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Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
159
MOHAMMAD NAJMUL ISLAM
MD. ZAHURUL ISLAM
and
KOICHI FUJITA
Coping with flood disaster: household level
responses by the char-dwellers on the river
Padma in Bangladesh
Flooding is the most severe hazard in Bangladesh according to the magnitude of damage it causes and by
frequency. The impacts are cumulative and the effects are magnified at the local level. Due to population
pressure to land many of the poorest communities in Bangladesh are obliged to live in the floodplain
riverine areas known as char-land. The severity of damage, risk and vulnerability from flood and
riverbank erosion hazards are much higher in riverine char-land residents compared to other parts of
Bangladesh. The purposes of this paper are to find out their household level responses as coping
strategies to reduce their damages from flood disaster as local wisdoms and to measure the underline
causes and constraints to follow the better practices. Results from household survey data, different tools
of Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA) and a number of case studies from three study villages of the
Ganges-Padma char areas found that seasonality-based diversified livelihood, alternative sources of
income, homestead and dwelling structures protection by local materials and techniques, poultry case
built on high platform, gardening and seed-bed preparation in the homestead area, fuel-stock and seed
preservation, etc were their major coping strategies against recurrent flood hazards. These methods are
based on their own skills and resources, as well as their experiences. Some of the constraints should be
consider and overcome to practice these coping strategies in large scale are geographical position,
characteristics of hazards, magnitude of damages, level of education and awareness, availability of local
resources, major source of income and financial ability of char-dwellers. It was also found that island
char and attached char villages were the most severely affected by floods. During flood disaster the
char-dwellers tried to survive by selling off their movable assets and change their livelihood pattern.
Introduction
Bangladesh is one of the largest floodplain and delta areas in the world. The interaction between the
rapidly increasing population, the intensification of agricultural production and the scale and dynamics of
the river systems makes floodplain management in Bangladesh a truly challenging task. The low
topography and high annual rainfall with concentration in the monsoon season result in the annual
inundation of around one-third of land territory. Even in a normal year, one-tenths of the total land surface
is severely hit by floods (Zaman, 1988). Devastating flood occurred in Ganges-Padma floodplain in 1987,
1988, 1998, 2004 and 2007. The flood in 1998 was the longest-lasting and most devastating in the last
100 years. In total, 53 of the 64 districts of Bangladesh were affected by the flood with different
magnitude and around 50% of the country was under water at maximum depth of 3 meters for a period of
maximum 67 days. The severest flood occurred along the main river courses and the situation was
particularly serious in a wide stretch in the overall area of confluence of the three major rivers; the
Ganges-Padma (2,510 km), the Brahmaputra-Jamuna (2,900 km) and the Meghna (946 km) (Hofer and
Messerli, 2006).
Mr. Mohammad Najmul Islam, JSPS Doctoral Fellow, Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto,
Japan; Dr. Md. Zahurul Islam, Professor, Institute of Water and Flood Management, Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Dr. Koichi Fujita, Professor, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
Correspondence: najmul@asafas.kyoto-u.ac.jp
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
Different studies carried out by Elahi, 1991; ISPAN, 1993; Islam, 1994a&b; Thompson & Tod,
1998; Brammer, 1997 & 2004; Hofer and Messerli, 2006; Yoshitani et al., 2007; Rayhan, 2010; Paul and
Routray, 2010 and Islam et al., 2010 on flood disasters and its impacts on floodplain rural livelihood in
Bangladesh. Baqee (1998) illustrated the uncertainties of the lives and livelihood of the inhabitants of
char-lands in Bangladesh.
The study described the survival strategies of the char people in the face of both natural and
man-made crisis. He also focused on the overarching power structure that shapes the char-land settlement
process. Schmuck, 2001 tried to explain the coping strategies of the Jamuna char-people and made
comparison between local and engineering knowledge‟s, experiences for action against natural forces.
She also focused how the char-people perceived the Jamuna River & its behavior and how they followed
the strategies to cope with the whims of the river. S. N. Islam et al. (2010) tried to investigate the nature
of floods in the river basins and the cause of threat, in order to formulate a long term strategy for the
char-land settlement relocations. They also found that the people of char-lands are not stable in their land
because of monsoon flood hazards.
According to the IPCC Special Report (2007) on the Regional Impacts of Climate Change, there
would be drastic changes in rainfall patterns in the warmer climate and Bangladesh may experience 5-6%
increase of rainfall by 2030, which may create frequent high and prolonged floods. Due to high and
increasing population pressure, many of the poorest communities in Bangladesh are obliged to live in the
floodplain riverine areas known as char-land. Compare to other part of Bangladesh the char-dwellers are
highly vulnerable to flood hazards. The excess of water occurs during the monsoon because of the
widespread flood which damages char settlements, agricultural crops, dwelling assets, infrastructures and
communication networks. Seasonal flood hazards reduced livelihood opportunities, household income
and employment of the char-dwellers. Farm-based wage labourers and farmers were seriously affected
from seasonal flood hazards. According to Barkat et al, (2007) poverty and vulnerability are highly
geographically concentrated in the chars than the plain land areas. Nevertheless, no conscious effort was
taken in the past aiming at true development of life and livelihood of the char people, who have always
remained excluded from the main stream. However, the flood hazard remains hazard without becoming
disaster if vulnerability is reduced through some preparations and actions.
