOP) conference, Society
for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) conference and annual meeting of
Academy of Management (AoM) were scanned to identify additional unpublished studies. 24
potential unpublished studies were identified. We emailed the authors of these 24 studies of
which six were shared with us. After reading these papers five studies were considered to be
relevant for this review. Therefore, five unpublished studies were included, resulting in 110
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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studies in total, of which the majority (N = 85) concerned the ability to continue working
(employability N = 15; work ability N = 70). The remaining studies were categorised as
motivation to continue working (N = 20) or opportunity to continue working (N = 5). The first
author performed the study selection independently, but had intensive contact with the other
authors during the process. Any article that the first author was uncertain about including was
discussed with at least one of the other authors before making a final decision. All authors agreed
upon the exclusion criteria the selection of articles before starting the selection process. The
selection criteria were easy to apply thereby making the selection process relatively
straightforward. This resulted in a very low amount of papers on which the selection criteria
were difficult to apply and for which discussion had to take place in order to select them. The
articles that are included in this review are marked with an asterisk in the reference list. Figure 2
displays an overview of the selected papers after each step in the selection process.
Analysis strategy
The articles selected for this review were first divided into articles that primarily dealt with the
ability, motivation or opportunity to continue working. Subsequently, tables were constructed to
facilitate the analysis. These tables summarised the articles according to the design of the study
(cross-sectional/longitudinal/intervention study), the definition used for the outcome variable, the
theory used, the measurement instrument used, the target group, the type of HRM predictor
examined, the way this HRM predictor was measured and the effectiveness of this HRM
predictor. This was conducted by the first author. However, to improve the reliability of this
study the first 50 articles were also coded by the second and third author. This resulted in an
inter-rater agreement of 87,15% with the second author and 83,93% with the third author.
Discrepancies were thoroughly discussed. These tables can be found in Appendix 2.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Due to a lack of appropriate effect sizes in 60 of the included studies, it was not possible
to conduct a meta-analysis, even though meta-analyses are considered to be a valuable tool for
aggregating research findings (Stone & Rosopa, 2017). Particularly on the relations between
different bundles of HR practices and the outcomes few articles were identified. If we were to
conduct a meta-analysis we would need to disregard 60 more articles as not all studies report the
necessary effect sizes. This would lead to the exclusion of many relevant and valuable articles.
Nevertheless, to answer our second research question (“how strong is the empirical evidence
regarding the associations between HRM and the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue
working?”) some quantification of evidence is needed, but simply comparing the number of
studies with positive and negative outcomes is not considered useful (Van Tulder, Furlan,
Bombardier, & Bouter, 2003). In order to avoid ‘vote counting’, the Standardized Index of
Convergence (SIC) of Wielenga-Meijer, Taris, Kompier and Wigboldus (2010) was used, which
demonstrates the degree of consistency in findings and can be applied when at least three studies
study the same relationship and does not require comparable effect sizes (see also Bernstrøm &
Houkes, 2017; Naczenski, de Vries, van Hooff, & Kompier, 2017; Nilsen, Skipstein, Østby, &
Mykletun, 2017). This method is therefore more suitable in our research context than a meta-
analysis. The SIC demonstrates to what degree findings are consistent across studies, but does
not give any indication of the average effect size. The SIC for a specific relationship is calculated
by subtracting the number of studies that found a significant negative relationship from the
number of studies that found a significant positive relationship, and then dividing this number by
the total amount of studies which investigated this relationship, as dictated in the following
formula by Wielenga-Meijer et al. (2010):
n[positive] - n[negative]
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n[total]
The SIC ranges from -1 to 1. According to Wielenga-Meijer et al. (2010) values between
0.29 and -.29 indicate that there is an inconsistent effect. Values between .30 and 1 indicate
evidence for a positive relationship and values between -.30 and -1 indicate evidence of a
negative relationship. However, this does not give any information regarding the strength of the
evidence. The strength of evidence is either ‘strong’, ‘moderate’, ‘weak’ or ‘inconsistent’. Strong
evidence indicates that the findings are consistent across many studies (e.g. many studies find a
negative or positive effect), whereas inconsistent evidence indicates that the findings are
dissimilar across studies and no statement regarding the direction of the effect can be made. The
strength of the evidence is determined as a combination of the SIC-values and the number of
studies that assessed the association, as shown in Table 3. For example a SIC level of .50
indicates weak evidence of a positive relationship when three to five studies were found that
assess the relationship, however a SIC level of .50 would indicate moderate evidence for a
positive relationship if six or more studies were found that assess this relationship.