Due to flood topography, unpredictable climatic hazards, uncontrolled cross-boundary flood water,
subsistence agro-based livelihood and poor economic conditions, it is highly needed to follow community
level adaptation practices and preparedness compare to large-scale structural measures. Natural hazards
are not new and people have been living in hazard-prone areas for centuries-in some cases thousands of
years. They have inevitably, devised their own methods for protecting themselves and their livelihoods.
These methods are based on their own skills and resources, as well as their experiences (CDMP, 2009).
The char-dwellers are trying to cope with this adverse flood situation though they have low adaptive
capacity due to extreme poverty, recurrent natural hazards and overwhelming dependence on nature.
Recurrent flood and erosion disasters are not new for the char-dwellers who have been living in
multi-hazard prone areas for long time. The char-communities are engaged in a constant fight for survival
with flood and riverbank erosion hazards. These have given them a great deal of knowledge to fight
against recurrent floods. In the process the char people are facing various asset damages, economic losses
and social insecurity. How to reduce such damages, losses and insecurity is a big challenge for these
vulnerable communities. This leads to a gap in the conduct of in depth research on household level
responses and coping strategies by the char-dwellers to reduce damages from recurrent flood hazards in
this highly populated disaster prone country. The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 also gave
emphasis on how to assesses local disaster risks and to build a culture of safety and resilience, and
strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels (UNISDR, 2005). Based on the
author‟s recent field survey in the active Ganges floodplain AEZ (agro-ecological zone)-10 char areas,
the paper aims at finding out their household level responses as coping strategies to reduce their damages
from recurrent flood disasters as local wisdoms and to measure the underline causes and constraints to
follow the better practices.
Methodological approach
Field visits and surveys were conducted at various time periods during the monsoon (July to September)
and the dry season (February to April) in 2009 and 2010. With the help of interview schedule 100 percent
household heads interview were conducted to collect qualitative primary data from three study villages. In
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
161
addition different tools of Participatory Rapid Appraisal (PRA), including Focus Group Discussions
(FGD), observations and a number of issue-based case studies were performed in an order to collect
qualitative primary data and information regarding natural hazards, household coping strategies in
different sectors, underlines causes to follow common strategies and constraints to follow the better
practices by the char dwellers. Hydrological data were collected from Bangladesh Water Development
Board (BWDB); Institute of Water Modeling (IWM); Flood related data were collected from Flood
Forecasting Warning Center (FFWC), BWDB and meteorological data were collected from Bangladesh
Meteorological Department (BMD). All the available data and information collected were compiled and
analyzed through MS Excel and PASW (Predictive Analytics Software). Based on the analyses of data
and information conclusions were made.
Profile of the study area
Shariatpur District is one of the multi-hazards prone areas where 40-55% people are affected by flood
(Figure 1). Zanjira Upazila of Shariatpur District on the right bank of the river Padma, 78 km away from
Dhaka, was selected as the research site. It belongs to the AEZ-10, the active Ganges floodplain of the
mighty river Padma, which is the confluence flow of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra (Jamuna) river.
Fig.1 Flood affected area and population in Bangladesh
Source: Disaster Management Information Center, CDMP.
It is useful to classify the char into island char, attached char and unprotected bank line area (ISPAN,
1993). The three study villages were selected from the three types of char within the research site; i.e.
Saral Khar Kandi (from the island char), Eakub Matbarer Kandi (from the attached char) and Kalu Bepari
Kandi (from the unprotected bank line area) as shown in Figure 2.
SKK village was located in the mid-channel island bar in the middle of the river Padma. The people
of Island Char have to cross around 8-10 kilometer distance of main river channel through local engine
boats to communicate with the main land. The present location of SKK Village settlement was established
on a natural levee of the island char. The frequency of river erosion and dwelling displacement
experiences in SKK Village was 8.45 times and 17.14 times during last 40 years. As a result they have no
more own agricultural and homestead lands. In the case of SKK Village the major reasons they leased-in
homestead land rather than purchased were 1) there was a high possibility that their previously owned
land would emerge again, 2) there was a high risk of future erosion, and 3) they were too poor to purchase
it. Such a situation was observed widely among the island char-dwellers. The average homestead area
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
was 6.4 decimals per household which were leased from the land owners. The homestead land, on
average, was 1.0 meter higher than floodplain farmland but varied from 0.5 to 1.5 meter according to the
financial ability of each household. In 2009 there were 85 households and 470 people, with an average
size of 5.0 persons per household. The average number of labour force was 2.5 persons per household.
The average year of schooling per person was 1.6 (15+ years). The major source of income was
agricultural labour and livestock rearing. Compare to SKK village had the largest number of livestock.
EMK village was located in an attached bar (adjacent char) on the right bank of the river Padma. In
the monsoon (June to October), the village was submerged by the increased river water. The people of
attached char have to cross around 1-2 kilometer distance of a branch of main river channel through
country boats in monsoon (April to November) and on foot during the dry season (December to March) to
communicate with the main land. The present location of EMK Village settlement was established on a
natural levee of the attached char. In the floodplain land the homestead area usually stands on elevated
mounds. The average homestead area was 7.5 decimals per household which were their own land. The
average height of homestead area was 3.5 meter from agricultural floodplain land in EMK Village. But
the height was being increased to protect their homestead from devastating flood; every 1 or 2 years
interval, the residents had to raise their dwelling height even though it was expensive and difficult. The
frequency of river erosion and dwelling displacement experiences in EMK Village was 4.24 times and
8.16 times during last 40 years. They got back their own accreted land and re-established their village
settlement in 1986. As a result they have own homestead area and farming land though 57.3
decimal/household land remain under river. In 2009, there were 72 households and 402 residents, with an
average of 5.6 persons per household. The average number of labour force was 2.5 persons per household
and the average year of schooling per person was 1.3 (15+ years). The major source of income of this
village households were farming.