The SIC formula is applied to each category of work design and HR bundles for the
various outcomes (i.e. the ability, motivation and opportunity). As the minimum amount of
studies needed to determine the SIC is three, the formula is also applied to individual practices
when three or more studies studied the same relationship. Furthermore, when at least three
studies are available per sub-group, differences between age groups are also analysed.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
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Figure 2. Systematic literature search and selection process
Table 3. Strength of the evidence for the relationships studied (Wielenga-Meijer et al., 2010)
SIC-value
Number of
studies
1.00 to 0.60
0.59 to 0.30
0.29 to -0.29
-0.30 to -0.59
-0.60 to -1.00
1-2
Insufficient evidence
3-5
++
+
0
-
--
≥ 6
+++
++
0
--
---
Note. 0 = inconsistent evidence or no evidence, +/- = limited evidence for a positive/negative
relationship, ++/-- = moderate evidence for a positive/negative relationship, +++/--- = strong
evidence for a positive/negative relationship
Results
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Descriptive information
A total of 110 studies were included for analysis, of which 85 address the ability component (N =
70 for work ability and N = 15 for employability), 20 address the motivation component and 5
address the opportunity component. To address the first research question (“what kind of
research is conducted on the relations between HRM and the ability, motivation and opportunity
to continue working?”) a description of the studies included in this research will be presented
below.
Of the 110 included studies, 64 were based on cross-sectional data or cross-sectional
analyses of longitudinal data (58%), 22 were based on longitudinal data (21%) and 23 reported
an intervention study (21%). The remaining study was a meta-analysis in which the relation
between health promotion and work ability was investigated. It must be noted that all but one of
the intervention studies concerned work ability.
A total of 43% of the studies did not define the outcome variable being studied.
Definitions were absent in studies on opportunity to continue working (40%), work ability (41%)
and motivation to continue working (89%) in particular. However, all articles regarding
employability specified a definition. With regard to employability, the definition of Van der
Heijde and Van der Heijden (2006) prevailed (54%), and with regard to work ability, the
definition of the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health was most prominent (59%). Thus, all
articles on work ability that included a definition based it on the definition of the Finnish
Institute of Occupational Health.
Just over half of all studies did not use any theory (52%). The theories that were used
varied greatly (42 in total, of which 28 were used only once), indicating that there is no
consensus on which theory should be applied when examining the influence of HRM on the
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
21
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working. Especially with regard to work ability
(67%) and employability (46%) articles lacked theory. Studies on motivation did not include
theory in 37% of all studies, whereas all articles on the opportunity to continue working referred
to an existing theory. Overall, the JD-R model (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli,
2001) was most frequently used (N = 13), followed by the conservation of resources model
(Hobfoll, 1989) (N = 7), the work ability model (N = 5), the job characteristics model (Hackman
& Oldham, 1980) (N = 5), the job demand-control model (Karasek, 1979) (N = 4), the job
demand-control-support model (Johnson & Hall, 1988) (N = 4) and the social exchange theory
(Blau, 1964) (N = 4). Most of the theories (the JD-R model, the job demand-control model, the
job demand-control-support model and the job characteristics model) that were applied multiple
times can be classified as work design theories and all theories that were applied multiple times
can be classified as psychological theories rather than HRM theories. It is important to note that
even the JD-R model only featured in 12% of the selected studies; thus, it is not possible to
conclude that this theory is widely used in this line of research.
With regard to measurement instruments, 108 (98%) studies used self-evaluations to
measure the outcome variable relevant to this review, one study measured work ability with
supervisor perceptions and one study performed laboratory tests to measure work ability. A total
of 23 studies used self-constructed items to measure the outcome variable (particularly prevalent
in studies regarding motivation and opportunity). Over 80% of the studies regarding
employability used the scale by Van der Heijde and Van der Heijden (2006), and 91% of the
studies regarding work ability made use of the Work Ability Index (WAI) (Tuomi et al., 1998).
With regard to the target group, it was notable that most studies were conducted in
Scandinavia (N = 32), The Netherlands (N = 33) or other European countries (N = 29).
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
22
Healthcare (N = 26) was the most commonly studied sector, followed by education (N = 9),
construction (N = 8) and industry (N = 5). There were 21 studies that focused on older workers,
nine that concerned people on sick leave or with specific conditions and six that specifically
considered females.
With regard to the type of HR practices that were included, most focused on some form
of work design (N = 244), either in the immediate context (N [demands] = 100, N [resources] =
46) or in the distal context (N [demands] = 26, N [resources] = 69). Maintenance practices (N =
23) were the most frequently included type of HR practice, followed by developmental practices
(N = 22), accommodative practices (N = 8) and utilisation practices (N = 3). These HRM
measures were most often measured as employee perceptions (N = 48) or interventions in
intervention studies in which the effect of a particular intervention (i.e. coaching) was compared
before and after the implementation of that intervention (N = 23). Furthermore, seven studies
measured HRM as self-rated usage, two studies used management perceptions, one study used
objective data to measure job demands and in three studies it was not clear how HRM was
measured. Of the remaining studies 14 reported a mix of employee perceptions and employee
rated usage of HRM, one study reported a mix of employee perceptions and objective ratings of
job demands per job category and one study reported a mix of employee perceptions and
interventions. Formal learning opportunities and work schedules were in all cases assessed as
self-reported usage.
To address the second research question (“how strong is the empirical evidence regarding
the associations between HRM and the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue
working?”) a description will be given of the relations between different HRM predictors and the
outcome variables related to the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
23
Ability to continue working (work ability)
Proximal job demands and job resources
Strong evidence was found that proximal job demands negatively relate to work ability (SIC = -
.77, N = 52). Out of all job demands, only physical demands and effort-reward imbalance have
been investigated more than three times. For physical demands, there was strong evidence of a
negative relationship with work ability (SIC = -.73, N = 15). With regard to reward-control
imbalance, moderate evidence was found for a negative relationship with work ability (SIC = -
.80, N = 5). Since many studies have investigated the relationship between proximal job
demands and work ability, it was possible to take into account differences between older workers
and workers of all ages. It was found that the negative effect of proximal job demands was
somewhat stronger in studies that only considered workers aged 45 years and older (SIC = -1, N
= 6) in comparison with studies that considered employees of all ages (SIC = -.74, N = 43).
In terms of proximal job resources, strong evidence was found for a positive relationship
with work ability (SIC = .73, N = 31). Job control and skill discretion were most frequently
investigated. For job control strong evidence was found for a positive relationship (SIC = .76, N
= 21). Moreover, moderate evidence was found for a positive relationship between skill
discretion (SIC = 1, N = 4) and work ability. Both for workers aged 45 years and older (SIC = 1,
N = 4) and workers of all ages (SIC = .75, N = 24) evidence for a positive relationship was
found, however much more evidence was available with regards to workers of all ages.
Distal job demands and job resources
Moderate evidence was found with regard to the effect of distal job demands on work ability
(SIC = -.59, N = 29). Of all distal job demands, working times were most often investigated.
Moderate evidence was found to support a relationship between unfavourable work times (e.g.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
24
shift work and working overtime) and work ability (SIC = -.33, N = 9).
Strong evidence was found for a positive relationship between distal job resources and
work ability (SIC = .69, N = 32). Social support was most frequently investigated, for which
strong evidence of a positive relationship was found (SIC = .63, N = 19). Enough studies were
available to examine differences between older employees and employees from all ages. The
effect of distal job resources on work ability varied substantially between workers older than 45
years of age (SIC = .50, N = 4) and employees of all ages (SIC = .75, N = 24). However, it must
be noted that there were far more studies available on employees of all ages than on older
workers.
HR practices
With regard to HR practices, there was moderate evidence of a positive relationship between
maintenance HR practices and work ability (SIC = .47, N = 32). Of all maintenance practices,
health promotion was investigated most often. A moderate positive effect was found for the
relationship between health promotion and work ability (SIC = .50, N = 24). Maintenance
practices were assessed as either employee perceptions or interventions. The way maintenance
practices were measured did not seem to affect the results. In terms of accommodative practices
(SIC = .33, N = 3), there was limited evidence of a positive effect. No evidence for a positive
effect was found with regard to utilisation practices (SIC = 0, N = 5). No evidence was found for
the effect of development practices on work ability (SIC = .25, N = 4).