KBK village was located in the unprotected floodplain land on the right bank of the river Padma.
During the peak period of monsoon (July to September), the village farmland was submerged by the river
water. KBK was a newly migrated village, located on agricultural farmland without any elevation. The
frequency of riverbank erosion and dwelling displacement experiences in KBK Village was 6.15 times
and 9.91 times during last 40 years. In 2007 KBK Village faced massive erosion which forced to migrate
3 kilometer away. As a result they have not own agricultural and homestead land. Only 8.2 percent
households purchased land for homestead and rest of 91.8 percent household‟s leased-in land rather than
purchased due to poverty. The elevation of homestead land, on average, was 1.0 meter higher than
floodplain farmland but varied from 0.5 to 1.5 meter according to the financial ability of each household.
In 2009, there were 85 households and 450 people, with an average of 5.3 persons per household. The
average number of labour force was 2.3 persons per household and average year of schooling per person
Fig.2 Map of the study area at Zanjira Upazila.
Source: Prepared by the authors based on field information
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
163
was 2.8 (15+ years). The major sources of income in household level were agricultural and
non-agricultural labour and foreign remittance from their relatives working and living abroad.
Flooding is the most severe hazard in Bangladesh according to the frequency and magnitude of
damages. The impacts are cumulative and the effects are magnified at the local level. In the previous
discussion it was found that the char-dwellers are highly vulnerable to flood and erosion hazards in the
absences of technological adjustments and for subsistence economy. The char communities are engaged
in a constant fight for survival with recurrent flood and erosion hazards. This has given them a great deal
of knowledge and teachings to control themselves and manage the hostile environment. The char people
have multiple perceptions that lead to multiple household level responses.
Flood coping strategies-household level responses
Due to the frequent floods and its devastating impact people in the char areas become accustomed to „live
with flood‟ through innovations of their own mechanism to survive from flood hazards. Kunderchar
Union of Zanjira Upazila, located on the river Padma, is one of the most adversely affected areas by the
flood and river bank erosion in almost every year. Beside erosion hazards, their continuous coping with
flood and survival against all these odds have made the life style of the people significant than other areas
of Bangladesh. In this study, different coping strategies of a char community through investigating the
livelihood strategies of the char-dwellers during the flood have been explored.
Household coping strategies of the char-dwellers are wide ranging which are based on their own
skills and resources, as well as their experiences. Among the diversified coping strategies this study
attempts to examine what kind of measures people can take to protect their homestead, houses and other
physical structures, how they manage drinking water, sanitation and daily necessities. Further, it
scrutinizes the strategies taken by the char-dwellers to protect their livestock, crop and manage financial
need.
PROTECTION OF PHYSICAL STRUCTURES
As 100 percent homestead in the study villages was made of mud which was mostly affected,
therefore, the most common measure taken for homestead was rising of its height using borrow-pit and
ditch mud above annual flood levels for preparedness (Photo 1). To prevent wave battering and erosion
the char-dwellers planted trees, catkin-grass around homesteads to prevent erosion and secure soil (Photo
2). Few people also used to make temporary fence with bamboo, jute-stick, and water hyacinth (Photo 3).
Photo 1: Seasonal homestead earth raising; Photo 2: Protection by trees and catkin grass
Photo 3: Protection by bamboo and fence; Photo 4: Protection works by bamboo-fika
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
As mud plinth becomes most severely affected by flood, there is no alternative than taking any measures
for the protection of plinth to save the structure from collapse. Putting fence by jute-stick, water hyacinth
and left-over of the crops around the mud plinth.
During flood to prevent house damage by strong wind, another widely practiced measure for house
structure was to support house by tying ropes around and linking the main joints, using bamboo poles.
Additional support called fika (extra pole and hard tied) was also given by setting bamboo poles
diagonally to support the dwelling units. Before coming monsoon the char people make fika in the weak
points (specially front and back side) of house structures (Photo 4). Fika are commonly used to support
the main weight-bearing poles. As long as flood currents were not threatening main structure, sidewalls
were supported by fika. When flood and its current rise, the sidewalls were removed to reduce the threat
of collapse of the house structures. The study also revealed that brick and wooden platform houses are in
better position than earthen plinth houses. Table 1 represents the types of house, homestead area and its
ownership in household level. Only eight households (remittance group) had the brick floored houses in
KBK Village. Another 18 households from SKK, 5 households from EMK and 13 households from KBK
had wooden floor houses. The household survey revealed that there were 78.8 percent, 93.1 percent and
84.7 percent households living in muddy floor plinth in SKK, EMK and KBK Village respectively. Most
of the wage labour based households are in the muddy floored houses. They can repair and raise their
earthen plinth by themselves without any cost.
TABLE 1: HOUSEHOLD LEVEL PHYSICAL STRUCTURES OF THE STUDY VILLAGES
Types of households
(Major job)
No.
of
HHs
(%)
Homestead land (decimal)
Type of house
(HHs average)
No.
of
trees
avg.
Types of floor
(No. of HHs)
Total
Own
Leased
Tin-
sheet
Bamboo
fence
Thatch
Muddy
Wooden
& brick
Medium Farmer
17.6
7.6
0
7.6
0.7
0.7
1.0
0
7
8
Small Farmer
2.4
7.0
0
7.0
0.0
1.5
0.5
0
2
0
Service
4.7
11.5
0
11.5
1.5
0.5
0.5
0
1
3
Small Business
10.6
6.6
0
6.6
0.1
0.4
0.9
0
5
4
Foreign remittance
4.7
5.8
0
5.8
0.3
1.3
0.8
0
2
2
Wage Labour
60.0
5.6
0
5.6
0.2
0.4
0.9
0
50
1
SKK Village Total
100
6.4
0
6.4
0.3
0.5
0.9
0
67
(78.8%)
18
(21.2%)
Medium Farmer
54.1
8.6
8.6
0
1.1
0.3
0.7
3.1
36
3
Small Farmer
30.6
6.1
6.1
0
0.5
0.5
0.8
2.3
20
2
Foreign remittance
4.2
6.0
6.0
0
1.3
0.0
0.3
1.7
3
0
Wage Labour
11.1
6.5
6.5
0
0.4
0.3
0.8
2.5
8
0
EMK Village Total
100
7.5
7.5
0
0.8
0.4
0.7
2.7
67
(93.1%
5
(6.9%)
Medium Farmer
5.9
12.6
4.0
8.6
0.6
0.6
1.0
0
4
1
Small Farmer
4.7
11.0
0
11.0
1.3
0.5
0.3
0
3
1
Service
21.2
9.7
1.1
8.6
0.7
0.6
0.3
0.1
14
4
Small Business
3.5
13.0
0
13.0
1.0
0.3
0.0
0
2
1
Foreign remittance
10.6
13.6
8.9
4.7
1.4
0.7
0.3
0
4
5
Wage Labour
54.1
8.1
0.2
7.9
0.7
0.4
0.4
0
45
1
KBK Village Total
100
9.6
1.5
8.1
0.8
0.5
0.4
0
72
(84.7%)
13
(15.3%)
Source: Household survey in 2009.
PLACE OF LIVING INSIDE THE HOUSE
The plinth of all dwelling houses in SKK and EMK Villages were submerged during the catastrophic
floods in 1988, 1998, 2004 and 2007. During such floods all the homesteads of EMK and SKK Village
became fully unusable. The char-dwellers used to make machan (raised platform) inside their houses as a
temporary shelter. Initially two choukis (cots) are placed one after another to keep the beddings and other
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
165
belongings above water level and stay there as long as people can enter through the door. Machans are
also made by assembling bamboo poles and rope keeps rising up with the level of flood water. In case of
increasing the level of flood water, usually wooden or bamboo false ceiling is used as a temporary shelter.
One side of roof is kept open and used as entrance or people being to live on the roof-top (in case of
tin-shed roofs). The study revealed that 28 percent households from SKK Village, 64 percent households
from EMK Village and 58 percent households from KBK Village had false ceiling which they were using
to store their important belongings. When the water level exceeds false ceiling, the whole structure is
dismantled and the last resort in time of extreme flooding is temporarily shifting of household members to
safer places. Despite extreme living conditions, they do not leave their houses. They try to stay as long as
possible at their homes during the high floods.
LIVESTOCK SHED AND POULTRY CASE
During the flood livestock and poultry require some kind of measures for their safe shelters. Usually
chicken and duck cases were kept on machan (raised bamboo platform) or rooftops for a certain time
during high flood (Photo 5). For keeping livestock during the flood floating machan or float made of
layers of straw and water hyacinth placed over some sort of horizontal structure made of bamboo with
banana trunk underneath is made. Since the structure was made of straw and other leafy materials it
provided animals with fodders at the same time. Jakon is a popular coping strategy to raise the floor and
roof of cow-shed by raising the water level simultaneously. In this strategy they use water hyacinth, grass,
bamboo pole and jute ropes. When the water level was too high, the EMK and KBK char-dwellers shifted
their animals to higher grounds, mainly on roads and relatives houses in safer places. Due lack of the
nearest flood free land, poor communication and transportation system, the SKK char-dwellers had no
scope to shift their livestock. In that case they were obliged to sell their livestock in a cheaper price.
Photo 5: Flood proofing house and poultry case
COOKING PLACE AND FUEL STOCK CAPACITY
Usually the char-women use mud stoves (chula) for cooking which are fixed on the homestead
(Photo 6). As homestead kitchen become submerged during flood, the char-women made portable mud
stove (chula) as flood preparedness activities and stored them in the false ceiling or in a safe place for
using during the monsoon (Photo 7). At the time of the flood they use it for cooking. When regular
kitchen are submerged under water the char-dwellers cooked on the temporary raised platform or on the
boat.
Almost all villagers use to stock fuel, such as dry wood, jute sticks, husk, cow-dung cakes used as
fuel, straws, dry leaves, branches of trees, left out of crops and agricultural wastes collected at the
harvesting time. During floods, the char-dwellers often face acute fuel crises. The char-dwellers who
have enough space on house and kitchen ceiling, they stored on that places. Some char-dwellers build a
raised bamboo platform and stored fuel with plastic cover (Photo 8). Few char-dwellers of EMK Village
has big trees and they stored their fuel on the suitable branches of the trees in hanging position (Photo 9).