Ability to continue working (employability)
Strong evidence was found that developmental practices positively affect employability (SIC =
.78, N = 18). Formal learning opportunities were researched most frequently. Strong evidence
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
25
was found that formal learning opportunities also have a positive effect on employability (SIC =
.71, N = 6). In addition, there was strong evidence that both proximal job resources (SIC = .63, N
= 8) and distal job resources (SIC = 1, N = 5) positively affect employability.
Motivation to continue working
Proximal job demands and job resources
Moderate evidence for a negative effect was found for the influence of proximal job demands on
motivation to continue working (SIC = -.36, N = 22). Physical demands and challenging work
were the most commonly researched proximal job demands. For physical demands, there was
limited evidence of a negative relationship with the motivation to continue working (SIC = -.33,
N = 6), whereas for challenging work, moderate evidence was found of a positive relationship
with motivation to continue working (SIC = 1, N = 3). The SIC for the influence of proximal job
demands on motivation to continue working increases slightly when challenging work is not
considered a proximal job demand (SIC = .42, N = 19). Comparing the relationship between
proximal job demands and motivation to continue working for workers of 45 years and older and
workers of all ages revealed moderate evidence for a negative effect for older workers (SIC =
.33, N = 15), and moderate evidence for a negative effect for workers of all ages (SIC = -.43, N =
7). If challenging work is not considered a job demand, there is strong evidence for a negative
relationship between job demands and motivation to continue working for older workers (SIC = -
.50, N = 12). This effect is stronger compared to employees of all ages (SIC = -.43, N = 7).
Moderate evidence was found for a positive relation between proximal job resources and
the motivation to continue working (SIC = .47, N = 15). Of all proximal job resources job
control was most often investigated. Moderate evidence of a positive relationship between job
control and motivation to continue working (SIC = .38, N = 8) was found. The positive effect of
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
26
proximal job resources was found to be roughly equal for older workers (SIC = .44, N = 9) than
for general employees (SIC = .40, N = 5).
Distal job demands and job resources
Moderate evidence for a negative relationship between distal job demands and the motivation to
continue working was found (SIC = -.33, N = 6). Work times were most often investigated. No
evidence was found for a positive or negative relationship between work times (work schedules
and irregular work hours) and motivation (SIC = .0, N = 4).
Strong evidence was found for a positive relationship between distal job resources and
motivation to continue working (SIC = .57, N = 14). Social support was researched most
frequently. There was strong evidence of a positive relationship between social support and
motivation to continue working (SIC = .86, N = 7). The positive effect of distal job resources on
motivation to continue working is somewhat stronger for older workers (SIC = .63, N = 8) than
for workers of all ages (SIC = .50, N = 6).
HR practices
With regard to HR practices, moderate evidence was found for a positive relation between
developmental practices and motivation to continue working (SIC = .44, N = 9). There was
insufficient evidence found for the other bundles (utilisation, accommodative and maintenance
practices), although utilisation (N = 1) and accommodative (N = 2) practices did have a positive
effect.
Opportunity to continue working
Moderate evidence was found for a positive association between distal job resources (e.g.
organizational climate and supervisor support) and the opportunity to continue working (SIC = 1,
N = 3). Although a positive association was also identified between utilization practices and
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
27
opportunity to continue working (SIC = 1), there was insufficient evidence (N = 2) to draw
conclusions. Table 4 to Table 7 provide a complete overview of the results.
Table 4. Overview of the effect of proximal job demands
Ability
Motivation
Opportunity
Work ability
Employability
Proximal job
demands
---
i.s.
--
n.e.
- Challenging
work
n.e.
n.e.
++
n.e.
- Physical
demands
---
n.e.
-
n.e.
- Effort
reward
imbalance
--
n.e.
n.e.
n.e.
Note. n.e. = no evidence, i.s = insufficient evidence, 0 = inconsistent evidence, + (-) = limited
evidence for a positive (negative) relationship, ++ (--) = moderate evidence for a positive
(negative) relationship, +++ (---) = strong evidence for a positive (negative) relationship
Table 5. Overview of the effect of proximal job resources
Ability
Motivation
Opportunity
Work ability
Employability
Proximal job
resources
+++
+++
++
n.e.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
28
Job control
+++
n.e.
++
n.e.
Skill discretion
++
n.e.
n.e.
n.e.
Note. n.e. = no evidence, i.s = insufficient evidence, 0 = inconsistent evidence, + (-) = limited
evidence for a positive (negative) relationship, ++ (--) = moderate evidence for a positive
(negative) relationship, +++ (---) = strong evidence for a positive (negative) relationship
Table 6. Overview of the effect of distal job demand and job resources
Ability
Motivation
Opportunity
Work ability
Employability
Distal job demands
--
n.e.