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
Photo 6: Cooking place for dry season; Photo 7: Mud stove stored for flood season
Photo 8: Stock with rain protection on the flood free platform; Photo 9: Hanging position on the tree
FOOD HABIT AND CONSUMPTION
During the flood modification of food habit managing daily necessities at minimum expenses
become one of the most important coping strategies. Generally as a preparation for flood, households
store dry food such as chira (processed rice), muri (processed fried rice), gur (molasses), rice, pulse, oil,
salt etc. At the time of flood, many households consume their productive assets, mainly poultry as their
food. Raised homestead garden is the alternative source of food and nutrient during flood. Meat, milk,
eggs and fruits were consumed rarely and the amount of consuming fish and vegetables increased
relatively. Purchase of food on credit is a common thing. Coping strategies regarding food habit was
modification of their eating habits and reduction in the frequency of meals consumed when households
are suffered from income loss and failed to get enough credit to purchase enough food. Reduction of food
consumption especially women reduced food consumption for managing food for other members of
households was adopted and food such as vegetables were collected from homestead garden. Finally if
there were no alternative means of managing food people had to starve.
HOMESTEAD GARDENING
During monsoon homestead garden is an important source of household food and nutrition. Flood
free homestead coping is a suitable place for homestead gardening though many of the homesteads of
Photo 10: Flood proofing vegetable root; Photo 11: Vegetable on the bamboo matchan
1 meter
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
167
EMK and SKK Village are not safe from seasonal flooding. As a coping strategy they give emphasis
on first-growing and year-round vegetable production which can meet their food demand. The
char-dwellers rose up to one meter height of the vegetable plant root by earth rising (Photo 10). They are
also using roof top, trees and artificial platform by bamboo for growing vegetable during flood season
(Photo 11).
SEED PRESERVATION AND SEEDBED PREPARATION
In order to reduce loss burden, it may appear to be necessary to harvest pre-matured standing crops if
there is a threat of being inundated. It is necessary to take early measures such as seed preservation for
Photo 12: Seed and crop preservation; Photo 13: Seedbed preparation on the homestead
expediting agricultural activities following recession of floodwaters. Though it is a common practice in
EMK Village to preserve sufficient amount of seeds on hapar (false ceiling) and gola (seed basket) on the
raised platform in each household but rare for the SKK villagers due to weak and poor housing structures
(Photo 12). Seeds of the following crops may be preserved: paddy, pulses, oil seeds etc. Sometimes the
char-farmers did not get the scope to prepare their seedbed on the farmland due to adverse impact of
post-monsoon flood. To meet the demand they developed emergency seedbeds on the flood free
homestead areas which practiced rarely in SKK Village only (Photo 13).
SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER
Problems related to water supply, sanitation and health become acute during the flood. People have
to take measures for managing water, handling sanitation problem and health problem. Indigenous
knowledge of people helps them to survive and cope with the adverse situation of flood. In SKK and
EMK Village maximum tube-wells and sanitary latrines were submerged during the flood and people took
some measures to protect and kept these fully or partially usable. In the study villages very few hand
tube-wells function during the flood. In SKK Village very few households increased their tube-well
height by using of 0.5 to 1.0 meter long spare pipe. After flood they removed those spare pipes from
raised tub-wells. Other households who have not this ability, they collect drinking water from others and
stored in the plastic containers. Other part of the island and attached char village where there is no scope
to collect drinking water from tube-well, they use fitkiri (Al2SO4) to purify flood water for drinking
purpose.
TEMPORARY SANITATION SYSTEM
During the flood toilets are generally affected and submerged at first. In SKK and EMK Villages
maximum ring-slab sanitary latrines were submerged during the flood and people took some measures to
protect and kept these fully or partially usable through rising the toilet pan and make temporary bamboo
bridge to reach the toilet. In the cases when toilets became unusable and people could not take any
structural measure, temporary hanging latrines were constructed. Raising the base of toilets or placing it
on an upward location by the use of temporary structure by the support of bamboo or tree. Rest of the
char-dwellers had to use either others‟ latrine or defected openly using boats or floats.
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF INCOME
Source of income and occupation change played an important role in taking measures for the
char-dwellers. In spite of having difficulties, people try to search for an alternative occupation for their
livelihood. It has been often found that a char household had to adapt more than one financial measure
due to long inundation period and lack of job opportunities in the study sites. During flood season the
male labour forces were usually migrated in the urban and semi-urban areas for non-farm wage labour
and rest of the family members were involved in livestock rearing, homestead gardening and seasonal
fishing. The study revealed that around 61 percent households of study villages were drastically changed
their sources of income in every flood season from farming and farm-based wage labour into non-farm
wage labour, rickshaw-van puller, seasonal fishing and boating. Around 77 percent households from SKK
Village and 94 percent households from EMK Village were involved in seasonal fishing and different
non-farm activities like day labour, rickshaw-puller, industrial labour etc. (Table 2).
TABLE 2: ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD INCOME AND THEIR SOURCES
Major job
No.
of
HHs
(%)
HH Annual Income (Taka)
Total
Agriculture
Livestock
rearing
Fishing
(open)
Salary
Small
Business
Wage
labour
Foreign
remittance
Medium Farmer
17.6
85,500
38,000
18,800
1,300
0
9,700
7,000
10,700
Small Farmer
2.4
102,500
25,000
17,500
0
0
0
20,000
40,000
Service
4.7
75,500
0
12,300
0
30,000
0
21,300
0
Small Business
10.6
64,800
3,300
5,300
0
0
51,700
4,500
0
Foreign remittance
4.7
97,300
0
7,500
0
0
0
16,300
73,500
Wage Labour
60.0
55,900
1,200
9,000
9,100
0
0
35,800
0
SKK Village Total
100
66,000
8,400
11,000
5,700
1,400
5,300
25,400
6,300
Medium Farmer
54.1
103,900
48,200
7,800
5,700
2,000
5,600
8,700
25,900
Small Farmer
30.6
68,900
39,700
2,500
5,500
1,100
4,400
15,700
0
Foreign remittance
4.2
63,700
0
400
0
0
0
0
63,300
Wage Labour
11.1
67,900
0
600
12,500
2,500
0
52,300
0
Total
100
87,100
38,200
5,000
6,200
1,600
4,400
15,300
16,600
Medium Farmer
5.9
97,000
34,600
3,000
0
8,000
9,000
6,400
36,000
Small Farmer
4.7
53,600
34,000
1,600
0
18,000
0
0
0
Service
21.2
86,300
600
3,300
1,400
61,100
2,600
17,300
0
Small Business
3.5
72,600
0
300
0
0
42,300
0
30,000
Foreign remittance
10.6
242,600
0
600
0
2,700
17,300
4,000
218,000
Wage Labour
54.1
51,600
1,700
5,000
3,600
2,600
0
38,700
0
Total
100
81,700
4,700
3,700
2,200
16,200
4,400
25,200
26,200
Source: Household survey in 2009
FINANCIAL COPING STRATEGIES
Not only there was the scarcity of job but also income of the people decreased enormously during flood.
The household income was not sufficient to cope with the situation during the flood. Though money is the
most crucial need in most of the crisis situation, char-dwellers, especially poor suffers most due to lack of
income during flood and such other disasters. Generally liquid assets are disposed of; it becomes more
difficult for the household to return to a pre-crisis state. Some managed their household expenses with
help of savings prior flood; but it has been found that the income level of maximum households are not so
high that they can save some from their earnings for flood after meeting the household and other
necessary expenditure. The study revealed that 46 percent, 53 percent and 55 percent households of SKK,
EMK and KBK Villages received loan during and post-flood stages respectively (Table 3). The major
sources of loan money are solvent relatives, local village mohajon’s, government schedule banks,
micro-finance institutes (MFI‟s) and local non-governmental organizations (NGO‟s). They used the loan
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
169
money to purchase rice, seed money for open water fishing and seed money for post-flood rabi
production.
TABLE 3: SOURCE OF CREDIT AND THEIR USAGE
Village
Loan Received
HHs
Loan Not
Received
Sources of
Loan
No. of
Households
Loan months
Purpose of Loan
SKK
46%
54%
MFI/NGOs
26%
September
October
Rabi production
Rice purchase
Mohajon
20%
EMK
53%
47%
Bank
4%
March
July
August
October
Kharif-1 production
Fishing
Rice purchase
Rabi production
MFI/NGOs
31%
Relatives
10%
Mohajon
8%
KBK
55%
45%
Bank
MFI/NGOs
9%
22%
March
August
September
October
Kharif-1 production
Rice purchase
Rabi production
Rabi production
Mohajon
3%
Relatives
21%
Source: Field Survey in 2009.
Mainly the households having insufficient or no income during flood used to borrow money as well
as sell and mortgage assets. Borrowing loan and sell livestock‟s were the main survival strategies used by
the households in the study area to response flood. The loans were taken to face financial crisis, especially
for purchasing food during flood. It is not uncommon for rural households to meet consumption
requirements by consuming some of their assets or selling them in order to acquire the means to purchase
food and other necessary things.
LOCAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
As all the area remains submerged during flood, there is no way to take any measures with earthen
rural roads in the villages. All the char-dwellers of SKK and EMK Villages had to use country boats/rafts
or floats for going one place to another as almost whole area was submerged (Photo 14). The poorest had
to use float made of banana trunk for short distance as they could not afford boat or manage boat fare.
People had to change frequently modes of transport to reach destination. As for example, if a person
wants to visit Upazila growth centers from home, some portion of way country boat or engine boat were
used, for some other part of way, where water level was not so deep by walking and after reaching high
road they might use rickshaws, auto-rickshaws or vans. For intra-house movements sankos (bamboo
bridge) were used throughout the rooms. Sanko is a kind of bridge constructed by short length inclined
bamboo poles and placing a tall bamboo horizontally within the poles which can gradually uplift or down
according to the water level.
Photo 14: Small country boat is the only one mode of transport for short distance
SAFETY BOX MADE OF WOOD
Wooden safety box is the only one safest place in a char-dwelling where they can store their
important belongings like land documents, cash money, valuable goods, necessary cloths and tools from
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
Photo 15: Wooden safety box in repair stage
flood damage. Usually it was found in the bamboo fence houses of SKK Village where there is no strong
wooden ceiling on top. This wooden safety box fixed up on the flood free height of wooden or bamboo
made platform. As a flood preparedness activity the char-dwellers need to repair and maintenance it in
every two or three year interval (Photo 15). Due to lack of wood and necessary tools it was not widely
observed in the houses of char-dwellers.