--
n.e.
- Work times
--
n.e.
0
n.e.
Distal job resources
+++
+++
+++
++
- Social support
+++
n.e.
++
n.e.
Note. n.e. = no evidence, i.s = insufficient evidence, 0 = inconsistent evidence, + (-) = limited
evidence for a positive (negative) relationship, ++ (--) = moderate evidence for a positive
(negative) relationship, +++ (---) = strong evidence for a positive (negative) relationship
Table 7. Overview of the effect of HR practices
Ability
Motivation
Opportunity
Work ability
Employability
Developmental
practices
0
+++
++
n.e.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
29
- Formal learning
opportunities
n.e.
+++
n.e.
n.e.
Maintenance practices
++
i.s.
i.s.
n.e.
- Health
promotion
++
n.e.
n.e.
n.e.
Accommodative
practices
+
n.e.
i.s.
n.e.
Utilisation practices
0
n.e.
i.s.
i.s.
Note. n.e. = no evidence, i.s = insufficient evidence, 0 = inconsistent evidence, + (-) = limited
evidence for a positive (negative) relationship, ++ (--) = moderate evidence for a positive
(negative) relationship, +++ (---) = strong evidence for a positive (negative) relationship
Discussion
Overview
This paper aimed to build a new model to examine current studies that focused on the relation
between HRM and the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working and identify
proximal and distal HR practices through which organisations can effectively stimulate the
extension of the working lives of employees. A systematic literature review was conducted in
which 110 peer-reviewed and unpublished empirical articles were identified that concerned the
influence of HRM on the ability, motivation and opportunity to (continue) work(ing). The most
important finding was that (both proximal and distal) job resources have a positive effect on the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
30
Contributions to the literature
This systematic literature review contributes to the literature on the extension of working lives in
three ways. First, it presented a new framework for organizing research on the relation between
HRM and the extension of working lives by combining previous work of Van Veldhoven and
Peccei (2015), Kooij et al. (2014) and Van der Heijden (2012) to provide a complete overview of
current knowledge on the extension of working lives. Second, we provided an overview of the
research designs, conceptualisations and theories that studies have used to examine the effect of
HRM on the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working. Third, this review
contributes to the literature by examining the effectiveness of HRM on the ability, motivation
and opportunity to continue working. Below we will discuss each of these three contributions in
more detail.
Contribution 1: combining previous work
As mentioned above, the first contribution of this review was to combine the work of Van
Veldhoven and Peccei (2015), Kooij et al. (2014) and Van der Heijden (2012) to provide a
complete overview of current knowledge on the extension of working lives. First, the outcomes
related to the extension of working lives were operationalized as the ability, motivation and
opportunity to continue working based on the framework of Van der Heijden (2012). This helped
to distinguish some indication of inconsistent effects of HRM on these different outcome
measures. Specifically, work times had a negative effect on work ability, but the effect of work
times on motivation was inconclusive. Furthermore developmental practices had a positive effect
on employability and motivation but inconclusive evidence was found with regard to the relation
between developmental practices and work ability. It could be that developmental practices
temporarily increase job demands (Veth et al., 2015) which leads to mixed evidence with regards
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
31
to work ability. Further, in general, proximal job demands appear to have a negative effect, but
challenging work has a positive effect (at least on motivation) and seems to act more as a
resource than a demand. This is consistent with LePine, Podsakoff, and LePine (2005), who
distinguished between challenging and hindrance demands and determined that there is a positive
effect of challenging demands and a negative effect of hindrance demands. Schaufeli and Taris
(2014) consequently classify challenging demands as resources rather than demands.
Furthermore, the model by Van Veldhoven and Peccei (2015) helped to categorize HR practices
and job characteristics as being part of the immediate or distal work context. This has revealed
that splitting job demands into proximal and distal job demands may provide a more nuanced
picture than when all demands are treated as one overarching construct. Proximal job demands
were found to have a negative effect on work ability, whereas inconclusive evidence was found
for the effect of distal job demands on work ability. Conversely, inconclusive evidence was
found for the effect of proximal job demands and motivation, whereas distal job demands were
found to have a negative effect. With regard to job resources on the other hand it did not seem to
matter much whether they were proximal or distal for any of the outcome variables. The model
by Van Veldhoven and Peccei (2015) was supplemented by the HR bundles of Kooij et al.
(2014). The bundling of HR practices as suggested by Kooij et al. (2014) helped to draw some
conclusions about the few studies on HR practices that were available.
Contribution 2: overview of the current state of the research field
The second contribution of this research is that we provided an overview of the research designs,
conceptualisations and theories that studies have used to examine the effect of HRM on the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working. It appears that research on the extension
of working lives is still in its early stages. Most studies were cross-sectional, and half of the
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
32
studies were not based on theory. Among the studies that did use theory, no leading theory could
be identified. Approximately 40% of the studies did not provide a conceptualisation of the main
outcome variable, and just over 20% of the studies used self-constructed items to measure the
outcome variable. Furthermore, 53% of the studies did not use any theory.
Contribution 3: examining the effectiveness of HRM on the extension of working lives
The third contribution of this review is the examination of the effectiveness of HRM on the
ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working. The findings reveal that work ability is
influenced most negatively by proximal job demands (especially physical job demands). Distal
job demands, on the other hand do not seem to influence work ability much. Furthermore, work
ability is most positively influenced by proximal as well as distal job resources (especially job
control and social support). Employability is influenced most positively by developmental
practices (different forms of formal and informal learning). Just like work ability, motivation is
influenced most positively by distal job resources (especially support) and most negatively by
proximal and distal job demands (when challenging work is excluded). Job resources positively
influence opportunity to continue working. It is not yet possible to establish general conclusions
about the effectiveness of HR practices that are most influential, as different predictors were
studied for the different outcome measures. However, overall, it seems that offering job
resources has a positive effect on the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working.
Limitations
Some limitations should be noted. First, we were not able to conduct a meta-analysis as too many
studies would need to be omitted because they do not report appropriate effect sizes. Second,
since not all predictors were studied in relation to all the outcome measures, it is difficult to
develop overall conclusions or detect possible inconsistent effects. For example, some indication
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
33
was found of an inconsistent effect for job demands on work ability and motivation, but more
research is needed to examine this relationship. Third, 86% of the studies included in this review
were conducted in the European Union, thereby limiting the generalisability of these findings.
Finally, over half of the studies included were based on cross-sectional data, thus restricting the
possibility to infer causality.
Recommendations for future research: A research agenda
The findings of this study suggest that there is still substantial work to be done with regard to
research on the relation between HR practices and the ability, motivation and opportunity to
continue working. Accordingly, we propose seven suggestions for future research, which are
outlined below. In the first section we will focus on the shortcomings we identified when
describing the included studies in general and recommendations to overcome these issues. In the
second section we will focus on the research gaps that were identified when we created an
overview of the effect of job design and HR practices on the ability, motivation and opportunity
to continue working.
General shortcomings of studies on the extension of working lives
First, researchers working on this topic should define the outcome variables they use, and should
employ more longitudinal panel studies to investigate the nature and direction of the cross-
lagged relations across time (De Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2003). It is
recommended that researchers use the conceptualisation of the Finnish Institute of Occupational
Health for work ability (Ilmarinen et al., 1997) and the conceptualisation of Van der Heijde and
Van der Heijden (2006) for competence-based employability, as these scales have been tested for
their reliability and validity in relation to other concepts, and the articles included in this review
used these definitions and scales most frequently. With regard to motivation to continue working
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
34
and opportunity to continue working, no popular definition emerged in the analyses; however,
we suggest to use the definition of Kanfer et al. (2013) for motivation to continue working and of
Kunze et al. (2011) for culture towards working longer (indicators of opportunity to continue
working), as used in this review as these definitions give a clear and concise description of the
relevant constructs. Second, researchers should employ more longitudinal panel studies to
investigate the nature and direction of the cross-lagged relations across time (De Lange, Taris,
Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2003). 59% of the studies included in this review were based on
cross-sectional studies. In order to imply causality, longitudinal and intervention studies are
needed to advance the field.
Third, researchers studying the effect of HR practices on the extension of working lives
should base their hypotheses on theoretical approaches. We propose researchers should use the
JD-R model in combination with the AMO framework (Kooij & Van de Voorde, 2015), as this
review has done. However, building further upon the model this review has investigated, future
research should examine whether distal HR practices influence the ability, motivation and
opportunity to continue working through their effect on work design (e.g. proximal HR
practices), as Kooij et al. (2014) have suggested. Developmental practices for example could
influence the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working by increasing job demands
and job and personal resources (e.g. participating in a training can increase self-efficacy
[personal resource], but at the same time increase job pressure [job demand]). In this review, it
was not possible to test such a mediation model, as this would severely limit the amount of
studies that could be included.