Underlined causes to follow the common strategies
Coping strategies of the char-dwellers are wide ranging which based on their own skills and resources, as
well as their experiences. Among the above mentioned household and level coping strategies, some are
practiced by all char-dwellers, some are found only one or two villages, and some are practiced by only
few households. Among the coping strategies, homestead raising, fika for house protection, poultry case
rising, high bamboo platform for living, prepare movable mud stove, fuel stock on high place, found
alternative sources of income, credit support demanded for financial coping, sold out unproductive assets
and seasonal migration for wage labour are commonly practiced by the char-dwellers of three study
villages. Underlined causes to follow the common coping strategies are mentioned bellow.
In this paper three study villages were located in the same union of Zanjira Upazila of Shariatpur
District in Bangladesh. It belongs to the AEZ-10, active Ganges floodplain of the mighty river Padma.
Weather, climate and monsoon started in the same time and they faced the impact of flood hazard in
similar time and way. As all the study villages are located on the wide river channel and its bank line,
many of the flood responses and coping strategies were observed to be same.
The study area was located in Kunderchar Union of Zanjira Upazila in Shariatpur District. Many
char-dwellers have lost their agricultural and settlement land. Especially all the respondents of the present
study have experiences on recurrent flood and erosion hazards. Their sources of income closely related
with the char environment and nature. As a whole the socioeconomic condition is almost same in the
three study villages.
As the study villages are located within 10 kilometer distances and on the Ganges-Padma floodplain,
they are facing same types of flood, erosion and cyclone hazards. Every surveyed household of this study
have experiences about flood, erosion and cyclone hazards, so their responding capability and experiences
are almost same. Though the char livelihood depends on farming and non-farming sources of income but
the char livelihood is almost same all over the study villages.
During flood hazards the char-dwellers are facing problems in every steps of char livelihood. From
household level to community level their problems and hazards are almost same. Basically they are used
to subsistence agro-based livelihood though some households found alternative options after losing their
agricultural and settlement lands. That is why, most of the char-dwellers are practicing the common flood
coping strategies.
Constraints to follow better practices
But the magnitude and characteristics of flood hazards and its coping strategies varied from village to
village, sometimes house to house in the same village. Constraints to follow the better practices are
mentioned bellow.
Though three study villages were situated in the Ganges-Padma floodplain and same union of
Zanjira Upazila, but geographical positions of the villages are quite different from each other. As
mentioned earlier, three study villages were selected from three types of char-land: island char, attached
char, and unprotected bank line area. The flood risks, characteristics of hazards and magnitude of
damages are also different from village to village which are presented in Table 4.
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171
Household position is a vital issue in the context of coping strategies. Usually the char villagers built
their settlement on the natural levees to get extra benefits of natural elevation. That is why most of the
village shapes looks like a line and they follow linier settlement. For that reason the houses which are
located in the river-side, will face high wave erosion. The houses which are located in the north-eastern
end of the village will face high wind speed. Inundation period, water depth, water current, wind speed
and wave erosion vary from village to village according to their geographical location. Inundation period
and depth of flood water were the highest in the attached char village; severe water current and strong
wind were observed were observed in the island char village, and short inundation period was found in
the unprotected bank line village. To consider the above mentioned hazards their coping strategies and
responding capacity will be different from house to house and village to village.
TABLE 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOOD DISASTER IN THE STUDY VILLAGES
Variables
SKK Village
EMK Village
KBK Village
Location of the Village
- On the mid-river channel
- Surrounded by water
- 8 km away from bank line
- Beside the right bank of the
main channel
- Surrounded by water
- 1 km away from bank line
- On the right bank of the
Padma river
Flood Inundation Period
July to October
June to November
August to October
Depth of flood inundation
1.0 meter
3.0 meters
0.5 meter
Flood duration
4 months
6 months
3 months
Average Homestead Plinth
Height from Farmland
0.5 to 1.5 meter
3.0 to 3.5 meter
0.0 to 1.0 meter
Ownership of homestead area
Rent in 100%
Own land 100%
Rent in 91%, Own 9%
Frequency of Erosion
Experiences (1968-2008)
8.5 times/HH
4.2 times/HH
6.2 times/HH
Frequency of House
Displacement (1968-2008)
17.1 times/HH
8.2 times/HH
9.9 times/HH
Nature of wave erosion
Very high
High
Moderate
Water velocity during flood
Very high
High
Moderate
Nature of wind speed during
cyclone
Very high
High
Moderate
Most damageable things after
flood
All kinds of house structures
Homestead area, trees and
houses structures
Trees and thatch house
structures
Status of Flood Shelter
No flood shelter
No flood shelter
Under construction
Distance of nearest Health
Complex and growth center
13 km
6 km
5 km
Mode of communication with
distance
8 km river + 5 km road
1 km river+ 5 km road
5 km road
Mode of transportation during
flood
Engine boat-rickshaw/van
Country boat-rickshaw/van
Rickshaw/van
Data source: Field survey in 2009-2010.
Pre, during and post-flood situations need structural measures to reduce damages from
multi-hazards. To follow the common practices of coping strategies, financial inability is one of the major
causes. To purchase timber, tin sheet, bamboo, country boat etc. needs extra money which is not
affordable by the poor char-dwellers. Beside this the ownership of homestead area and period of staying
are also important issue. Due to the highest staying period by the dwellers of EMK, they are getting
advantages from their planted trees, bamboo bush and they can take permanent structural measures to
protect from recurrent flood hazards.