Fourth, the majority of the studies assessed employee perceptions of HR practices rather
than interventions or employee rated usage of HR practices. However, giving recommendations
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
35
to practitioners on how to extend working lives is rather difficult based on employee perceptions
of practices as no insight is given in how these perceptions could be changed. Based on
intervention studies and employee rated usage of HR practices, on the other hand, concrete
recommendations can be given on which practices need to be implemented.
Research gaps with respect to the relation between HRM and the extension of working lives
When we analyse Table 4 to 7 we see that up to now the research focus has been much more on
(both proximal and distal) resources and demands rather than on HR practices. Therefore, we
recommend researchers not only to evaluate work design, but also test for associations with HR
practices to allow for more conclusive advice to be given to practitioners. Specifically,
researchers are recommended to examine the effects of accommodative, utilisation, maintenance
and development bundles. Furthermore, of the 110 studies included in this review, 70 focused on
work ability, while only 15 focused on employability, 20 on motivation and 5 on opportunity.
Therefore, more research is needed on which actions organisations can take to improve
employability, the motivation to continue working and especially the opportunity to continue
working. Moreover, in this review we have limited ourselves to the opportunity to continue
working in the internal labour market, whereas for policy formulation the opportunity to continue
working in the external labour market is also relevant. Hence, we urge researchers to examine
what policy makers can do to facilitate the opportunity to continue working in the internal as
well as the external labour market.
Practical implications
This review aimed to stimulate evidence-based practice by giving insight in the areas in which
most evidence exist. We suggest that organizations that want to improve the sustainability of the
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
36
careers of their employees start by assessing the current level of ability, motivation and
opportunity to work their employees have. Based on this assessment the organization can
identify which area needs attention. Next, this review can be used to identify the actions that
could be taken in order to stimulate this specific component. First, with regard to work ability
proximal job demands were found to have a negative influence. In order to improve work ability
HR practitioners must make sure that there is sufficient balance between job demands and job
resources, by either lowering job demands or providing sufficient resources to help employees
deal with high job demands. Furthermore, utilization practices can be used to exchange different
types of job demands to make sure the work fits the abilities of the worker. When exchanging job
demands is not possible accommodative practices can be used to lower the level of job demands
when job demands are causing decreases in the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue
working. Second, with regards to employability developmental practices were found to have a
positive influence. Thus in order to keep persons employable HR practitioners should provide
developmental opportunities regardless of the age of employees. Unfortunately, older employees
are less likely to receive training compared to their younger counter parts (Canduela et al., 2012;
Karpinska, Henkens, Schippers, & Wang, 2015; Lazazzara, Karpinska, & Henkens, 2013) which
appears to be counterproductive for the retention of older workers. Finally, motivation was found
to be influenced negatively by proximal and distal job demands, but positively by challenging
work. HR practitioners and managers could stimulate job crafting of employees so that they can
reshape hindering job demands into challenging demands and thereby increase their motivation
to continue working. When organizations do not have the resources to measure the current level
of ability, motivation and opportunity to work before taking deliberate actions, but want to
improve nonetheless they can focus on improving the level of (proximal as well as distal) job
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
37
resources. This review has demonstrated that having (both proximal and distal) job resources has
a positive effect on the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working and improving
these is therefore a good starting point for working on the extension of working lives for any
organization. An example of a proximal job resource is autonomy and an example of distal job
resource is supervisor support. Autonomy could be stimulated by implementing self-managing
teams or employee empowerment (Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006). Supervisor support can be
stimulated by supervisors by showing personal consideration, asking how they can assist
employees in doing their job better and making sure that work procedures are perceived as fair
(Maertz, Griffeth, Campbell, & Allen, 2007). Hence, we urge HR practitioners to ensure that
workers have sufficient resources (such as supervisor support and autonomy), especially at a
later age. HR practitioners can use these insights to improve their policy for the extension of
working lives. However, additional research is needed for a more thorough understanding of the
effects of HR practices on outcomes related to the extension of working lives.
RUNNING HEAD: HRM and the extension of working lives
38
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