Major occupation and availability of local materials are also important factor to follow the better
practices of coping strategies. From the field survey it was found that the farming households are more
capable to survive from flood disaster. Due to availability of local materials the farming households may
protect easily the homestead from flood water, wave erosion, floor of cow-shed rising through leftover of
crops and stock of fuel in different places etc. Bamboo bush, leftover of crops, water hyacinth and
INDIAN JOURNAL OF POWER AND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT
jute-stalk are available in the EMK (attached char village), on the other hand banana trees and catkin are
available in the SKK (island char village) for multipurpose uses as coping strategies. Though flood
depths and duration are the highest in the EMK, but 85 percent of farming households are more capable
than others to follow such types of diversified coping strategies.
Available local materials are very important to follow the better practices of survival strategies.
Usually the char-dwellers are trying to survive from flood hazards by the use of available local materials.
Bamboo, catkin grass, leftover of crops, water hyacinth and jute-stalk are available in the attached char
village, on the other hand banana trees and catkin are available in the island char village for multipurpose
uses as survival strategies.
Without basic education and awareness people cannot survive himself and his family from hazards
by using his limited resources. Sometimes poor but intelligent char people may create an innovative idea
to survive from adverse situation by using his limited local resources. Education level and awareness
are not same in all households in a village. For that reason every households are not following the better
practices of coping strategies.
To survive from flood hazards plinth height and homestead vita are the key issues for the char
dwellers. Due to geographical location and elevation, plinth heights are different from village to village.
According to the geographical location SKK is situated in the most vulnerable situation. In SKK such
plinth height 1.0-1.5 meter is not sufficient to survive from flood hazards. During flood disaster
homestead area is the safest area for living, livestock rearing and homestead gardening etc. But in Table 5
it was observed that the island char-dwellers have the lowest average homestead area (6.3 decimal) which
is one of the constraints to follow the better practices of coping strategies. Types and magnitudes of flood
are not same in every village of the study area. Coping strategies and better practices also vary to consider
the characteristics of hazards. Inundation period, depth of flood water, water velocity, wind speeds also
create impacts on survival strategies. For that reason different types of practices were observed in
different places and every char-dweller could not follow the better practices.
TABLE 5: AVERAGE PLINTH HEIGHT AND HOMESTEAD AREA
Name of the
village
Average plinth height
from farmland level
Average homestead
area
Inundation period in
monsoon
SKK
1.0-1.5 meter
6.3 decimal
4 months
EMK
3.0-3.5 meter
7.8 decimal
5 months
KBK
0.5-1.0 meter
9.0 decimal
3 months
Source: Field survey data, 2009-2010.
Characteristics of hazards and magnitude of flood damages are not same in every village of the
study area. Coping strategies and better practices also vary to consider the characteristics of hazards.
Inundation period, depth of flood water, water velocity, wind speeds also create impact on coping
strategies. For that reason different types of practices were found in different places and every
char-dweller could not follow the better practices.
Conclusions
Flood management in the char area of Bangladesh is quite complicated due to its flat topography delta,
instability of the numerous alluvial rivers with their large discharge and sediment volumes, leading to
erosion and sedimentation along the bed, banks and floodplains. The char-dwellers who have very little
farmland or none are highly dependent on the elites or the powerful in the society for their employment,
for access to credit and for the little security available. The findings show that the Padma riverine
population is highly vulnerable to flood hazards in the absences of technological adjustments and for
subsistence economy. During disaster the poor survive by selling off land, livestock, housing materials
and personal belongings.
Some of the structural and non-structural measures need to be taken up by the char-dwellers on the
basis of their indigenous knowledge, experiences, capability and availability of local resources. The
present study revealed that indigenous knowledge of the char-dwellers is an important survival means
Vol. 61 (9&10), SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2011
173
during the flood period. Seasonality-based diversified livelihood, alternative sources of income, dwelling
protection by local materials, homestead raising, poultry case built on high platform, gardening and
seed-bed preparation in the homestead area, fuel-stock and seed preservation as invented by indigenous
knowledge of the char-dwellers that can reduce damages and flood vulnerabilities. The study also
revealed that the households of owned homestead area and farm-based livelihood are more capable to
fight against recurrent flood hazards by their coping strategies.
As part of the emergency action, the government policy envisages necessary relief and
rehabilitation to the char-dwellers of all shades. Relief in the form of seeds, fertilizers, agricultural tools
and livestock‟s are essential for the farming and non-farming char-dwellers after recession of floods. In
the same token, educational programme need to be developed to encourage people to take action against
flood hazards. All preparedness and survival initiatives must take into account of the requirements of
farmers, fishermen and other professional groups including their livestock. Union Parishad (UP)
Chairman and Members, Upazila Nirbahi Officer (UNO) and other Upazila-level officers, local police
stations, and other government and non-government organizations should provide systematic assistance to
the flood victims during and post flood situation. UNO should also monitor overall situation and take
necessary and quick steps through Upazila Disaster Management Committee (UDMC), which is not
functioning at present.
The study clearly indicates that the notion of char dwellers is “to live‟‟ with flood hazards not “to
protect”. Survival from the flood hazard is more important than recovery from the hazard. The
char-dwellers in the study area take temporary short-term measures to cope with floods. They just try to
pass the days of flood anyhow and do the same every year. They cannot take long-term measures due to
lack of awareness as well as lack of financial ability.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their special gratitude to Professor Yasuyuki Kono, Professor Kaoru
Sugihara and Professor Akio Tanabe, Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto
University, Japan for their invaluable comments and suggestions on this research. The authors would also
like to show their appreciation to the Japanese Society for Promotion of Science for financially supporting
the research, and the people of Zanjira Upazila for their kind assistance.
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